Toward the end of the eighteenth century the famous nebular or ring hypothesis was set forth by the astronomer named Laplace. This assumes an original very hot incandescent mass of gas spheroidal in shape and greater in diameter than the present solar system. This mass rotated in the direction of rotation of our sun and its planets. Loss of heat by radiation caused the mass to shrink, and this in turn not only made it rotate faster, but also caused the centrifugal force (i.e., the force whose direction was from the center) in its equatorial portion to gradually become stronger. Finally a time came when the force of gravity (i.e., the force whose direction was toward the center) and the centrifugal force became equal and a ring was left (not thrown) off, while the rest of the mass of gas continued to shrink. After a time the material of the ring collected to form the outermost planet. The other planets were similarly formed from other rings which were left off as contraction of the great mass of gas went on. The sun represents the remainder of the great mass of rotating gas.
What is the bearing of this nebular hypothesis upon the early geological history of the earth? According to the hypothesis the earth must once have been much more highly heated and larger than now. It condensed to a liquid and then it cooled enough to permit the formation of a solid crust over a liquid interior. It then had a hot dense atmosphere containing all the water of the earth in the form of vapor, and this atmosphere steadily became thinner due to absorption by the earth. When the pressure and temperature conditions became favorable, much of the water vapor condensed to form the ocean and the atmosphere gradually changed to its present condition. According to this view the oldest rocks of the earth must have been igneous because they resulted from the solidification of the outer part of the molten globe.
Within recent years certain serious objections to the nebular hypothesis have been raised, and Chamberlin and Moulton have formulated the planetesimal or spiral hypothesis as an attempt at a more rational explanation of the origin of the solar system. Some of the objections to the older doctrine are that among the many thousands of known nebulæ in the universe very few only are of the Laplacian or ring type, while spiral forms are abundant. Spectroscopic study shows that the nebulæ are not gaseous, but made up of either liquid or solid particles, and that the leaving off of rings would necessitate the assumption of an intermittent process which could scarcely have operated under the conditions of the hypothesis.
Plate 9.—(a) Molten Lava Flowing Over a Cliff Into Water in the Hawaiian Islands. (After Diller, U. S. Geological Survey.)
Plate 9.—(b) Dikes of Granite (Light Gray) Cutting an Old Dark Rock. While the granite on the right was being forced in molten condition upward into the earth’s crust, tongues of it (dikes) were sent off into the adjacent rock. (Photo by Howe, U. S. Geological Survey.)