A Smaller Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities - William Smith

VĂDĬMŌNĬUM, VAS. [[Actio]; [Praes].]

VALLUM, a term applied either to the whole or a portion of the fortifications of a Roman camp. It is derived from vallus (a stake), and properly means the palisade which ran along the outer edge of the agger, but it very frequently includes the agger also. The vallum, in the latter sense, together with the fossa or ditch which surrounded the camp outside of the vallum, formed a complete fortification. The valli (χάρακες), of which the vallum, in the former and more limited sense, was composed, are described by Polybius and Livy, who make a comparison between the vallum of the Greeks and that of the Romans, very much to the advantage of the latter. Both used for valli young trees or arms of larger trees, with the side branches on them; but the valli of the Greeks were much larger and had more branches than those of the Romans, which had either two or three, or at the most four branches, and these generally on the same side. The Greeks placed their valli in the agger at considerable intervals, the spaces between them being filled up by the branches; the Romans fixed theirs close together, and made the branches interlace, and sharpened their points carefully. Hence the Greek vallus could easily be taken hold of by its large branches and pulled from its place, and when it was removed a large opening was left in the vallum. The Roman vallus, on the contrary, presented no convenient handle, required very great force to pull it down, and even if removed left a very small opening. The Greek valli were cut on the spot; the Romans prepared theirs beforehand, and each soldier carried three or four of them when on a march. They were made of any strong wood, but oak was preferred. The word vallus is sometimes used as equivalent to vallum. In the operations of a siege, when the place could not be taken by storm, and it became necessary to establish a blockade, this was done by drawing defences similar to those of a camp round the town, which was then said to be circumvallatum. Such a circumvallation, besides cutting off all communication between the town and the surrounding country, formed a defence against the sallies of the besieged. There was often a double line of fortifications, the inner against the town, and the outer against a force that might attempt to raise the siege. In this case the army was encamped between the two lines of works. This kind of circumvallation, which the Greeks called ἀποτειχισμός and περιτειχισμός, was employed by the Peloponnesians in the siege of Plataeae. Their lines consisted of two walls (apparently of turf) at the distance of 16 feet, which surrounded the city in the form of a circle. Between the walls were the huts of the besiegers. The wall had battlements (ἐπάλξεις), and at every tenth battlement was a tower, filling up by its depth the whole space between the walls. There was a passage for the besiegers through the middle of each tower. On the outside of each wall was a ditch (τάφρος). This description would almost exactly answer to the Roman mode of circumvallation, of which some of the best examples are that of Carthage by Scipio, that of Numantia by Scipio, and that of Alesia by Caesar. The towers in such lines were similar to those used in attacking fortified places, but not so high, and of course not moveable. [[Turris].]

VALVAE. [[Janua].]

VANNUS (λικμός, λίκνον), a winnowing-van, i.e. a broad basket, into which the corn mixed with chaff was received after thrashing, and was then thrown in the direction of the wind. Virgil dignifies this simple implement by calling it mystica vannus Iacchi. The rites of Bacchus, as well as those of Ceres, having a continual reference to the occupations of rural life, the vannus was borne in the processions celebrated in honour of both these divinities. In the cut annexed the infant Bacchus is carried in a vannus by two dancing bacchantes clothed in skins.

Bacchus carried in a Vannus. (From an Antefixa in the British Museum.)

VAS (pl. vasa), a general term for any kind of vessel. Thus we read of vas vinarium, vas argenteum, vasa Corinthia et Deliaca, vasa Samia, that is, made of Samian earthenware, vasa Murrhina. [[Murrhina Vasa].] The word vas was used in a still wider signification, and was applied to any kind of utensil used in the kitchen, agriculture, &c. The utensils of the soldiers were called vasa, and hence vasa colligere and vasa conclamare signify to pack up the baggage, to give the signal for departure.

VECTĪGĀLĬA, the general term for all the regular revenues of the Roman state. It means anything which is brought (vehitur) into the public treasury, like the Greek φόρος. The earliest regular income of the state was in all probability the rent paid for the use of the public land and pastures. This revenue was called pascua, a name which was used as late as the time of Pliny, in the tables or registers of the censors for all the revenues of the state in general. The senate was the supreme authority in all matters of finance, but as the state did not occupy itself with collecting the taxes, duties, and tributes, the censors were entrusted with the actual business. These officers, who in this respect may not unjustly be compared to modern ministers of finance, used to let the various branches of the revenue to the publicani for a fixed sum, and for a certain number of years. [[Censor]; [Publicani].] As most of the branches of the public revenues of Rome are treated of in separate articles, it is only necessary to give a list of them here, and to explain those which have not been treated of separately. 1. The tithes paid to the state by those who occupied the ager publicus. [[Decumae]; [Ager Publicus].] 2. The sums paid by those who kept their cattle on the public pastures. [[Scriptura].] 3. The harbour duties raised upon imported and exported commodities. [[Portorium].] 4. The revenue derived from the salt-works. [[Salinae].] 5. The revenues derived from the mines (metalla). This branch of the public revenue cannot have been very productive until the Romans had become masters of foreign countries. Until that time the mines of Italy appear to have been worked, but this was forbidden by the senate after the conquest of foreign lands. The mines of conquered countries were treated like the salinae. 6. The hundredth part of the value of all things which were sold (centesima rerum venalium). This tax was not instituted at Rome until the time of the civil wars; the persons who collected it were called coactores. Tiberius reduced this tax to a two-hundredth (ducentesima), and Caligula abolished it for Italy altogether, whence upon several coins of this emperor we read R. C. C., that is, Remissa Ducentesima. Respecting the tax raised upon the sale of slaves, see Quinquagesima. 7. The vicesima hereditatum et manumissionum. [[Vicesima].] 8. The tribute imposed upon foreign countries was by far the most important branch of the public revenue during the time of Rome’s greatness. It was sometimes raised at once, sometimes paid by instalments, and sometimes changed into a poll-tax, which was in many cases regulated according to the census. In regard to Cilicia and Syria we know that this tax amounted to one per cent. of a person’s census, to which a tax upon houses and slaves was added. In some cases the tribute was not paid according to the census, but consisted in a land-tax. 9. A tax upon bachelors. [[Aes Uxorium].] 10. A door-tax. [[Ostiarium].] 11. The octavae. In the time of Caesar all liberti living in Italy, and possessing property of 200 sestertia, and above it, had to pay a tax consisting of the eighth part of their property.—It would be interesting to ascertain the amount of income which Rome at various periods derived from these and other sources; but our want of information renders it impossible. We have only the general statement, that previously to the time of Pompey the annual revenue amounted to fifty millions of drachmas, and that it was increased by him to eighty-five millions.