A history of China., [3d ed. rev. and enl.]

by Wolfram Eberhard

To My Wife

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CONTENTS

• [INTRODUCTION] [1]
• [THE EARLIEST TIMES]
• [Chapter I:] PREHISTORY
• • 1 Sources for the earliest history [7]
  • 2 The Peking Man [8]
  • 3 The Palaeolithic Age [8]
  • 4 The Neolithic Age [9]
  • 5 The eight principal prehistoric cultures [10]
  • 6 The Yang-shao culture [12]
  • 7 The Lung-shan culture [15]
  • 8 The first petty States in Shansi [16]
• [Chapter II:] THE SHANG DYNASTY (c. 1600-1028 B.C.)
• • 1 Period, origin, material culture [19]
  • 2 Writing and Religion [22]
  • 3 Transition to feudalism [24]
• [ANTIQUITY]
• [Chapter III:] THE CHOU DYNASTY (c. 1028-257 B.C.)
• • 1 Cultural origin of the Chou and end of the Shang dynasty [29]
  • 2 Feudalism in the new empire [30]
  • 3 Fusion of Chou and Shang [32]
  • 4 Limitation of the imperial power [36]
  • 5 Changes in the relative strength of the feudal states [38]
  • 6 Confucius [40]
  • 7 Lao Tzŭ [45]
• [Chapter IV:] THE CONTENDING STATES (481-256 B.C.): DISSOLUTION OF THE FEUDAL SYSTEM
• • 1 Social and military changes [51]
  • 2 Economic changes [53]
  • 3 Cultural changes [57]
• [Chapter V:] THE CHIN DYNASTY (256-207 B.C.)
• • 1 Towards the unitary State [62]
  • 2 Centralization in every field [64]
  • 3 Frontier Defence. Internal collapse [67]
• [THE MIDDLE AGES]
• [Chapter VI:] THE HAN DYNASTY (206 B.C.-A.D. 220)
• • 1 Development of the gentry-state [71]
  • 2 Situation of the Hsiung-nu empire; its relation to the Han empire. Incorporation of South China [75]
  • 3 Brief feudal reaction. Consolidation of the gentry [77]
  • 4 Turkestan policy. End of the Hsiung-nu empire [86]
  • 5 Impoverishment. Cliques. End of the Dynasty [90]
  • 6 The pseudo-socialistic dictatorship. Revolt of the "Red Eyebrows" [93]
  • 7 Reaction and Restoration: the Later Han dynasty [96]
  • 8 Hsiung-nu policy [97]
  • 9 Economic situation. Rebellion of the "Yellow Turbans". Collapse of the Han dynasty [99]
  • 10 Literature and Art [103]
• [Chapter VII:] THE EPOCH OF THE FIRST DIVISION OF CHINA (A.D. 220-580)
• (A) The three kingdoms (A.D. 220-265)
• • 1 Social, intellectual, and economic problems during the period of the first division [107]
  • 2 Status of the two southern Kingdoms [109]
  • 3 The northern State of Wei [113]
• (B) The Western Chin dynasty (265-317)
  • 1 Internal situation in the Chin empire [115]
  • 2 Effect on the frontier peoples [116]
  • 3 Struggles for the throne [119]
  • 4 Migration of Chinese [120]
  • 5 Victory of the Huns. The Hun Han dynasty (later renamed the Earlier Chao dynasty) [121]
• (C) The alien empires in North China, down to the Toba (A.D. 317-385)
  • 1 The Later Chao dynasty in eastern North China (Hun; 329-352) [123]
  • 2 Earlier Yen dynasty in the north-east (proto-Mongol; 352-370), and the Earlier Ch'in dynasty in all north China (Tibetan; 351-394) [126]
  • 3 The fragmentation of north China [128]
  • 4 Sociological analysis of the two great alien empires [131]
  • 5 Sociological analysis of the petty States [132]
  • 6 Spread of Buddhism [133]
• (D) The Toba empire in North China (A.D. 385-550)
  • 1 The rise of the Toba State [136]
  • 2 The Hun kingdom of the Hsia (407-431) [139]
  • 3 Rise of the Toba to a great power [139]
  • 4 Economic and social conditions [142]
  • 5 Victory and retreat of Buddhism [145]
• (E) Succession States of the Toba (A.D. 550-580): Northern Ch'i dynasty, Northern Chou dynasty
  • 1 Reasons for the splitting of the Toba empire [148]
  • 2 Appearance of the (Gök) Turks [149]
  • 3 The Northern Ch'i dynasty; the Northern Chou dynasty [150]
• (F) The southern empires
  • 1 Economic and social situation in the south [152]
  • 2 Struggles between cliques under the Eastern Chin dynasty (A.D. 317-419) [155]
  • 3 The Liu-Sung dynasty (A.D. 420-478) and the Southern Ch'i dynasty (A.D. 479-501) [159]
  • 4 The Liang dynasty (A.D. 502-556) [161]
  • 5 The Ch'en dynasty (A.D. 557-588) and its ending by the Sui [162]
  • 6 Cultural achievements of the south [163]
• [Chapter VIII:] THE EMPIRES OF THE SUI AND THE T'ANG
• (A) The Sui dynasty (A.D. 580-618)
• • 1 Internal situation in the newly unified empire [166]
  • 2 Relations with Turks and with Korea [169]
  • 3 Reasons for collapse [170]
• (B) The Tang dynasty (A.D. 618-906)
  • 1 Reforms and decentralization [172]
  • 2 Turkish policy [176]
  • 3 Conquest of Turkestan and Korea. Summit of power [177]
  • 4 The reign of the empress Wu: Buddhism and capitalism [179]
  • 5 Second blossoming of T'ang culture [182]
  • 6 Revolt of a military governor [184]
  • 7 The role of the Uighurs. Confiscation of the capital of the monasteries [186]
  • 8 First successful peasant revolt. Collapse of the empire [189]
• [MODERN TIMES]
• [Chapter IX:] THE EPOCH OF THE SECOND DIVISION OF CHINA
• (A) The period of the Five Dynasties (906-960)
• • 1 Beginning of a new epoch [195]
  • 2 Political situation in the tenth century [199]
  • 3 Monopolistic trade in South China. Printing and paper money in the north [200]
  • 4 Political history of the Five Dynasties [202]
• (B) Period of Moderate Absolutism
• (1) The Northern Sung dynasty
  • 1 Southward expansion [208]
  • 2 Administration and army. Inflation [210]
  • 3 Reforms and Welfare schemes [215]
  • 4 Cultural situation (philosophy, religion, literature, painting) [217]
  • 5 Military collapse [221]
• (2) The Liao (Kitan) dynasty in the north (937-1125)
  • 1 Sociological structure. Claim to the Chinese imperial throne [222]
  • 2 The State of the Kara-Kitai [223]
• (3) The Hsi-Hsia State in the north (1038-1227)
  • 1 Continuation of Turkish traditions [224]
• (4) The empire of the Southern Sung dynasty (1127-1279)
  • 1 Foundation [225]
  • 2 Internal situation [226]
  • 3 Cultural situation; reasons for the collapse [227]
• (5) The empire of the Juchên in the north (1115-1234)
  • 1 Rapid expansion from northern Korea to the Yangtze [229]
  • 2 United front of all Chinese [229]
  • 3 Start of the Mongol empire [230]
• [Chapter X:] THE PERIOD OF ABSOLUTISM
• (A) The Mongol Epoch (1280-1368)
• • 1 Beginning of new foreign rules [232]
  • 2 "Nationality legislation" [233]
  • 3 Military position [234]
  • 4 Social situation [235]
  • 5 Popular risings: National rising [238]
  • 6 Cultural [241]
• (B) The Ming Epoch (1368-1644)
  • 1 Start. National feeling [243]
  • 2 Wars against Mongols and Japanese [244]
  • 3 Social legislation within the existing order [246]
  • 4 Colonization and agricultural developments [248]
  • 5 Commercial and industrial developments [250]
  • 6 Growth of the small gentry [252]
  • 7 Literature, art, crafts [253]
  • 8 Politics at court [256]
  • 9 Navy. Southward expansion [258]
  • 10 Struggles between cliques [259]
  • 11 Risings [262]
  • 12 Machiavellism [263]
  • 13 Foreign relations in the sixteenth century [264]
  • 14 External and internal perils [266]
• (C) The Manchu Dynasty (1644-1911)
  • 1 Installation of the Manchus [270]
  • 2 Decline in the eighteenth century [272]
  • 3 Expansion in Central Asia; the first State treaty [277]
  • 4 Culture [279]
  • 5 Relations with the outer world [282]
  • 6 Decline; revolts [284]
  • 7 European Imperialism in the Far East [285]
  • 8 Risings in Turkestan and within China: the T'ai P'ing Rebellion [288]
  • 9 Collision with Japan; further Capitulations [294]
  • 10 Russia in Manchuria [296]
  • 11 Reform and reaction: The Boxer Rising [296]
  • 12 End of the dynasty [299]
• [Chapter XI:] THE REPUBLIC (1912-1948)
• • 1 Social and intellectual position [303]
  • 2 First period of the Republic: The warlords [309]
  • 3 Second period of the Republic: Nationalist China [314]
  • 4 The Sino-Japanese war (1937-1945) [317]
• [Chapter XII:] PRESENT-DAY CHINA
• • 1 The growth of communism [320]
  • 2 Nationalist China in Taiwan [323]
  • 3 Communist China [327]
• [Notes and References] [335]
• [Index] [355]

ILLUSTRATIONS

• [1 Painted pottery from Kansu: Neolithic.] Facing page 48
  • In the collection of the Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin.
• [2 Ancient bronze tripod found at Anyang.] 49
  • From G. Ecke: Frühe chinesische Bronzen aus der Sammlung Oskar Trautmann, Peking 1939 plate 3.
• [3 Bronze plaque representing two horses fighting each other. Ordos region, animal style.] 64
  • From V. Griessmaier: Sammlung Baron Eduard von der Heydt, Vienna 1936, illustration No. 6.
• [4 Hunting scene: detail from the reliefs in the tombs at Wu-liang-tz'u.] 64
  • From a print in the author's possession.
• [5 Part of the "Great Wall".] 65
  • Photo Eberhard.
• [6 Sun Ch'üan, ruler of Wu.] 144
  • From a painting by Yen Li-pen (c. 640-680).
• [7 General view of the Buddhist cave-temples of Yün-kang. In the foreground, the present village; in the background the rampart.] 145
  • Photo H. Hammer-Morrisson.
• [8 Detail from the Buddhist cave-reliefs of Lungmen.] 160
  • From a print in the author's possession.
• [9 Statue of Mi-lo (Maitreya, the next future Buddha), in the "Great Buddha Temple" at Chengting (Hopei).] 161
  • Photo H. Hammer-Morrisson.
• [10 Ladies of the Court: Clay models which accompanied the dead person to the grave. T'ang period.] 208
  • In the collection of the Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin.
• [11 Distinguished founder: a temple banner found at Khotcho, Turkestan.] 209
  • Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin. No. 1B 4524, illustration B 408.
• [12 Ancient tiled pagoda at Chengting (Hopei).] 224
  • Photo H. Hammer-Morrisson.
• [13 Horse-training. Painting by Li Lung-mien. Late Sung period.] 225
  • Manchu Royal House Collection.
• [14 Aborigines of South China, of the "Black Miao" tribe, at a festival. China-ink drawing of the eighteenth century.] 272
  • Collection of the Museum für Völkerkunde, Berlin. No. 1D 8756, 68.
• [15 Pavilion on the "Coal Hill" at Peking, in which the last Ming emperor committed suicide.] 273
  • Photo Eberhard.
• [16 The imperial summer palace of the Manchu rulers, at Jehol.] 288
  • Photo H. Hammer-Morrisson.
• [17 Tower on the city wall of Peking.] 289
  • Photo H. Hammer-Morrisson.

MAPS

• [1 Regions of the principal local cultures in prehistoric times] 13
• [2 The principal feudal States in the feudal epoch] (roughly 722-481 B.C.) 39
• [3 China in the struggle with the Huns or Hsiung-nu] (roughly 128-100 B.C.) 87
• [4 The Toba empire] (about A.D. 500) 141
• [5 The T'ang realm] (about A.D. 750) 171
• [6 The State of the Later T'ang dynasty (923-935)] 205

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