Plate 4.—(a) A Winding Stream in the St. Lawrence Valley of New York. Due to its low velocity the stream cuts its channel down very little, but it swings or “meanders” slowly from one side of its valley to the other, developing a wide flood plain. The stream once flowed against the valley wall shown at the middle left. (Photo by the author.)
Plate 4.—(b) Davidson Glacier, Alaska. This glacier is at work slowly grinding down the valley floor and cutting back its walls, thus changing the original stream-cut, V-shaped profile, like that of [Plate 5]. (Photo by Wright, U. S. Geological Survey.)
The Yosemite Valley, about 7 miles long, less than one mile wide, and from 2,000 to 4,000 feet deep, lies on the western slope of the Sierra Nevada Mountains of California. Great cliffs of granite, mostly from 1,000 to over 3,000 feet high, bound the valley on either side. The floor of the valley is wide and remarkably flat ([Plate 6]). Just prior to the Ice Age, by the processes of erosion already set forth, the Merced River had carved out a great steep-sided V-shaped canyon commonly from 1,000 to 3,000 feet deep. During the Ice Age, two glaciers joined to form an extra deep powerful glacier, which flowed through a deep part of the Merced Canyon and modified it into the Yosemite Valley, essentially as we see it to-day. Because the ice was shod with many fragments of hard rock (granite), and the pressure at the bottom and lower sides of the glacier (several thousand feet thick) was so great, the V-shaped stream-cut canyon was changed to a U-shaped canyon with very steep to even vertical walls. A factor of great importance which notably aided the erosive power of the glacier in this case was the existence of an unusual number of large vertical joint cracks in the granite in this local region. The plucking action of the ice was thus very greatly facilitated and great slabs of rock, separated by the vertical joints, especially toward the lower sides and bottom of the valley, were pushed away one after another by the ice. When the ice disappeared, great precipitous joint faces from 1,000 to 3,000 feet high were left along the valley sides. At its lower end the glacier left a dam of glacial débris (moraine) across the valley, thus causing a lake to form over the valley floor. The wide flat bottom of the valley was caused by filling up of the lake with sediment. The uniqueness of the Yosemite Valley is, then, due to a remarkable combination of several main factors; one, the presence of a large swift river well supplied with tools which carved out a deep V-shaped canyon; two, a mighty glacier which plowed its way through this canyon and converted it by erosion into a U-shaped canyon; three, the weakening of the rock by many joint cracks, thus greatly facilitating the ice erosion; and four, a postglacial lake covering the valley floor which became filled with sediment. As a result of the ice work, several streams, tributary to the main stream (Merced River) which flows through the bottom of the valley, were forced to plunge over great vertical rock walls (joint faces), thus producing high and beautiful true waterfalls, including the very high Upper Yosemite Fall where Yosemite Creek makes a straight drop of 1,430 feet. A tributary valley like that of Yosemite Creek, which ends abruptly well above the main valley, is known as a “hanging” valley. The valley of Bridal Veil Creek is another good example. (See [Plate 6.]) Valleys which were once occupied by active glaciers are generally characterized by their U-shaped cross sections and their hanging (tributary) valleys, but the great height and steepness of the valley walls in Yosemite are exceptional.
A type of glacial erosion which is of special interest is the sculpturing of so-called “cirques” or “amphitheaters” in mountains within the region of perpetual snow. Where the main mass of snow and ice in the catchment basin or gathering ground of a valley glacier pulls away from the snow and névé on the upper slopes, the rock wall is more or less exposed in the deep crevasse. During warm days water fills the joint cracks in the rocks down in this crevasse (so-called “Bergschrund”), and during cold nights the water freezes and forces the blocks of rock apart. This is greatest toward the bottom of the crevasse and so, by this excavating or quarrying process, vertical or very steep walls are developed around a great bowlike basin or cirque. Such cirques, now free from glacial ice, with precipitous walls 500 to 2,000 feet high and one-fourth of a mile to one-half of a mile across, are common in the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Ranges and in the Rocky Mountains.
What becomes of the materials eroded by the ice? An answer to this question involves at least a brief discussion of the deposition of glacial débris, this constituting an important feature of the work of ice. The débris transported by a glacier is carried either on its surface or within it, or pushed along under it. It is generally heterogeneous material ranging from the finest clay through sand and gravel, to bowlders of many tons' weight. Various types of glacial deposits are abundantly illustrated by débris left strewn over much of the northeastern United States and some reference to these will be made.
Most valley glaciers carry considerable débris on their surfaces, this representing material which falls or is carried down from the valley walls upon the margins of the ice, thus forming marginal moraines. When two glaciers flow together, one marginal moraine from each will coalesce to form a medial moraine. The material carried along at the bottom of a glacier is called the ground moraine. Where it contains much very fine grained material with pebbles or bowlders scattered through its mass, it is called “till” or “bowlder clay.” The pebbles or bowlders of the ground moraine are commonly facetted and striated as a result of having been rubbed against the bedrock on which the glacier moved. Ground moraine material is the most extensively developed of all glacial deposits. It is so widely scattered over the glaciated northeastern portion of the United States that most of the soils consist of it, having been left strewn over the country during the melting of the vast ice sheet.