New Theories in Astronomy

by William Stirling

Of course, what we have looked upon as Dr. Crookes's definition of a gas, ends with the second sentence of the above quotation, and is far from being sufficiently complete to be satisfactory; but we have continued to quote from the lecture, because it contains matter which demands consideration, and helps very powerfully to support the conclusions we have been arriving at.

Why the definition is not satisfactory, is that it does not tell us what there is in the spaces between the molecules of what is called the gas. If there is room for them to move in every direction there must be spaces between them, and these spaces must either be absolutely empty, or filled with something. If they are supposed to be empty, then the molecules being actually small pellets, like diminutive marbles, or snipe-shot, we immediately begin to think why gravitation does not make them, being ponderable bodies, fall down to the bottom of the bulb; and seeing that, by the definition, they are evidently considered not to do so, we think of what can keep them from falling, and of how they can be pumped out of a bulb or any sort of vessel. If we fill a vessel with marbles, snipe-shot, wheat flour, or dust, and set a pump to work on it, we shall find that we make very little progress in pumping them out of it. At first we might extract a puff or two of flour or dust—marbles or snipe-shot by no means—carried into the pump by any air there might be mixed with them, but that would very soon come to an end; besides, there would be air, gas, something, in the interstices—if any—of the flour or dust to drive them into the pump when a vacuum was formed in it, and the puffs would cease when the air, which would be in exceedingly small quantity, was all extracted. But independently of all this, we have supposed the spaces between the gas pellets or molecules to be absolutely empty, and there would be nothing to push them into the vacuum created in the pump. There is no possibility of pumping marbles, sand, flour, or dust out of a vessel without the assistance of a fluid agent of some kind, water, gas, or air; and even then it would be done with much difficulty.

Let us, then, suppose there is some such agent filling the spaces between the atoms of the gas and think of what it must be. Were we to ask the question we have a strong suspicion the first impulse of many people would be to reply—With gas of course. But this reply could not satisfy us. We should immediately be led to think of that gas also consisting of atoms with vacant spaces between them filled with something—some more gas; and were we to follow up that thought through a sufficient number of stages, it is easy to see that in the end the whole space occupied by any gas would come to be filled up with its own solid atoms, without any empty spaces between them through which they could move; and so rendered quite incapable of pushing each other into a vacuum formed by any pump that might be applied to extract them from any vessel of any kind; or we must suppose that each particle would fly of its own good will into the vacuum made by the pump—as it were on the wings of the morning. But we recall to memory that the wings of the morning do not always carry us to rest, and we see that filling the spaces with gas would only end in choking up the vessel altogether. It might be said: Nobody imagines that the molecules of the gas in the spaces would be sufficient to fill them up altogether; and then we have only to ask, What then would there be in the spaces between the molecules of these successive gases to prevent the whole of them from gravitating to the bottom of the vessel? And to add that there would still be empty spaces left, absolutely empty, that would have nothing in them to help in any way to force the molecules or atoms of any gas or vapour into a vacuum anywhere. It is clear then that a gas, such as Dr. Crookes has described a gas to be, could only end in filling the spaces left between its molecules or atoms. It would be an obstruction to their collisions and bombardments which form an essential part of the description or definition.

We must, therefore, have recourse to something else for filling up the spaces between the molecules of a gas, and the only thing we can lay hold of is our limited liability agent the ether, which we allow to do all we want it to do and nothing more. Vapours of solid or liquid matter would be of no use, for they would only condense into solid or liquid matter; unless always maintained at their temperatures of evaporation or ebullition, and that would at the best be only another form of a gas—nobody would use a liquid to assist in pumping air out of a vessel—and, besides, we should still have to show what keeps their particles apart, what fills the spaces between them, which would force us to appeal to the ether as the only source, just as before. If there are no spaces between the particles there can be no vapours.

If by pumping air out of a close vessel the number of its particles is diminished, and we acknowledge that the ether pervades all space and matter, in a greater or smaller degree, then we must either recognise that a pump is able to separate the particles of the air from the ether which pervades it in the vessel, and extract them alone; or we must acknowledge that along with the particles of the air, the pump extracts a corresponding portion of the ether. Which of these two consequences of the pumping we have to choose cannot for a moment be doubtful. It would be as reasonable to suppose that we could pump the colouring matter out of a pond of muddy water, or the mud itself, and leave the clear water behind, as to suppose that the molecules of air, or of a gas, could be extracted from a close vessel, by a pump, and the ether left behind in it.

We have called attention two or three pages back to the fact that a fluid agent of some kind is required, in order to be able to pump matter of any description out of any kind of vessel. For solid matter a non-elastic fluid will suit, but for gaseous or vaporous bodies an elastic fluid is required; but we have just seen that what have hitherto been considered to be elastic fluids, that is, gases and vapours, have no elasticity whatever of their own, but are undoubtedly and in reality solid matter; and that in order to become elastic fluids they have to be mixed with the ether, or something that has yet to be discovered, invented, or imagined. If, then, until such a body is found we take the ether as a substitute, we have to acknowledge that it must be not only an elastic fluid but a material substance, capable of being compressed and expanded, and heated and cooled; for nobody could conceive clearly the existence of an elastic fluid that is not subject to these conditions. He could not understand how the molecules of a gas could be contracted, expanded, heated and cooled in a vessel, while the elastic fluid which gave them liberty to move or to be moved, remained constantly at one density and temperature. Furthermore, until such a substitute is found, we have to acknowledge that it is the only thing we have any idea of corresponding to a gas as described by Dr. Crookes; that is, a multitude of molecules colliding with and bombarding each other or their prison walls. But even beyond this we can uphold it to be the only real, independent gas there is; because, being an elastic fluid, there is no necessity for there being empty spaces between its molecules, or even having molecules in the common acceptation of the term. We have no reason to think that there are empty spaces between the molecules or particles of indiarubber; and if there are, the ether is the only substance we can properly conceive them to be filled with.

The law of Avogadro is, that "Equal volumes of gases and vapours contain the same numbers of molecules, and consequently that the relative weights of these molecules are proportioned to the densities." Therefore we must always bear in mind that it is the weights, not the volumes, which are equal, and that the volumes may be very different. On this earth of ours, then, we may say with certainty that an atmosphere of gas is composed of a definite number of its special kind of molecules, mixed with a definite quantity of the ether, in such proportion that the sum of their densities shall be equal to the density of the air, at atmospheric pressure at sea level, and at 0° of temperature. Holding this belief, we can see that each molecule, or rather atom, of each gas must have its own amount of displacement to enable it to float in the ether with which it is mixed. This would account in the most satisfactory manner for the diffusion of gases, whereby any molecule, or atom, may float wherever it is driven by collisions with its neighbours, be it above, or below, or on a level with, a molecule of a lighter or heavier gas. Therefore, were it possible to determine with sufficient accuracy the dimensions of the atoms of all gases, perhaps even of a limited number of them, it would be possible to calculate the real density, or specific gravity, of the ether.

We have not forgotten that when, by pumping, the ether was reduced to at least one-fourth of its normal density, its buoyant power would be reduced in the same proportion, nor that, when in a state of rest, the displacement of a molecule, which enabled it to float in the ether, would not be sufficient to make it float at one-fourth of that density; but it might be supposed that when so far relieved from pressure, the molecule could expand in proportion to the relief, especially if its form were that of a vortex ring, or of a hollow sphere. However, should this supposition not be admissible, we shall see presently that it is not necessary. We know that as long as any degree of heat remains in a gas collisions of its molecules will continue, dependent on their attraction for each other, which may drive them to any part of the containing vessel; and that it can only be when they are cooled down to the absolute zero of temperature that they can come to be at rest. But as we believe that the ether can never be reduced to this absolute absence of temperature, nor completely extracted from any vessel, we cannot acknowledge that the molecules of any gas, left along with it in the vessel, could ever come to be absolutely at rest, even although the molecules did not increase in volume with the diminution of pressure. And we think this conclusion will agree with the opinion of Professor Tait, expressed in the quotation, made at [page 232], from his work on "Heat," where he says: "In fact, if the kinetic gas theory be true, a gas whose volume is immensely increased, cannot in any strict sense be said to have one definite pressure throughout." This, of course, is tantamount to saying that the diffusion of gases cannot continue to be always exactly regular at extremely low pressures, and must vary as the vacuum is increased; so that the volumes of the atoms and consequent displacements may continue always the same under all pressures. We see, then, from this quotation, that in all probability the molecules of a gas are not always equally buoyed up by the ether in a high vacuum; which very likely is the reason why there are dark streaks in it; streaks without any visible molecules of gas in them, because the ether was not dense enough to keep them afloat.

We have still something to add in support of what we said, at [page 238], of glass not being pervaded by the ether, in the common acceptation of the word, and of our acknowledging that the ether might, in the course of time, ooze through it and fill up the bulb again, while air, gas and dust could not so ooze through it—nor even the larger particles of the ether; should we be forced to acknowledge that it consists of particles.