Chaldea: From the Earliest Times to the Rise of Assyria

by Zénaïde A. Ragozin

I.
	PAGE
Mesopotamia.—The Mounds.—The First Searchers	[1-18]
§ 1. Complete destruction of Nineveh.—§§ 2-4. Xenophon and the"Retreat of the Ten Thousand." The Greeks pass the ruins ofCalah and Nineveh, and know them not.—§ 5. Alexander's passagethrough Mesopotamia.—§ 6. The Arab invasion and rule.—§ 7.Turkish rule and mismanagement.—§ 8. Peculiar naturalconditions of Mesopotamia.—§ 9. Actual desolate state of thecountry.—§ 10. The plains studded with Mounds. Their curiousaspect.—§ 11. Fragments of works of art amidst the rubbish.—§12. Indifference and superstition of the Turks and Arabs.—§13. Exclusive absorption of European scholars in ClassicalAntiquity.—§ 14. Forbidding aspect of the Mounds, comparedwith other ruins.—§ 15. Rich, the first explorer.—§ 16.Botta's work and want of success.—§ 17. Botta's greatdiscovery.—§ 18. Great sensation created by it.—§ 19.Layard's first expedition.
II.
Layard and his Work	[19-35]
§ 1. Layard's arrival at Nimrud. His excitement and dreams.—§2. Beginning of difficulties. The Ogre-like Pasha of Mossul.—§3. Opposition from the Pasha. His malice and cunning.—§ 4.Discovery of the gigantic head. Fright of the Arabs, whodeclare it to be Nimrod.—§ 5. Strange ideas of the Arabs aboutthe sculptures.—§ 6. Layard's life in the desert.—§ 7.Terrible heat of summer.—§ 8. Sand-storms and hothurricanes.—§ 9. Layard's wretched dwelling.—§ 10.Unsuccessful attempts at improvement.—§ 11. In what the taskof the explorer consists.—§ 12. Different modes of carrying onthe work of excavation.
III.
The Ruins	[36-93]
§ 1. Every country's culture and art determined by itsgeographical conditions.—§ 2. Chaldea's absolute deficiency inwood and stone.—§ 3. Great abundance of mud fit for thefabrication of bricks; hence the peculiar architecture ofMesopotamia. Ancient ruins still used as quarries of bricks forbuilding. Trade of ancient bricks at Hillah.—§ 4. Variouscements used.—§ 5. Construction of artificial platforms.—§ 6.Ruins of Ziggurats; peculiar shape, and uses of this sort ofbuildings.—§ 7. Figures showing the immense amount of laborused on these constructions.—§ 8. Chaldean architectureadopted unchanged by the Assyrians.—§ 9. Stone used forornament and casing of walls. Water transport in old and moderntimes.—§ 10. Imposing aspect of the palaces.—§ 11.Restoration of Sennacherib's palace by Fergusson.—§ 12.Pavements of palace halls.—§ 13. Gateways and sculptured slabsalong the walls. Friezes in painted tiles.—§ 14. Proportionsof palace halls and roofing.—§ 15. Lighting of halls.—§ 16.Causes of the kings' passion for building.—§ 17. Drainage ofpalaces and platforms.—§ 18. Modes of destruction.—§ 19. TheMounds a protection to the ruins they contain. Refilling theexcavations.—§ 20. Absence of ancient tombs in Assyria.—§ 21.Abundance and vastness of cemeteries in Chaldea.—§ 22. Warka(Erech) the great Necropolis. Loftus' description.—§ 23."Jar-coffins."—§ 24. "Dish-cover" coffins.—§25. Sepulchralvaults.—§ 26. "Slipper-shaped" coffins.—§ 27. Drainage ofsepulchral mounds.—§ 28. Decoration of walls in paintedclay-cones.—§ 29. De Sarzec's discoveries at Tell-Loh.
IV.
The Book of the Past.—The library of Nineveh	[94-115]
§ 1. Object of making books.—§ 2. Books not always ofpaper.—§ 3. Universal craving for an immortal name.—§ 4.Insufficiency of records on various writing materials.Universal longing for knowledge of the remotest past.—§ 5.Monumental records.—§ 6. Ruins of palaces and temples, tombsand caves—the Book of the Past.—§§ 7-8. Discovery by Layardof the Royal Library at Nineveh.—§ 9. George Smith's work atthe British Museum.—§ 10. His expeditions to Nineveh, hissuccess and death.—§ 11. Value of the Library.—§§ 12-13.Contents of the Library.—§ 14. The Tablets.—§ 15. Thecylinders and foundation-tablets.

CHALDEA.

I.
Nomads and Settlers.—the Four Stages Of Culture.	[116-126]
§ 1. Nomads.—§ 2. First migrations.—§ 3. Pastoral life—thesecond stage.—§ 4. Agricultural life; beginnings of theState.—§ 5. City-building; royalty.—§ 6. Successivemigrations and their causes.—§ 7. Formation of nations.
II.
The Great Races.—chapter X. of Genesis	[127-142]
§ 1. Shinar.—§ 2. Berosus.—§ 3. Who were the settlers inShinar?—§ 4. The Flood probably not universal.—§§ 5-6. Theblessed race and the accursed, according to Genesis.—§ 7.Genealogical form of Chap. X. of Genesis.—§ 8. Eponyms.—§ 9.Omission of some white races from Chap. X.—§ 10. Omission ofthe Black Race.—§ 11. Omission of the Yellow Race.Characteristics of the Turanians.—§ 12. The Chinese.—§ 13.Who were the Turanians? What became of the Cainites?—§ 14.Possible identity of both.—§ 15. The settlers inShinar—Turanians.
III.
Turanian Chaldea—Shumir and Accad.—The Beginnings of Religion	[146-181]
§ 1. Shumir and Accad.—§ 2. Language and name.—§ 3. Turanianmigrations and traditions.—§ 4. Collection of sacred texts.—§5. "Religiosity"—a distinctively human characteristic. Itsfirst promptings and manifestations.—§ 6. The Magic Collectionand the work of Fr. Lenormant.—§ 7. The Shumiro-Accads' theoryof the world, and their elementary spirits.—§ 8. Theincantation of the Seven Maskim.—§ 9. The evil spirits.—§ 10.The Arali.—§ 11. The sorcerers.—§ 12. Conjuring andconjurers.—§ 13. The beneficent Spirits, Êa.—§ 14.Meridug.—§ 15. A charm against an evil spell.—§ 16. Diseasesconsidered as evil demons.—§ 17. Talismans. The Kerubim.—§18. More talismans.—§ 19. The demon of the South-West Wind.—§20. The first gods.—§ 21. Ud, the Sun.—§ 22. Nin dar, thenightly Sun.—§ 23. Gibil, Fire.—§ 24. Dawn of moralconsciousness.—§ 25. Man's Conscience divinized.—§§ 26-28.Penitential Psalms.—§ 29. General character of Turanianreligions.
Appendix to Chapter III.	[181-183]
Professor L. Dyer's poetical version of the Incantation againstthe Seven Maskim.
IV.
Cushites and Semites—Early Chaldean History	[184-228]
§ 1. Oannes.—§ 2. Were the second settlers Cushites orSemites?—§ 3. Cushite hypothesis. Earliest migrations.—§ 4.The Ethiopians and the Egyptians.—§ 5. The Canaanites.—§ 6.Possible Cushite station on the islets of the Persian Gulf.—§7. Colonization of Chaldea possibly by Cushites.—§ 8.Vagueness of very ancient chronology.—§ 9. Early dates.—§ 10.Exorbitant figures of Berosus.—§ 11. Early Chaldea—a nurseryof nations.—§ 12. Nomadic Semitic tribes.—§ 13. The tribe ofArphaxad.—§ 14. Ur of the Chaldees.—§ 15. Scholars dividedbetween the Cushite and Semitic theories.—§ 16. Historycommences with Semitic culture.—§ 17. Priestly rule. Thepatesis.—§§ 18-19. Sharrukin I. (Sargon I) of Agadê.—§§20-21. The second Sargon's literary labors.—§§ 22-23. Chaldeanfolk-lore, maxims and songs.—§ 24. Discovery of the elderSargon's date—3800 b.c.—§ 25. Gudêa of Sir-gulla and Ur-êa ofUr.—§ 26. Predominance of Shumir. Ur-êa and his son Dungifirst kings of "Shumir and Accad."—§ 27. Their inscriptionsand buildings. The Elamite invasion.—§ 28. Elam.—§§ 29-31.Khudur-Lagamar and Abraham.—§ 32. Hardness of the Elamiterule.—§ 33. Rise of Babylon.—§ 34. Hammurabi.—§ 35. Invasionof the Kasshi.
V.
Babylonian Religion	[229-257]
§ 1. Babylonian calendar.—§ 2. Astronomy conducive toreligious feeling.—§ 3. Sabeism.—§ 4. Priestcraft andastrology.—§ 5. Transformation of the old religion.—§ 6.Vague dawning of the monotheistic idea. Divine emanations.—§7. The Supreme Triad.—§ 8. The Second Triad.—§ 9. The fivePlanetary deities.—§§ 10-11. Duality of nature. Masculine andfeminine principles. The goddesses.—§ 12. The twelve GreatGods and their Temples.—§ 13. The temple of Shamash at Sipparand Mr. Rassam's discovery.—§ 14. Survival of the old Turaniansuperstitions.—§ 15. Divination, a branch of Chaldean"Science."—§§ 16-17. Collection of one hundred tablets ondivination. Specimens.—§ 18. The three classes of "wise men.""Chaldeans," in later times, a by-word for "magician," and"astrologer."—§ 19. Our inheritance from the Chaldeans: thesun-dial, the week, the calendar, the Sabbath.
VI.
Legends and Stories	[258-293]
§ 1. The Cosmogonies of different nations.—§ 2. The antiquityof the Sacred Books of Babylonia.—§ 3. The legend of Oannes,told by Berosus. Discovery, by Geo. Smith, of the CreationTablets and the Deluge Tablet.—§§ 4-5. Chaldean account of theCreation.—§ 6. The Cylinder with the human couple, tree andserpent.—§ 7. Berosus' account of the creation.—§ 8. TheSacred Tree. Sacredness of the Symbol.—§ 9. Signification ofthe Tree-Symbol. The Cosmic Tree.—§ 10. Connection of theTree-Symbol and of Ziggurats with the legend of Paradise.—§11. The Ziggurat of Borsippa.—§ 12. It is identified with theTower of Babel.—§§ 13-14. Peculiar Orientation of theZiggurats.—§ 15. Traces of legends about a sacred grove orgarden.—§ 16. Mummu-Tiamat, the enemy of the gods. Battle ofBel and Tiamat.—§ 17. The Rebellion of the seven evil spirits,originally messengers of the gods.—§ 18. The great Tower andthe Confusion of Tongues.
VII.
Myths.—Heroes and the Mythical Epos	[294-330]
§ 1. Definition of the word Myth.—§ 2. The Heroes.—§ 3. TheHeroic Ages and Heroic Myths. The National Epos.—§ 4. Theoldest known Epic.—§ 5. Berosus' account of the Flood.—§ 6.Geo. Smith's discovery of the original Chaldean narrative.—§7. The Epic divided into books or Tablets.—§ 8. Izdubar theHero of the Epic.—§ 9. Erech's humiliation under the ElamiteConquest. Izdubar's dream.—§ 10. Êabâni the Seer. Izdubar'sinvitation and promises to him.—§ 11. Message sent to Êabâniby Ishtar's handmaidens. His arrival at Erech.—§ 12. Izdubarand Êabâni's victory over the tyrant Khumbaba.—§ 13. Ishtar'slove message. Her rejection and wrath. The two friends' victoryover the Bull sent by her.—§ 14. Ishtar's vengeance. Izdubar'sjourney to the Mouth of the Rivers.—§ 15. Izdubar sails theWaters of Death and is healed by his immortal ancestorHâsisadra.—§ 16. Izdubar's return to Erech and lament overÊabâni. The seer is translated among the gods.—§ 17. TheDeluge narrative in the Eleventh Tablet of the IzdubarEpic.—§§ 18-21. Mythic and solar character of the Epicanalyzed.—§ 22. Sun-Myth of the Beautiful Youth, his earlydeath and resurrection.—§§ 23-24. Dumuzi-Tammuz, the husbandof Ishtar. The festival of Dumuzi in June.—§ 25. Ishtar'sDescent to the Land of the Dead.—§ 26. Universality of theSolar and Chthonic Myths.
VIII.
Religion and Mythology.—Idolatry and Anthropomorphism.—The Chaldean Legends and the Book of Genesis.—Retrospect	[331-336]
§ 1. Definition of Mythology and Religion, as distinct fromeach other.—§§ 2-3. Instances of pure religious feeling in thepoetry of Shumir and Accad.—§ 4. Religion often stifled byMythology.—§§ 5-6. The conception of the immortality of thesoul suggested by the sun's career.—§ 7. This expressed in theSolar and Chthonic Myths.—§ 8. Idolatry.—- § 9. The Hebrews,originally polytheists and idolators, reclaimed by theirleaders to Monotheism.—§ 10. Their intercourse with the tribesof Canaan conducive to relapses.—§ 11. Intermarriage severelyforbidden for this reason.—§ 12. Striking similarity betweenthe Book of Genesis and the ancient Chaldean legends.—§ 13.Parallel between the two accounts of the creation.—§ 14.Anthropomorphism, different from polytheism and idolatry, butconducive to both.—§§ 15-17. Parallel continued.—§§ 18-19.Retrospect.

PRINCIPAL WORKS READ OR CONSULTED IN THE PREPARATION OF THIS VOLUME.

Baer, Wilhelm. Der Vorgeschichtliche Mensch. 1 vol., Leipzig: 1874.

Baudissin, W. von. Studien zur Semitischen Religionsgeschichte. 2 vols.

Budge, E. A. Wallis. Babylonian Life and History. ("Bypaths of Bible Knowledge" Series, V.) 1884. London: The Religious Tract Society. 1 vol.

---- History of Esarhaddon. 1 vol.