History of scientific ideas

by William Whewell

May 24, 1858.

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Erratum, p. 157, l. 11 from top, for sciences read science.

CONTENTS
OF
THE FIRST VOLUME.

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		PAGE
Preface		[v]
PART I.
OF IDEAS.
Introduction		[3]
BOOK I.
OF IDEAS IN GENERAL.
Chap. I.  Of the FundamentalAntithesis of Philosophy		[23]
Sect. [1].	Thoughts and Things	—
[2].	Necessary and Experiential Truths	[25]
[3].	Deduction and Induction	[27]
[4].	Theories and Facts	[29]
[5].	Ideas and Sensations	[30]
[6].	Reflexion and Sensation	[33]
[7].	Subjective and Objective	[35]
[8].	Matter and Form	[38]
[9].	Man the Interpreter of Nature	[41]
[10].	The Fundamental Antithesis is inseparable	[43]
[11].	Successive Generalization	[49]
[viii]
Chap. II.  Of Technical Terms		[54]
Art. [1].	Examples.
[2].	Useof Terms.
Chap. III.  Of NecessaryTruths		[57]
Art. [1].	The two Elements of Knowledge,
[2].	Shown by necessary Truths.
[3].	Examples of necessary Truths in numbers.
[4].	Theopposite cannot be distinctly conceived.
[5].	Other Examples.
[6].	Universal Truths.
Chap. IV.  Of Experience		[65]
Art. [1].	Experience cannot prove necessaryTruths,
[2].	Except when aided by Ideas.
Chap. V.  Of the Grounds ofNecessary Truths		[69]
Art. [1].	These Grounds are Fundamental Ideas.
[2].	These are to be reviewed.
[3].	Definitions and Axioms.
[4].	Syllogism,
[5].	Produces no new Truths.
[6].	Axioms needed.
[7].	Axioms depend on Ideas:
[8].	Sodo Definitions.
[9].	Ideanot completely expressed.
Chap. VI.  The Fundamental Ideasare not derived from Experience		[76]
Art. [1].	No connexion observed.
[2].	Faculties implied in observation.
[3].	Weare to examine our Faculties.
Chap. VII.  Of the Philosophy ofthe Sciences		[81]
Sciences arranged according toIdeas.
[ix]
BOOK II.
THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE PURESCIENCES.
Chap. I.  Of the Pure Sciences		[88]
Art. [1].	Geometry, Arithmetic, Algebra,
[2].	Arenot Inductive Sciences:
[3].	AreMathematical Sciences.
[4].	Mixed Mathematics.
[5].	Space, Time, Number.
Chap. II.  Of the Idea ofSpace		[91]
Art. [1].	Space is an Idea,
[2].	Notderived from Experience,
[3].	AsGeometrical Truth shows.
[4].	Space is a Form of Experience.
[5].	Thephrase not essential.
Chap. III.  Of some Peculiaritiesof the Idea of Space		[95]
Art. [1].	Space is not an Abstract Notion.
[2].	Space is infinite.
[3].	Space is real.
[4].	Space is a Form of Intuition.
[5].	Figure.
[6].	ThreeDimensions.
Chap. IV.  Of the Definitions andAxioms which relate to Space		[98]
Art. [1].	Geometry.
[2].	Definitions.
[3].	Axioms.
[4].	NotHypotheses.
[5].	Axioms necessary.
[6].	Straight Lines.
[7].	Planes.
[8].	ElementaryGeometry.
Chap. V.  Of some Objectionswhich have been made to the Doctrines stated in the previousChapter		[107]
Art. [1].	How is Geometry hypothetical?
[2].	Whatwas Stewart's view?
[x]
[3].	'Legitimate filiations' of Definitions.
[4].	Is aDefinition a complete explanation?
[5].	Aresome Axioms Definitions?
[6].	Axiom concerning Circles.
[7].	CanAxioms become truisms?
[8].	Useof such.
Chap. VI.  Of the Perception ofSpace		[117]
Art. [1].	Which Senses apprehend Space?
[2].	Perception of solid figure.
[3].	Isan interpretation.
[4].	Maybe analysed.
[5].	Outline.
[6].	Reversedconvexity.
[7].	Dowe perceive Space by Touch?
[8].	Brown’s Opinion.
[9].	TheMuscular Sense.
[10].	Bell’s Opinion.
[11].	Perception includes Activity.
[12].	Perception of the Skyey Dome.
[13].	Reid’s Idomenians.
[14].	Motion of the Eye.
[15].	Searching Motion.
[16].	Sensible Spot.
[17].	Expressions implying Motion.
Chap. VII.  Of the Idea of Time		[131]
Art. [1].	Time an Idea not derived fromExperience.
[2].	Timeis a Form of Experience.
[3].	Number.
[4].	Is Time derived fromMotion?
Chap. VIII.  Of somePeculiarities in the Idea of Time		[134]
Art. [1].	Time is not an Abstract Notion.
[2].	Timeis infinite.
[3].	Timeis a Form of Intuition.
[4].	Timeis of one Dimension,
[5].	Andno more.
[6].	Rhythm.
[7].	Alternation.
[8].	Arithmetic.
[xi]
Chap. IX.  Of the Axioms whichrelate to Number		[138]
Art. [1].	Grounds of Arithmetic.
[2].	Intuition.
[3].	Arithmetical Axioms,
[4].	AreConditions of Numerical Reasoning
[5].	Inall Arithmetical Operations.
[6].	Higher Numbers.
Chap. X.  Of the Perception ofTime and Number		[141]
Art. [1].	Memory.
[2].	Sense ofSuccessiveness
[3].	Implies Activity.
[4].	Number also does so.
[5].	Andapprehension of Rhythm.
Note to Chapter X.		[145]
Chap. XI.  Of MathematicalReasoning		[147]
Art. [1].	Discursive Reasoning.
[2].	Technical Terms of Reasoning.
[3].	Geometrical Analysis and Synthesis.
Chap. XII.  Of the Foundations ofthe Higher Mathematics		[151]
Art. [1].	The Idea of a Limit.
[2].	Theuse of General Symbols.
[3].	Connexion of Symbols and Analysis.
Chap. XIII.  The Doctrine ofMotion		[156]
Art. [1].	Pure Mechanism.
[2].	Formal Astronomy.
Chap. XIV.  Of the Application ofMathematics to the Inductive Sciences		[159]
Art. [1].	The Ideas of Space and Number are clear from thefirst.
[2].	Their application in Astronomy.
[3].	Conic Sections, &c.
[4].	Arabian Numerals.
[5].	Newton’s Lemmas.
[6].	Tides.
[7].	Mechanics.
[8].	Optics.
[9].	Conclusion.
[xii]
BOOK III.
THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE MECHANICALSCIENCES.
Chap. I.  Ofthe Mechanical Sciences		[171]
Chap. II.  Of the Idea of Cause		[173]
Art. [1].	Not derived from Observation,
[2].	Asappears by its use.
[3].	Cause cannot be observed.
[4].	IsCause only constant succession?
[5].	Other reasons.
Chap. III.  Modern Opinionsrespecting the Idea of Cause		[178]
Art. [1].	Hume’s Doctrine.
[2].	Stewart and Brown.
[3].	Kant.
[4].	Relation of Kant andBrown.
[5].	Axioms flow from the Idea.
[6].	TheIdea implies activity in the Mind.
Chap. IV.  Of the Axioms whichrelate to the Idea of Cause		[184]
Art. [1].	Causes are Abstract Conceptions.
[2].	First Axiom.
[3].	Second Axiom.
[4].	Limitation of the Second Axiom.
[5].	Third Axiom.
[6].	Extent of the Third Axiom.
Chap. V.  Of the Origin of ourConceptions of Force and Matter		[205]
Art. [1].	Force.
[2].	Matter.
[3].	Solidity.
[4].	Inertia.
[5].	Application.
[xiii]
Chap. VI.  Of the Establishmentof the Principles of Statics		[212]
Art. [1].	Object of the Chapter.
[2].	Statics and Dynamics.
[3].	Equilibrium.
[4].	Measure of Statical Forces.
[5].	TheCenter of Gravity.
[6].	Oblique Forces.
[7].	Force acts at any point of its Direction.
[8].	TheParallelogram of Forces
[9].	Is anecessary Truth.
[10].	Center of Gravity descends.
[11].	Stevinus's Proof.
[12].	Principle of Virtual Velocities.
[13].	Fluids press equally.
[14].	Foundation of this Axiom.
Chap. VII.  Of the Establishmentof the Principles of Dynamics		[235]
Art. [1].	History.
[2].	TheFirst Law of Motion.
[3].	Gravity is a Uniform Force.
[4].	TheSecond Law of Motion.
[5].	TheThird Law of Motion.
[6].	Action and Reaction in Moving Bodies.
[7].	D’Alembert’s Principle.
[8].	Connexion of Statics and Dynamics.
[9].	Mechanical Principles grow more evident.
[10].	Controversy of the Measure of Force.
Chap. VIII.  Of the Paradox ofUniversal Propositions obtained from Experience		[263]
Art. [1].	Experience cannot establish necessaryTruths;
[2].	Butcan interpret Axioms.
[3].	Gives us the Matter of Truths.
[4].	Exemplifies Truths.
[5].	Cannot shake Axioms.
[6].	Isthis applicable in other cases?
Chap. IX.  Of the Establishmentof the Law of Universal Gravitation		[272]
Art. [1].	General course of the History.
[xiv]
[2].	Particulars as to the Law.
[3].	Asto the Gravity of Matter.
[4].	Universality of the Law.
[5].	IsGravity an essential quality?
[6].	Newton’s Rule of Philosophizing.
[7].	Hypotheses respecting Gravity.
[8].	DoBodies act at a distance?
Chap. X.  Of the generalDiffusion of clear Mechanical Ideas		[279]
Art. [1].	Nature of the Process
[2].	Among the Ancients.
[3].	Kepler, &c.
[4].	Lord Monboddo, &c.
[5].	Schelling, &c.
[6].	Common usage.
[7].	Effect of Phrases.
[8].	Contempt of Predecessors.
[9].	Less detail hereafter.
[10].	Mechanico-Chemical Sciences.
[11].	Secondary Mechanical Sciences.
BOOK IV.
THE PHILOSOPHY OF THE SECONDARYMECHANICAL SCIENCES.
Chap. I.  Of the Idea of a Mediumas commonly employed		[293]
Art. [1].	Of Primary and Secondary Qualities.
[2].	TheIdea of Externality.
[3].	Sensation by a Medium.
[4].	Process of Perception of Secondary Qualities.
Chap. II.  On Peculiarities inthe Perceptions of the Different Senses		[302]
Art. [1].	Difference of Senses.
Sect. I.	Prerogatives of Sight.
Art. [2].	Position.
[3].	Distance.
[xv]
Sect. II.	Prerogatives of Hearing.
Art. [4].	Musical Intervals.
[5].	Chords.
[6].	Rhythm.
Sect. III.	TheParadoxes of Vision.
Art. [7].	First Paradox.
[8].	Second Paradox.
[9].	Thesame for near Objects.
[10].	Objections answered.
Sect. IV.	ThePerception of Visible Figures.
Art. [11].	Brown’s Opinion.
Chap. III.  Successive Attemptsat the Scientific Application of the Idea of a Medium		[322]
Art. [1].	Introduction.
[2].	Sound.
[3].	Light.
[4].	Heat.
Chap.IV.  Of the Measure of Secondary Qualities		[333]
Sect. I.	Scales ofQualities in General.
Art. [1].	Intensity.
[2].	Quantity and Quality.
Sect. II.	TheMusical Scale.
Art. [3].	MusicalRelations.
[4].	Musical Standard.
Sect. III.	Scalesof Colour.
Art. [5].	The Prismatic Scale.
[6].	Newton’s Scale.
[7].	Scales of Impure Colours.
[8].	Chromatometer.
Sect. IV.	Scales ofLight.
Art. [9].	Photometer.
[10].	Cyanometer.
Sect. V.	Scales ofHeat.
Art. [11].	Thermometers.
[12].	Their progress.
[13].	Fixed Points.
[14].	Concordance of Thermometers.
[15].	Natural Measure.
[16].	Law of Cooling.
[xvi]
[17].	Theory of Exchanges.
[18].	Air Thermometer.
[19].	Theory of Heat.
[20].	Other Instruments.
Sect. VI.	Scales ofother Quantities.
Art. [21].	Tastes and Smells.
[22].	Quality of Sounds.
[23].	Articulate Sounds.
[24].	Transition.
BOOK V.
OF THE PHILOSOPHY OF THEMECHANICO-CHEMICAL SCIENCES.
Chap. I.  Attempts at theScientific Application of the Idea of Polarity		[359]
Art. [1].	Introduction of the Idea.
[2].	Magnetism.
[3].	Electricity.
[4].	Voltaic Electricity.
[5].	Light.
[6].	Crystallization.
[7].	Chemical Affinity.
[8].	General Remarks.
[9].	Likerepels like.
Chap. II.  Of the Connexion ofPolarities		[371]
Art. [1].	Different Polar Phenomena from oneCause.
[2].	Connexion of Magnetic and Electric Polarity.
[3].	Ampère’s Theory.
[4].	Faraday’s views.
[5].	Connexion of Electrical and Chemical Polarity.
[6].	Davy’s and Faraday’s views
[7].	Depend upon Ideas as well as Experiments.
[8].	Faraday’s Anticipations.
[9].	Connexion of Chemical and Crystalline Polarities.
[10].	Connexion of Crystalline and Optical Polarities.
[11].	Connexion of Polarities in general.
[12].	Schelling’s Speculations.
[13].	Hegel’s vague notions.
[14].	Ideas must guide Experiment.

CONTENTS
OF
THE SECOND VOLUME.

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		PAGE
BOOK VI.
THE PHILOSOPHY OF CHEMISTRY.
Chap. I.  Attempts to conceiveElementary Composition		[3]
Art. [1].	Fundamental Ideas of Chemistry.
[2].	Elements.
[3].	DoCompounds resemble their Elements?
[4].	TheThree Principles.
[5].	AModern Errour.
[6].	AreCompounds determined by the Figure of Elements?
[7].	Crystalline Form depends on Figure of Elements.
[8].	AreCompounds determined by Mechanical Attraction ofElements?
[9].	Newton’s followers.
[10].	Imperfection of their Hypotheses.
Chap. II.  Establishment andDevelopment of the Idea of Chemical Affinity		[15]
Art. [1].	Early Chemists.
[2].	Chemical Affinity.
[3].	Affinity or Attraction?
[4].	Affinity preferable.
[5].	Analysis is possible.
[vi]
[6].	Affinity is Elective.
[7].	Controversy on this.
[8].	Affinity is Definite.
[9].	Arethese Principles necessarily true?
[10].	Composition determines Properties.
[11].	Comparison on this subject.
[12].	Composition determines Crystalline Form.
Chap. III.  Of the Idea ofSubstance		[29]
Art. [1].	Indestructibility of Substance.
[2].	TheIdea of Substance.
[3].	Locke’s Denial of Substance.
[4].	Isall Substance heavy?
Note on Sir W. Hamilton’s objections		[37]
Chap. IV.  Application of theIdea of Substance in Chemistry		[39]
Art. [1].	A Body is Equal to its Elements.
[2].	Lavoisier.
[3].	Arethere Imponderable Elements?
[4].	Faraday’s views.
[5].	Composition of Water.
[6].	Heatin Chemistry.
Chap. V.  The Atomic Theory		[48]
Art. [1].	The Theory on Chemical Grounds.
[2].	Hypothesis of Atoms.
[3].	ItsChemical Difficulties.
[4].	Grounds of the Atomic Doctrine.
[5].	Ancient Atomists.
[6].	Francis Bacon.
[7].	Modern Atomists.
[8].	Arguments for and against.
[9].	Boscovich’s Theory.
[10].	Molecular Hypothesis.
[11].	Poisson’s Inference.
[12].	Wollaston’s Argument.
[13].	Properties are Permanent.
[vii]
BOOK VII.
THE PHILOSOPHY OF MORPHOLOGY,INCLUDING CRYSTALLOGRAPHY.
Chap. I.  Explication of the Ideaof Symmetry		[67]
Art. [1].	Symmetry, what.
[2].	Kinds of Symmetry.
[3].	Examples in Nature.
[4].	Vegetables and Animals.
[5].	Symmetry a Fundamental Idea.
[6].	Result of Symmetry.
Chap. II.  Application of theIdea of Symmetry to Crystals		[75]
Art. [1].	‘Fundamental Forms.’
[2].	Their use.
[3].	‘Systems of Crystallization.’
[4].	Cleavage.
[5].	Other Properties.
Chap. III.  Speculations foundedupon the Symmetry of Crystals		[80]
Art. [1].	Integrant Molecules.
[2].	Difficulties of the Theory.
[3].	Merit of the Theory.
[4].	Wollaston’s Hypothesis.
[5].	Maxim for such Hypotheses.
[6].	Dalton’s Hypothesis.
[7].	Ampère’s Hypothesis.
[8].	Difficulty of such Hypotheses.
[9].	Isomorphism.
[viii]
BOOK VIII.
PHILOSOPHY OF THE CLASSIFICATORYSCIENCES.
Chap. I.  TheIdea of Likeness as Governing the Use of Common Names		[95]
Art. [1].	Object of the Chapter.
[2].	Unity of the Individual.
[3].	Condition of Unity.
[4].	Kinds.
[5].	Not made byDefinitions.
[6].	Condition of the Use of Terms.
[7].	Terms may have different Uses.
[8].	Gradation of Kinds.
[9].	Characters of Kinds.
[10].	Difficulty of Definitions.
[11].	‘The Five Words.’
Chap. II. The Methods of NaturalHistory, as regulated by the Idea of Likeness		[108]
Sect. I.	Natural History inGeneral.
Art. [1].	Idea of Likeness in Natural History.
[2].	Condition of its Use.
Sect. II.	Terminology.
Art. [3].	Meaning of the word.
Sect. III.	The Planof the System.
Art. [4].	Its Meaning.
[5].	Latent Reference to Natural Affinity.
[6].	Natural Classes.
[7].	Artificial Classes.
[8].	AreGenera Natural?
[9].	Natural History and Mathematics.
[10].	Natural Groups given by Type, not by Definition.
[11].	Physiography.
[12].	Artificial and Natural Systems.
[ix]
Sect. IV.	Methodsof framing Natural Systems.
Art. [13].	Method of Blind Trial.
[14].	Method of General Comparison.
Sect. V.	Gradationof Groups.
Art. [15].	Series of Subdivisions.
[16].	What is a Species?
[17].	The words ‘Species’ and ‘Genus.’
[18].	Varieties. Races.
Sect. VI.	Nomenclature.
Art. [19].	Binary Nomenclature.
Sect. VII.	Diagnosis.
Art. [20].	Characteristick and Systematick.
Chap. III.  Application of theNatural History Method to Mineralogy		[138]
Art. [1].	Mohs’s System.
[2].	His‘Characteristick.’
[3].	Mineral Species not yet well fixed.
[4].	Orders of Minerals.
[5].	Nomenclature of Minerals.
[6].	M.Necker’s ‘Règne Mineral.’
[7].	Inconvenience of taking a Chemical Basis of MineralSystems.
[8].	Relation of Natural History and Chemistry.
[9].	Whatis a Mineralogical Individual?
[10].	Awell-formed Crystal is an Individual.
[11].	Not the Integrant Molecules,
[12].	Nor the Cleavage Forms.
[13].	Compound Crystals are not Individuals.
[14].	Crystalline Forms are sufficiently complete forthis.
[15].	Including aggregate Masses.
[16].	DoArtificial Crystals belong to Mineralogy?
[17].	The Mineralogical Individual extends as far as the same CrystallineAxes extend.
[18].	Artificial Crystals do belong to Mineralogy:
[x]
[19].	Cannot be excluded.
[20].	Species to be determined by the Crystalline Power.
[21].	Secondary Derivative Forms are Varieties:
[22].	Are not Species, as M. Necker holds.
Chap. IV.  Of the Idea of NaturalAffinity		[159]
Art. [1].	The Idea of Affinity
[2].	Isnot to be made out by Arbitrary Rules.
[3].	Functions of Living things are many,
[4].	Butall lead to the same arrangement.
[5].	Thisis Cuvier’s principle:
[6].	AndDecandolle’s.
[7].	Isthis applicable to Inorganic Bodies?
[8].	Yes;by the agreement of Physical and ChemicalArrangement.
BOOK IX.
THE PHILOSOPHY OF BIOLOGY.
Chap. 1.  Analogy of Biology withother Sciences		[169]
Art. [1].	Biology involves the Idea of Life.
[2].	ThisIdea to be historically traced.
[3].	TheIdea at first expressed by means of other Ideas.
[4].	Mystical, Mechanical, Chemical, and Vital FluidHypotheses.
Chap. II.  Successive BiologicalHypotheses		[174]
Sect. [I].	The Mystical School.
Sect. [II].	The Iatrochemical School.
Sect. [III].	The Iatromathematical School.
Sect. [IV].	The Vital Fluid School.
Sect. [V].	The Psychical School.
[xi]
Chap. III.  Attempts to Analysethe Idea of Life		[195]
Art. [1].	Definitions of Life,
[2].	ByStahl, Humboldt, Kant.
[3].	Definition of Organization by Kant.
[4].	Lifeis a System of Functions.
[5].	Bichat. Sum of Functions.
[6].	Useof Definition.
[7].	Cuvier’s view.
[8].	Classifications of Functions.
[9].	Vital, Natural, and Animal Functions.
[10].	Bichat. Organic and Animal Life.
[11].	Use of this Classification.
Chap. IV.  Attempts to form Ideasof separate Vital Forces, and first, of Assimilation andSecretion		[203]
Sect. I.	Course ofBiological Research.
Art. [1].	Observation and New Conceptions.
Sect. II.	Attemptsto form a distinct Conception of Assimilation andSecretion.
Art. [2].	The Ancients.
[3].	Buffon. Interior Mould.
[4].	Defect of this view.
[5].	Cuvier. Life a Vortex.
[6].	Defect of this view.
[7].	Schelling. Matter and Form.
[8].	Lifea constant Form of circulating Matter, &c.
Sect. III.	Attemptsto conceive the Forces of Assimilation andSecretion.
Art. [9].	Assimilation is a Vital Force.
[10].	The name ‘Assimilation.’
[11].	Several processes involved in Assimilation.
[12].	Absorption. Endosmose.
[13].	Absorption involves a Vital Force.
[14].	Secretion. Glands.
[15].	Motions of Vital Fluids.
[xii]
Sect. IV.	Attemptsto conceive the Process of Generation.
Art. [16].	‘Reproduction’ figuratively used forGeneration.
[17].	Nutrition different from
[18].	Generation.
[19].	Generations successively included.
[20].	Pre-existence of Germs.
[21].	Difficulty of this view.
[22].	Communication of Vital Forces.
[23].	Close similarity of Nutrition and Generation.
[24].	The Identity of the two Processes exemplified.
Chap. V.  Attempts to form Ideasof separate Vital Forces, continued.—Voluntary Motion.		[222]
Art. [1].	Voluntary Motion one of the animalFunctions.
[2].	Progressive knowledge ofit.
[3].	Nervous Fluid not electric.
[4].	Irritability. Glisson.
[5].	Haller.
[6].	Contractility.
[7].	Organic Sensibility and Contractility notseparable.
[8].	Improperly described by Bichat.
[9].	Brown.
[10].	Contractility a peculiarPower.
[11].	Cuvier’s view.
[12].	Elementary contractile Action.
[13].	Strength of Muscular Fibre.
[14].	Sensations become Perceptions
[15].	Bymeans of Ideas;
[16].	And lead to Muscular Actions.
[17].	Volition comes between Perception and Action.
[18].	Transition to Psychology,
[19].	Acenter is introduced.
[20].	The central consciousness may be obscure.
[21].	Reflex Muscular Action.
[22].	Instinct.
[23].	Difficulty of conceiving Instinct.
[24].	Instinct opposed to Insight.
[xiii]
Chap. VI.  Of the Idea of FinalCauses		[239]
Art. [1].	Organization. Parts are Ends andMeans.
[2].	Notmerely mutually dependent.
[3].	Notmerely mutually Cause and Effect.
[4].	Notion of End not derived from Facts.
[5].	Thisnotion has regulated Physiology.
[6].	Notion of Design comes from within.
[7].	Design not understood by Savages.
[8].	Design opposed to Morphology.
[9].	Impression of Design when fresh.
[10].	Acknowledgement of an End by adverse Physiologists.
[11].	This included in the Notion of Disease.
[12].	Itbelongs to organized Creatures only.
[13].	The term Final Cause.
[14].	Law and Design.
[15].	Final Causes and Morphology.
[16].	Expressions of physiological Ends.
[17].	The Conditions of Existence.
[18].	The asserted presumption of Teleology.
[19].	Final Causes in other subjects.
[20].	Transition to Palætiology.
BOOK X.
THE PHILOSOPHY OFPALÆTIOLOGY.
Chap. I.  Of PalætiologicalSciences in General		[257]
Art. [1].	Description of Palætiology.
[2].	ItsMembers.
[3].	Other Members.
[4].	Connexion of the whole subject.
[5].	Weshall take Material Sciences only;
[6].	Butthese are connected with others.
Chap. II.  Of the Three Membersof a Palætiological Science		[263]
Art. [1].	Divisions of such Sciences.
[2].	TheStudy of Causes.
[3].	Ætiology.
[xiv]
[4].	Phenomenology requires Classification. PhenomenalGeology.
[5].	Phenomenal Uranology.
[6].	Phenomenal Geography of Plants and Animals.
[7].	Phenomenal Glossology.
[8].	TheStudy of Phenomena leads to Theory.
[9].	Nosound Theory without Ætiology.
[10].	Causes in Palætiology.
[11].	Various kinds of Cause.
[12].	Hypothetical Order of Palætiological Causes.
[13].	Mode of Cultivating Ætiology:—In Geology:
[14].	In the Geography of Plants and Animals:
[15].	In Languages.
[16].	Construction of Theories.
[17].	No sound Palætiological Theory yet extant.
Chap. III.  Of the Doctrine ofCatastrophes and the Doctrine of Uniformity		[284]
Art. [1].	Doctrine of Catastrophes.
[2].	Doctrine of Uniformity.
[3].	IsUniformity probable a priori?
[4].	Cycle of Uniformity indefinite.
[5].	Uniformitarian Arguments are Negative only.
[6].	Uniformity in the Organic World.
[7].	Origin of the present Organic World.
[8].	Nebular Origin of the Solar System.
[9].	Origin of Languages.
[10].	No Natural Origin discoverable.
Chap. IV.  Of the Relation ofTradition to Palætiology		[297]
Art. [1].	Importance of Tradition.
[2].	Connexion of Tradition and Science.
[3].	Natural and Providential History of the World.
[4].	TheSacred Narrative.
[5].	Difficulties in interpreting the Sacred Narrative.
[6].	Such Difficulties inevitable.
[7].	Science tells us nothing concerning Creation.
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[8].	Scientific views, when familiar, do not disturb the authority ofScripture.
[9].	When should Old Interpretations be given up?
[10].	In what Spirit should the Change be accepted?
[11].	In what Spirit should the Change be urged?
[12].	Duty of Mutual forbearance.
[13].	Case of Galileo.
Chap. V.  Of the Conception of aFirst Cause		[316]
Art. [1].	The Origin of things is not naturallydiscoverable;
[2].	Yethas always been sought after.
[3].	There must be a First Cause.
[4].	This is an Axiom.
[5].	Involved in the proof of a Deity.
[6].	Themind is not satisfied without it.
[7].	TheWhole Course of Nature must have a Cause.
[8].	Necessary Existence of God.
[9].	Forms of the Proof.
[10].	Idea of a First Cause is Necessary.
[11].	Conception of a First Cause.
[12].	The First Cause in all Sciences is the same.
[13].	We are thus led to Moral Subjects.
	Conclusion of thisHistory.