FOLKLORE NOTES.
FOLK LORE NOTES.
Vol. I—GUJARAT.
COMPILED FROM MATERIALS COLLECTED BY
the late A. M. T. JACKSON, indian civil service.
R. E. ENTHOVEN, c.i.e., i.c.s.
BRITISH INDIA PRESS, MAZGAON BOMBAY.
1914
INTRODUCTION.
The circumstances attending the murder of Mr. A. M. T. Jackson in Nasik in December 1909 led to the raising of a small subscription among his friends, to be devoted to a memorial in some shape or form, showing the respect and affection with which he was regarded in Western India. A large part of the fund then raised was expended on the purchase of his valuable library, which now forms a part of the collection owned by the Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. It was subsequently decided that the balance could not be better spent than in defraying the cost of publishing certain folklore materials which he had collected and intended, at the time of his untimely death, to publish in the pages of the Indian Antiquary. These materials were the result of an enquiry set on foot by him about the year 1900. His plan of operation was to forward, through the agency of the Education Department, Crooke’s list of folklore questions to schoolmasters in various parts of the Presidency. The question paper is given below; the replies form the raw material from which these notes have been compiled. For convenience they are divided into two series: Gujarat and the Konkan.
I desire at the outset of these introductory remarks to explain that, when at the request of the memorial committee I undertook the task of seeing these notes through the press, I did not contemplate any critical handling of the materials found in the papers made over to me. I had neither the leisure nor the knowledge to carry out Mr. Jackson’s intention, i.e., to edit the notes carefully with such criticisms and comparisons as his ripe scholarship would have suggested. I make no claim, therefore, to have effected more than to have rescued from the wastepaper basket a number of replies to questions regarding the beliefs of the people in Gujarat and the Konkan. The notes as now presented doubtless contain much that is trivial, and possibly many inaccuracies; but among them students of folklore may on the other hand discover material of real value—such as they are, they will, I trust, repay careful study, and perhaps serve one day to form the basis of a further and more comprehensive examination of the folk-lore of the Bombay Presidency—an examination which should not be too long deferred, for the old practices and beliefs are yearly tending to decay and vanish in contact with the spread of education. The field for enquiry is wide and rich, but workers fail to come forward; and meanwhile the old beliefs and practices slowly disappear. On the subjects with which these notes deal, much information of value has already been collected and recorded by another oriental scholar, the late Sir James Campbell, K.C.I.E., and will be found partly in the pages of the Bombay Gazetteer, and partly in the notes on the Spirit Basis of Belief and Custom which he published from time to time in the Indian Antiquary. The present notes carry striking confirmation of Sir James Campbell’s theory regarding the extent to which beliefs and religious practices in this country can be traced to the desire to propitiate spirit presences. It may be remarked that Campbell’s work in the domain of Indian folk-lore does not seem to have received the notice that it deserves in the works of writers on folk-lore generally, possibly because so much of it is buried in the pages of the Bombay Gazetteer or in scattered numbers of the Indian Antiquary. The notes would amply repay the labour of republication, with a summary and suitable index. They deal very fully with spirit worship and possession, witchcraft and magic, and the evil eye. They differ from the present notes in being to a large extent comparative, assembling under the various heads of ancestor worship, spirit haunts, spirit possession, exorcism, etc., kindred beliefs from all parts of the world. Doubtless his work to no small extent suggested to Mr. Jackson the line of enquiry which is contained in the question paper. From the materials accumulated by these two scholars a comprehensive study of the folk-lore of western India may one day be compiled.
The notes illustrate very fully the common beliefs in unseen presences causing mischief of various kinds. They illustrate the common methods of protection by propitiation, of spirit and disease scaring, and of avoidance of the effects of the evil eye. A full list will be found (pp. 126–130) of the lucky and unlucky omens besetting the undertaking of various acts, and much information is recorded regarding lucky and unlucky numbers, and spirit scaring names which has not, so far as I am aware, been made public before. Ceremonies for exorcising spirits that have possessed human beings are given in some detail. There will also be found an account of the interpretation commonly put on such natural phenomena as the rainbow, an eclipse, thunder, lightning, meteors, comets, &c.
Many examples are given of the beliefs regarding the means for securing successful pregnancy. The trees and animals worshipped in the country side are described, with the ceremony that is held to be suitable in each case. An unusually interesting belief is that which attributes to a certain lake in Gujarat the power to transform males into females and vice versa (see p. 39). The curing of diseases by the wearing of magic threads and the application of mantras or holy verses is also dealt with in some detail. Finally a list is given of the shrines of the country side with the tradition regarding the holy man in whose honour and to whose memory they have been erected. They are for the most part worshipped alike by Hindu and Musalman.
In conclusion, I would refer once more to the fact that no attempt has been made to edit critically the information embodied in these notes. In the scanty leisure available after official demands on my time have been met, it has only been possible to see the materials through the press as they stood, after translation. The task has been greatly lightened by the generous assistance received from R. B. P. B. Joshi who undertook the preparation of the whole of the MSS. of the Konkan series. I am also greatly indebted to Mr. G. M. Kalelkar for many arduous hours of work on the compilation of the Gujarat papers. To both these gentlemen my cordial thanks are due for their co-operation. If the publication of these materials serve to stimulate interest in the subject of Indian folk-lore, they will not have been printed in vain. Such as they are, they will, I trust, remain as a small tribute to the memory of an oriental scholar, of no mean merit, of whose services India was deprived in so untimely a manner.
QUESTIONS ON FOLKLORE.
By W. CROOKE, Late of the Indian Civil Service.
Author of the Popular Religion and Folklore of Northern India.
I. NATURE POWERS.
1. Give any indications of the connection of the worship of the Deota or minor local deities with the lower races, as, for instance, where the village deity is served by a priest drawn from the lower castes.
2. Give any current beliefs about sun worship. How and at what periodical feasts is the worship conducted and what form of ritual is adopted?
3. Give any customs of moving round temples or sacred objects in the course of the sun in the heavens: cases in which women after childbirth are exposed to the sun: conception believed to be caused by exposure to the rays of the sun: the use of the Swastika as an emblem.
4. Give any legends or customs connected with moon worship: the spots on the surface of the moon: the moon as a healer of disease: the custom of drinking the moon’s rays: any ceremonies at new or full moon.
5. Give any legends and rites connected with eclipses.
6. Similarly for star worship; superstitions connected with the rainbow; the milky way.
7. Rites connected with worship of the earth mother: sacred things not to fall on earth: occasions when people sleep on the earth.
8. Superstitions connected with thunder and lightning.
9. Popular belief regarding earthquakes.
10. Collect instances of and ritual for worship of sacred rivers; springs; waterfalls; water spirits and goblins: prejudice against saving drowning people: ceremonies at digging and dedication of wells: well water as a cure for disease: instances of sacred lakes: palaces under the water.
11. Instances of sacred mountains and legends connected with them: dread of climbing mountains.
12. Name any deities supposed to control the weather, and describe the modes of causing or averting rain, of checking storms and hail.
13. Give instances of any rites in which women alone take part or from which they are excluded: any rites in which the worshipper must be nude.
14. Are there any sacred stones which are believed to influence the rain?
15. Note any superstitions in connection with aerolites and meteors.
II. THE HEROIC GODLINGS.
16. Describe the ritual and any legends or superstitions connected with the worship of Hanumān, Bhīmsen, Bhīshma.
17. Name and describe the local deities most generally worshipped in your neighbourhood. What legends are connected with them; who are their priests; what offerings and on what occasions are offerings made to them?
18. How is the local deity of a new settlement selected and installed?
19. What local deity is considered responsible for crops and cattle? When and how is he worshipped?
20. Describe the worship of Bhairon or Bhairava, Ganesa, the Matris or Mothers, the deities of the jungle, those who assist parturition.
III. DISEASE DEITIES.
21. Describe the worship of any deities who are believed to have the power of averting or causing disease, such as cholera, small pox, fever, etc.
22. Is epidemic disease attributed to witchcraft, and, if so, what precautions are taken? Give particulars of observances in connection with cattle disease.
23. What methods are in vogue for the exorcism of disease? Give examples of any rural charms used for this purpose.
24. Is dancing used in exorcism? If so, give instances of religious dances.
25. What are the position and functions of the village sorcerer and how is he appointed?
26. Give examples of the offering of rags, coins, etc., at sacred trees, wells, etc.
27. Give any methods of transferring disease to another person.
28. Give instances of the use of scapegoats.
IV. THE WORSHIP OF ANCESTORS AND SAINTS.
29. Give instances of worship of ancestors: the belief that spirits are mortal and that the spirits of the dead are re-born in children.
30. Give instances of miracle-working tombs, and of saints who have been deified in modern times.
31. Give instances of Muhammadan saints whose worship has been adopted by Hindus.
32. Give the rural methods in vogue for the cure of barrenness.
V. THE WORSHIP OF THE MALEVOLENT DEAD.
33. What are the current beliefs as to the cause of dreams and the omens derived from them?
34. Is it considered possible for the soul to leave the body temporarily? If so, give instances.
35. What is the popular conception of the character and functions of the Bhut or disembodied soul?
36. What beliefs are current as to the state of the soul after death; the path to the other world: the condition of souls in the other world: the possibility of the soul returning thence?
37. What belief is current as to the souls of those dying by a sudden or violent death?
38. What are believed to be the appearance and habits of the Bhut?
39. In what way do spirits enter or leave the body?
40. What is the current theory regarding sneezing and yawning?
41. What is known of the Rakshasa or malevolent demon?
42. Name and describe any other varieties of malignant spirits.
43. Do any evil spirits go about headless?
44. What special evil spirits infest burial or cremation grounds, and what are the other haunts of such spirits?
45. Does any special class of evil spirit infest mountains, jungles, trees?
46. What fiends attack the young mother and her child?
47. What belief prevails as to the spirits of those killed by tigers or other wild beasts?
48. What form does the ghost of a woman dying at childbirth or during her menses assume?
49. Is there any belief that the father has to take special precautions at the birth of his child?
50. Is there any belief in a connection of the bat or owl with spirits of the dead?
51. Describe the evil spirits which haunt ruins and guard buried treasure: or occupy caves and mines.
VI. THE EVIL EYE AND THE SCARING OF GHOSTS.
52. Describe the belief in the Evil eye and the modes of evading it.
53. Does the belief in giving opprobrious names to children prevail, and if so, how is it accounted for?
54. Can you give instances of change of sex?
55. Illustrate the value of the following protection against evil spirits—iron and other metals: coral and shells: precious stones: blood: incense: spittle: salt: water: grain: colours: grasses: tattooing: leather: garlic: glass.
56. Describe the amulets generally used.
57. Illustrate the sacred circle as a protective.
58. Illustrate the belief in omens, numbers, lucky and unlucky days.
59. What means are adopted to help the spirit to the other world, to prevent it from returning and to secure its good-will to the survivors?
60. Illustrate the prevalence of earth burial and cremation: the customs of shaving the hair: placing food or other articles for the use of the dead.
61. Does the spirit reappear in the form of insects and animals?
62. Are the earthen vessels of the household broken at death: if so, why? Describe rites connected with mourning.
63. What spirits are benevolent?
64. Illustrate the belief in tree spirits.
65. What spirits are special protectors of crops and cattle?
66. What spirits are invoked to frighten children?
VII. TREE AND SERPENT WORSHIP.
67. Name any sacred groves in your neighbourhood and describe any prejudice against cutting trees.
68. Are any trees specially connected with any local deity or saint?
69. Name any trees which receive particular respect or devotion and note any legends or superstitions in connection with them.
70. Does the custom of marrying a bride or bridegroom to a tree prevail? Any instances of marriage to a god: religious prostitution.
71. Give instances of snake worship and shrines of serpent deities: of deified snake heroes.
72. Does the belief prevail that snakes guard treasure? Give details.
73. What snake festivals are observed? Describe the ritual.
74. What is the village treatment of snake-bite?
75. The snake has a jewel in his head: he is connected with the rainbow: he has a palace under the water: he weds mortal girls: he protects the household—illustrate these beliefs.
VIII. TOTEMISM AND FETISHISM.
76. Can you quote any beliefs which are suggestive of Totemism? Are any clans named after or do they claim descent from animals or plants? What animals are treated with special respect by particular tribes? Do special castes refuse to eat any special food?
77. Are any local deities specially associated with animal worship?
78. Illustrate the worship of stocks and stones. Is any respect shown to perforated stones?
79. Are there any modern survivals of human sacrifice?
80. Are fetish stones supposed to cure disease or to be the abode of spirits?
81. Are any fetishes peculiar to particular families or castes?
82. Is special respect shown to the corn sieve, the winnowing basket, the broom, the rice pounder, the plough?
83. Give instances of fire worship. Is the sacred fire maintained in any shrine? Is fire made by friction for special rites?
IX. ANIMAL WORSHIP.
84. Illustrate from local examples the worship or respect paid to the horse, ass, lion, tiger, dog, goat, cow, buffalo, antelope, elephant, cat, rat and mouse, squirrel, bear, jackal, hare, crow, fowl, dove and pigeon, swan, and other birds, alligators, fish and insects, and give any legend or superstition in connection with them.
X. WITCHCRAFT.
85. How far does the belief in witches and their powers prevail? Do they appear as animals and have they special haunts and seasons?
86. What ordeals are used to test a witch and what means to guard against her witchcraft?
XI. GENERAL.
87. Describe the rural ceremonies in connection with ploughing, sowing the various crops, reaping and harvesting.
88. Rites intended for the protection of cattle; to ensure sunshine and favourable weather: to scare noxious animals or insects: to protect special crops: illustrate these from local custom.
89. Are there any rites in which secrecy and silence are essential?
90. Describe the observances at the Holi.
91. Give details of any rites performed when boys or girls attain puberty.
TABLE OF CONTENTS.
CHAPTER I.
[Nature Powers.] Page.
Worship of minor local deities. Sun-worship. Circumambulation round images and other sacred objects. Exposure of women to the Sun after child-birth. The Swastika. Moon-worship. Eclipses. Worship of planets and stars. The rainbow. The milky way. Worship of the earth. Thunder and lightning. Earthquakes. Worship of sacred rivers, springs and pools. Water spirits and goblins. Ceremonies at digging of wells. Well water as a cure for disease. Sacred Lakes. Palaces under the water. Sacred mountains. Deities who control the weather. Methods of causing or averting rain and of checking storms. Vratas or religious vows practised only by women. Rites in which women are excluded. Rites in which the worshipper must be nude. Superstitions in connection with aerolites and meteors. 1
CHAPTER II.
The worship of Hanumān, Bhimsen and Bhishma. Local deities. Installation of deities in new settlements. Deities responsible for crops and cattle. The worship of Bhairow, Ganesh, Mātrikās or mothers, the deities of the jungle and the deities who preside over childbirth. 54
CHAPTER III.
Deities who can cause or avert diseases such as cholera, small pox, fever, etc. Causes of the outbreak of cholera. Remedies adopted to stop cholera. Causes of the outbreak of small pox. Remedies adopted for the cure of small pox. Causes of fever. Remedies adopted in cases of fever. Cattle diseases. Remedies practised by the village people in connection with them. The methods for the exorcism of disease. Methods of expelling evil spirits from the body. The village sorcerer. Offerings of rags, coins, etc. at sacred trees and wells. The transferring of disease from one person to another. Scapegoats. 74
CHAPTER IV.
[The worship of ancestors and saints.]
Shrāddhas and other ceremonies performed for the propitiation and emancipation of the deceased. Worship of the founders of religious sects, of saints, etc. Ghosts. The length of their life. Rebirth of ancestors in the same family. Miracle-working tombs. Muhammadan saints whose worship has been adopted by Hindus. Rural methods for the cure of barrenness. 89
CHAPTER V.
[The worship of the malevolent dead.]
Popular notions about dreams. Auspicious and inauspicious dreams. Temporary abandonment of the body by the soul. Character and functions of the bhut or disembodied soul. The state of the soul after death. The rebirth of the soul. The souls of persons dying a sudden or violent death. The ways by which ghosts enter and leave the body. Methods of driving away evil spirits from the body. Beliefs regarding sneezing and yawning. Rākshasa or the malevolent demon. Mahārākshasas. Other malignant spirits. Evil spirits which go about headless. The haunts of evil spirits. Ghosts of women dying an unnatural death. Spirits of persons killed by tigers and other wild beasts. Ghosts of women dying in child-bed or menses. Precautions taken by parents at the birth of children. Beliefs in connection with bats and owls. Spirits which haunt ruins, guard buried treasure and occupy valleys. 102
CHAPTER VI.
[The evil eye and the scaring of ghosts.]
Effects of the evil eye. Objects liable to be influenced by the evil eye. Precautions taken to evade the influence of the evil eye. Opprobrious names. Change of sex. Protection against evil spirits. Amulets. Charmed circles. Omens. Numbers. Lucky and unlucky days. Rites performed to help the soul to the other world. Cremation and burial. The customs of shaving the hair. Offerings of food to the dead. Manifestation of evil spirits in form. The practice of breaking earthen vessels at death. Rites connected with mourning. Benevolent spirits. Spirits which haunt trees. The guardian spirits of crops and cattle. Spirits invoked to frighten children. 120
CHAPTER VII.
Trees connected with deities and saints. Legends and superstitions connected with them. Marriage of brides and bridegrooms to trees. Snake worship. Shrines of snake deities. Deified snakes. Snakes guarding treasure. The village treatment of snake-bite. The jewel in the head of the snake. Its connection with the rainbow. Weddings of snakes with human beings. Guardian snakes. 136
CHAPTER VIII.
Names derived from animals. Names derived from plants. Clan names derived from trees and animals. Sacred animals. Deities associated with animal worship. Worship of stocks and stones. Survivals of human sacrifice. Disease-curing stones. Respect shown to corn sieves, corn pounders, the broom and the plough. Fire worship. 144
CHAPTER IX.
Sacred animals and the legends and superstitions connected with them. 150
CHAPTER X.
Human and ghost by Dākans or witches. 152
CHAPTER XI.
Rural ceremonies connected with agricultural operations. Rites performed for the protection of cattle. Rites performed for scaring noxious animals and insects. Rites performed for ensuring sunshine and favourable weather. Rites performed for the protection of crops. Rites in which secrecy and silence are observed. The observances at the Holi festival. Rites performed when girls attain puberty. 153
THE FOLKLORE OF GUJARAT
NATURE POWERS
CHAPTER I
Besides the higher-grade deities, whose worship is enjoined and treated of in the Shāstras and Purānas, numerous other minor deities, none of whom however find a place in the Scriptures, are worshipped by the lower classes. The principle underlying the whole fabric of the worship of these minor deities, who for the most part are the spirits of dead ancestors or heroes, has more in it of fear for their power of harming than of love for their divine nature. All untoward occurrences in domestic affairs, all bodily ailments and unusual natural phenomena, inexplicable to the simple mind of the villager, are attributed to the malignant action of these nameless and numerous spirits, hovering over and haunting the habitations of men.[1] The latent dread of receiving injuries from these evil spirits results in the worship by the low-class people of a number of devas and mātās, as they are called. The poor villager, surrounded on all sides by hosts of hovering spirits, ready to take offence, or even to possess him, on the smallest pretext, requires some tangible protector to save him from such malign influences.[1] He sets up and enshrines the spirit that he believes to have been beneficent to him, and so deserving of worship, and makes vows in its honour, often becoming himself the officiating priest. Each such deity has its own particular thānak (sthāna) or locality. Thus there is hardly a village which has not a particular deity of its own. But in addition to this deity, others in far off villages are generally held in high esteem.[1]
There are a number of ways in which these lower-class deities can be installed. Their images are made either of wood, stone, or metal.[2] No temples or shrines are erected in their honour.[3] An ordinary way of representing them is by drawing a trident, (trishūl, a weapon peculiar to god Shiva) in red-lead and oil on an upright slab of stone on a public road, on any dead wall, on the confines of a village, or a mountain side, or a hill top, in an underground cellar, or on the bank of a stream.[4] Some people paint tridents in their own houses. The trishūl, or trident, may also be made of wood, in which case its three points are plastered with red-lead and oil and covered with a thin coating of tin.[5] Sometimes carved wooden images in human shape, daubed over with red-lead and oil, are placed in a small wooden chariot or in a recess about a foot square. In some shrines two brooms or whisks of peacock’s feathers are placed on either side of the image.[6] A slight difficulty overcome or a disease remedied by a vow in honour of any of these deities offers the occasion for an installation, and in all future emergencies of the same kind similar vows are observed. A mātā installed to protect a fortress or a street is called a Gadheri Mātā, and the worshippers of a fortress, or street, mother are known as Pothias.[7] At the time of installation flags are hoisted near the dedicated places. A troop of dancers with jingling anklets recite holy verses, while the bhuva, exorcist-priest, performs the ceremonies. Generally installations are frequent during the Navarātra[8] holidays when, if no human-shaped image is set up, a trishūl at least is drawn in red-lead and oil.[9] Some of these evil deities require, at the time of their installation, the balidān (sacrifice or oblation) of a goat or a he-buffalo. Also, when a spirit is to be exorcised, the symbol of the familiar spirit of the exorcist is set up and invoked by him.[9] After the installation, no systematic form of worship is followed in connection with them.[10] Regular forms are prescribed for the real gods of the Purānas. But upon these the low-caste people are not authorised to attend.
Still, in practice there are two forms of worship: ordinary or sāmānya-pūjā and special or vishesha-pūjā.[11] Ordinary worship is performed by bathing the deity—which can be done by sprinkling a few drops of water over it—burning a ghi, or an oil, lamp before it, and by offering a cocoanut and a pice or a half-anna piece. The last is taken away by the bhuva, or priest, who returns generally half or three-quarters of the cocoanut as a prasād of the god.
There are no particular days prescribed for such worship, but Sundays and Tuesdays would seem to be the most favoured.[12] On such days, offerings are made for the fulfilment of a vow recorded in order to avoid a bādhā, or impending evil. In the observance of this vow the devotee abstains from certain things, such as ghi, butter, milk, rice, juvar, betelnut till the period of the vow expires. When a vow is thus discharged, the devotee offers flowers, garlands, incense, food or drink according to the terms of his vow.[12] The dhūpa, i.e., burning incense of gūgal (balsamodendron) is one of the commonest methods of worship.
The days for special worship are the Navarātra holidays, the second day of the bright half of Āshādh, the ninth month of the Hindu Calendar,[13] Divāsā[14] or the fifteenth day of the dark half of Āshādh, and Kālī-chaudas[15] or the fourteenth day of the dark half of Āshvin, the last month; besides other extraordinary occasions when a spirit has to be exorcised out of a sick person.
The Navarātra days are said to be the most auspicious days for devī-worship. People believing in the power of the mātās observe fast on these days. Most of them at least fast on the eighth day of the Navarātra known as Mātā-ashtamī, taking only a light meal which consists of roots, as a rule, especially the suran (Amorphophallus campanulatus), and of dates and milk.[16] On the Navarātra days red-lead and oil are applied to the images of the devis, and a number of oblations, such as loaves, cooked rice, lāpsi[17], vadān[18] and bāklā[19] are offered.[20] The utmost ceremonial cleanliness is observed in the preparation of these viands. The corn is sifted, cleaned, ground or pounded, cooked, treated with frankincense, offered to the gods and lastly partaken of before sunset, and all these operations must be performed on the same day; for the offerings must not see lamp-light.[21] Girls are not allowed to partake of these offerings. All ceremonies should be conducted with much earnestness and reverence; otherwise the offerings will fail to prove acceptable to the mātās or devis.[21]
On Mātā-ashtamī and Kālī-chaudas devotees sometimes offer rams, goats or buffaloes as victims to the devis or devas in addition to the usual offerings of lāpsi, vadān and bāklā.[21] The night of Kālī-chaudas is believed to be so favourable for the efficacious recitation (sādhana) of certain mantras, mysterious incantations possessing sway over spirits, that bhuvas (exorcists) leave the village and sit up performing certain rites in cemeteries, on burning-ghats, and in other equally suitable places where spirits are supposed to congregate.[22]
On Divāsā, the last day of Āshādh, the ninth month, low-caste people bathe their gods with water and milk, besmear them with red-lead and oil, and make offerings of cocoanuts, lāpsi, bāklā of adād (Phaseoleus radiatus) or kansār[23]. Particular offerings are believed to be favoured by particular deities: for instance, khichdo (rice and pulse boiled together) and oil, or tavo (flat unleavened loaves) are favoured by the goddess Meldi, boiled rice by Shikotar and lāpsi by the goddess Gātrād.[24]
On these holidays, as well as on the second day of the bright half of Āshādh the devotees hoist flags in honour of the spirits, and play on certain musical instruments producing discordant sounds. Meanwhile bhuvas, believed to be interpreters of the wills of evil spirits, undergo self-torture, with the firm conviction that the spirits have entered their persons. Sometimes they lash themselves with iron chains or cotton braided scourges.[25] At times a bhuva places a pan-full of sweet oil over a fire till it boils. He then fries cakes in it, and takes them out with his unprotected hands, sprinkling the boiling oil over his hair. He further dips thick cotton wicks into the oil, lights them and puts them into his mouth and throws red-hot bullets into his mouth, seemingly without any injury.[26] This process secures the confidence of the sevakas or followers, and is very often used by bhuvas when exorcising spirits from persons whose confidence the bhuvas wish to gain. A bowl-full of water is then passed round the head of the ailing person (or animal) to be charmed, and the contents are swallowed by the exorcist to show that he has swallowed in the water all the ills the flesh of the patient is heir to.[26]
In the cure of certain diseases by exorcising the process known as utār is sometimes gone through. An utār is a sacrificial offering of the nature of a scapegoat, and consists of a black earthen vessel, open and broad at the top, and containing lāpsi, vadān, bāklā, a yard of atlas (dark-red silk fabric), one rupee and four annas in cash, pieces of charcoal, red-lead, sorro (or surmo-lead ore used as eye-powder), an iron-nail and three cocoanuts.[26] Very often a trident is drawn in red-lead and oil on the outer sides of the black earthen vessel.[27] The bhuva carries the utār in his hands with a drawn sword in a procession, to the noise of the jingling of the anklets of his companions, the beating of drums and the rattling of cymbals. After placing the utār in the cemetery the procession returns with tumultuous shouts of joy and much jingling of anklets.[28]
Sometimes bhuvas are summoned for two or three nights preceding the day of the utār ceremony, and a ceremony known as Dānklān-beswān or the installation of the dānklā[29] is performed. (A dānklā[30] is a special spirit instrument in the shape of a small kettle-drum producing, when beaten by a stick, a most discordant, and, by long association, a melancholy, gruesome and ghastly sound—K. B. Fazlullah).
Many sects have special deities of their own, attended upon by a bhuva of the same order.[31] The bhuva holds a high position in the society of his caste-fellows. He believes himself to be possessed by the devi or mātā whose attendant he is, and declares, while possessed by her, the will of the mātā, replying for her to such questions as may be put to him.[32] The devis are supposed to appear in specially favoured bhuvas and to endow them with prophetic powers.[33]
The following is a list of some of the inferior local deities of Gujarat and Kathiawar:—
(1) Suro-pūro.—This is generally the spirit of some brave ancestor who died a heroic death, and is worshipped by his descendants as a family-god at his birthplace as well as at the scene of his death, where a pillar (pālio) is erected to his memory.[34]
(2) Vachhro, otherwise known by the name of Dādā (sire).—This is said to have been a Rajput, killed in rescuing the cowherds of some Chārans, who invoked his aid, from a party of free-booters.[35] He is considered to be the family-god of the Ahirs of Solanki descent, and is the sole village-deity in Okha and Baradi Districts.[36] Other places dedicated to this god are Padānā, Aniālā, Taluka Mengani,[37] Khajurdi, Khirasarā and Anida.[38] He is represented by a stone horse, and Chārans perform priestly duties in front of him.[39] Submission to, and vows in honour of, this god, are believed to cure rabid-dog-bites.[40]
(3) Sarmālio commands worship in Gondal, Khokhāri and many other places. Newly-married couples of many castes loosen the knots tied in their marriage-scarves as a mark of respect for him.[41] Persons bitten by a snake wear round their necks a piece of thread dedicated to this god.[40]
(4) Shitalā is a goddess known for the cure of small-pox.—Persons attacked by this disease observe vows in her honour. Kālāvad and Syādlā are places dedicated to her.[40]
(5) Ganāgor.—Virgins who are anxious to secure suitable husbands and comfortable establishments worship this goddess and observe vows in her honour.[40]
(6) Todāliā.—She has neither an idol nor a temple set up in her honour, but is represented by a heap of stones lying on the village boundary—Pādal or Jāmpā. All marriage processions, before entering the village (Sānkā) or passing by the heap, pay homage to this deity and offer a cocoanut, failure to do which is believed to arouse her wrath. She does not command daily adoration, but on occasions the attendant, who is a Chumvāliā Koli, and who appropriates all the presents to this deity, burns frankincense of gugal (balsamodendron) and lights a lamp before her.[42]
(7) Buttāya also is represented by a heap of stones on a hillock in the vicinity of Sānkā. Her worshipper is a Talabdia Koli. A long season of drought leads to her propitiation by feasting Brāhmans, for which purpose four pounds of corn are taken in her name from each threshing floor in the village.[42]
(8) Surdhan.—This seems to have been some brave Kshatriya warrior who died on a battlefield. A temple is erected to his memory, containing an image of Shiva. The attending priest is an Atit.[42]
(9) Ghogho.—This is a cobra-god worshipped in the village of Bikhijada having a Bajana (tumbler) for his attending priest.[42]
(10) Pir.—This is a Musalman saint, in whose honour no tomb is erected, the special site alone being worshipped by a devotee.[42]
(11) Raneki is represented by a heap of stones, and is attended upon by chamārs (tanners). Her favourite resort is near the Dhedvādā (i.e., a quarter inhabited by sweepers). A childless Girasia is said to have observed a vow in her honour for a son, and a son being born to him, he dedicated certain lands to her; but they are no longer in the possession of the attendants.[43]
(12) Hanuman.—On a mound of earth there is an old worn-out image of this god. People sometimes light a lamp there, offer cocoanuts and plaster the image with red-lead and oil. A sādhu of the Māragi sect, a Koli by birth, acts as pujari.[43]
(13) Shaktā (or shakti).—This is a Girasia goddess attended upon by a Chumvāliā Koli. On the Navarātra days, as well as on the following day, Girasias worship this goddess, and if necessary observe vows in her name.[43]
(14) Harsidh.—Gāndhavi in Bardā and Ujjain are the places dedicated to this goddess. There is a tradition connected with her that her image stood in a place of worship facing the sea on Mount Koyalo in Gandhavi. She was believed to sink or swallow all the vessels that sailed by. A Bania named Jagadusā, knowing this, propitiated her by the performance of religious austerities. On being asked what boon he wanted from her, he requested her to descend from her mountain-seat. She agreed on the Bania promising to offer a living victim for every footstep she took in descending. Thus he sacrificed one victim after another until the number of victims he had brought was exhausted. He then first offered his four or five children, then his wife and lastly himself. In reward for his self-devotion the goddess faced towards Miani and no mishaps are believed to take place in the village.[44]
(15) Hinglaj.—This goddess has a place of worship a hundred and fifty miles from Karachi in Sind, to which her devotees and believers make pilgrimage.[44]
In the village of Jāsdān, in Kathiawar, there is an ancient shrine of Kālu-Pīr in whose memory there are two sepulchres covered with costly fabrics, and a large flag floats over the building. Both Hindus and Musalmans believe[45] in this saint, and offer cocoanuts, sweetmeats and money to his soul. A part of the offering being passed through the smoke of frankincense, burning in a brazier near the saint’s grave in the shrine, the rest is returned to the offerer. Every morning and evening a big kettle-drum is beaten in the Pīr’s honour.[46]
Other minor deities are Shikotār, believed by sailors to be able to protect them from the dangers of the deep;[47] Charmathvati, the goddess of the Rabarīs;[48] Macho, the god of the shepherds;[48] Meldi, in whom Vaghries (bird-catchers) believe;[49] Pithād, the favourite god of Dheds;[50] Dhavdi, who is worshipped by a hajām (barber);[51] Khodiar;[52] Géla,[52] Dādamo,[52] Kshetrapāl,[52] Chāvad,[53] Mongal,[53] Avad,[53] Pālan,[53] Vir Vaital,[54] Jālio,[54] Gadio,[54] Paino,[54] Parolio,[54] Sevalio,[54] Andhario,[54] Fulio,[54] Bhoravo,[54] Ragantio,[54] Chod,[55] Gātrad,[55] Mammai and Verai.[56] There are frequent additions to the number, as any new disease or unusual and untoward incident may bring a new spirit into existence. The installation of such deities is not a costly concern,[57] and thus there is no serious check on their recognition.
The sun, the beneficent night-dispelling, light-bestowing great luminary, is believed to be the visible manifestation of the Almighty God,[58] and inspires the human mind with a feeling of grateful reverence which finds expression in titles like Savitā, Life-Producer, the nourisher and generator of all life and activity[59].
He is the chief rain-sender[60]; there is a couplet used in Gujarat illustrative of this belief. It runs:—“Oblations are cast into the Fire: the smoke carries the prayers to the sun; the Divine Luminary, propitiated, responds in sending down gentle showers.” “The sacred smoke, rising from the sacrificial offerings, ascends through the ethereal regions to the Sun. He transforms it into the rain-giving clouds, the rains produce food, and food produces the powers of generation and multiplication and plenty. Thus, the sun, as the propagator of animal life, is believed to be the highest deity.[60]”
It is pretty generally believed that vows in honour of the sun are highly efficacious in curing eye-diseases and strengthening the eyesight. Mr. Damodar Karsonji Pandya quotes from the Bhagvadgītā the saying of Krishna:
प्रभास्मि शशिसूर्ययोः
“I am the very light of the sun and the moon.[61]” Being the embodiment or the fountain of light, the sun imparts his lustre either to the bodies or to the eyes of his devotees. It is said that a Rajput woman of Gomātā in Gondal and a Brahman of Rajkot were cured of white leprosy by vows in honour of the sun.[62] Similar vows are made to this day for the cure of the same disease. Persons in Kathiawar suffering from ophthalmic disorders, venereal affections, leucoderma and white leprosy are known to observe vows in honour of the sun.[63]
The Parmār Rajputs believe in the efficacy of vows in honour of the sun deity of Māndavrāj, in curing hydrophobia.[64]
Women believe that a vow or a vrat made to the sun is the sure means of attaining their desires. Chiefly their vows are made with the object of securing a son. On the fulfilment of this desire, in gratitude to the Great Luminary, the child is often called after him, and given such a name as Suraj-Rām, Bhānu-Shankar, Ravi-Shankar, Adit-Rām.[65]
Many cradles are received as presents at the temple of Māndavrāj, indicating that the barren women who had made vows to the deity have been satisfied in their desire for a son, the vows being fulfilled by the present of such toy-cradles to the sun. In the case of rich donors, these cradles are made of precious metal.[66]
At Mandvara, in the Muli District of Kathiawar, the Parmār Rajputs, as well as the Kāthis, bow to the image of the sun, on their marriage-day, in company with their newly-married brides.[66] After the birth of a son to a Rajputani, the hair on the boy’s head is shaved for the first time in the presence of the Māndavrāj deity,[67] and a suit of rich clothes is presented to the image by the maternal uncle of the child.[68]
The sun is सर्वसाक्षी the observer of all things and nothing can escape his notice.[69] His eye is believed to possess the lustre of the three Vedic lores, viz., Rigveda, Yajurveda and Sāmaveda, and is therefore known by the name of वेदत्रयी. The attestation of a document in his name as Sūrya-Nārāyana-Sākshi is believed to be ample security for the sincerity and good faith of the parties.[70] Oaths in the name of the sun are considered so binding that persons swearing in his name are held to be pledged to the strictest truth.[71]
Virgin girls observe a vrat, or vow, called the ‘tili-vrat’ in the sun’s honour, for attaining अखंड सौभाग्य—eternal exemption from widowhood. In making this vrat, or vow, the votary, having bathed and worshipped the sun, sprinkles wet red-lac drops before him.[72]
According to Forbes’s Rāsmālā, the sun revealed to the Kāthis the plan of regaining their lost kingdom, and thus commanded their devout worship and reverence. The temple named Suraj-deval, near Thān, was set up by the Kāthis in recognition of this favour. In it both the visible resplendent disc of the sun and his image are adored.[73]
People whose horoscopes declare them to have been born under the Sūrya-dashā, or solar influence, have from time to time to observe vows prescribed by Hindu astrology.[74]
Cultivators are said to observe vows in honour of the sun for the safety of their cattle.[75]
The following are some of the standard books on sun-worship:—
(1) Aditya-hridaya—literally, the Heart of the Sun. It treats of the glory of the sun and the mode of worshipping him.
(2) Brihadāranyakopanishad and Mandula-Brahmans—portions of Yajurveda recited by Vedic Brahmans with a view to tender symbolic as well as mental prayers to the sun.
(3) Bibhrād—the fourth chapter of the Rudri.
(4) A passage in Brāhman—a portion of the Vedas, beginning with the words स्वयंभूरसि Thou art self-existent—is entirely devoted to Sun-worship.[76]
(5) Sūrya-Purāna—A treatise relating a number of stories in glorification of the sun.
(6) Sūrya-kavacha.[77]
(7) Sūrya-gīta.
(8) Sūrya-Sahasranama—a list of one thousand names of Sūrya.[78]
It is customary among Hindus to cleanse their teeth every morning with a wooden stick, known as dātan[79] and then to offer salutations to the sun in the form of a verse which means: “Oh God, the dātans are torn asunder and the sins disappear. Oh the penetrator of the innermost parts, forgive us our sins. Do good unto the benevolent and unto our neighbours.” This prayer is common in the mouths of the vulgar laity.[80]
Better educated people recite a shloka, which runs: “Bow unto Savitri, the sun, the observer of this world and its quarters, the eye of the universe, the inspirer of all energy, the holder of a three-fold personality (being an embodiment of the forms of the three gods of the Hindu Trinity, Brahma, Vishnu and Maheshvar)—the embodiment of the three Vedas, the giver of happiness and the abode of God.[81]
After his toilet a high-caste Hindu should take a bath and offer morning prayers and arghyas to the sun.[82] The Trikāla-Sandhyā is enjoined by the Shāstras on every Brahman, i.e., every Brahman should perform the Sandhyā thrice during the day: in the morning, at mid-day and in the evening. The Sandhyā is the prayer a Brahman offers, sitting in divine meditation, when he offers three arghyas to the sun and recites the Gāyatrī mantra 108 times.[83]
The arghya is an offering of water in a spoon half filled with barley seeds, sesamum seeds, sandal ointment, rice, and white flowers. In offering the arghya the right foot is folded below the left, the spoon is lifted to the forehead and is emptied towards the sun after reciting the Gāyatrī mantra.[84] If water is not available for offering the arghyas, sand may serve the purpose. But the sun must not be deprived of his arghyas.[85]
The Gāyatrī is the most sacred mantra in honour of the sun, containing, as it does, the highest laudations of him.[85] A Brahman ought to recite this mantra 324 times every day. Otherwise he incurs a sin as great as the slaughter of a cow.[86] Accordingly a Rudrākshmālā, or a rosary of 108 Rudrāksh beads, is used in connecting the number of Gāyatrīs recited.[87] It is exclusively the right of the twice-born to recite the Gāyatrī. None else is authorised to recite or even to hear a word of it. Neither females nor Shūdras ought to catch an echo of even a single syllable of the Gāyatrī mantra[88].
A ceremony, called Sūryopasthān, in which a man has to stand facing the sun with his hands stretched upwards at an angle towards the sun, is performed as a part of the sandhyā.[89]
Of the days of the week, Ravivar, or Sunday is the most suitable for Sun worship[90]. Persons wishing to secure wealth, good-health and a happy progeny, especially people suffering from disorders caused by heat and from diseases of the eyes, barren women, and men anxious for victory on the battlefield, weekly observe vows in honour of the sun, and the day on which the vow is to be kept is Sunday.[91] It is left to the devotee to fix the number of Sundays on which he will observe the vrat, and he may choose to observe all the Sundays of the year.[92] On such days the devotees undergo ceremonial purifications by means of baths and the putting on of clean garments, occupy a reserved clean seat, light a ghi-lamp and recite the Aditya-hridaya-pātha, which is the prescribed mantra for Sun worship.[93] Then follows the Nyāsa, (न्यास) in the recitation of which the devotee has to make certain gestures (or to perform physical ceremonials). First the tips of all the four fingers are made to touch the thumb as is done in counting. Then the tips of the fingers are made to touch the palm of the other hand. Then one hand is laid over the other. Then the fingers are made to touch the heart, the head, the eyes, and the hair in regular order. The right hand is then put round the head and made to smite the left.[93] An ashtadala or eight-cornered figure is drawn in gulal, (red powder) and frankincense, red ointment and red flowers are offered to the sun.[94] Durvā grass is also commonly used in the process of Sun-worship.[95]
Sometimes a hexangular figure is drawn instead of the ashtadal, a copper disc is placed over it and the sun is worshipped by Panchopachar or the five-fold ceremonials.[96] Of all ceremonials a namaskār is especially dear to the sun.[97] It is said:—
नमस्कारप्रियो भानुर्जलधाराप्रियः शिवः ।
परोपकारप्रियो विष्णुर्ब्राह्मणो भोजनप्रियः ॥
A namaskār or bow is dear to the sun; a stream of water (pouring water in a small stream over Shiva’s idol) is dear to Shiva: benevolence to Vishnu and a good dinner to a Brahman.[97]
In observing vows in the sun’s honour on Sundays, the following special foods are prescribed in particular months:[98]—
(1) In Kārtika, the first month, the devotee is to take only three leaves of the Tulsi or the holy basil plant.
(2) In Mārgashīrsha, the devotee may only lick a few pieces of candied sugar.
(3) In Pausha, the devotee may chew three stalks of green darbha grass.
(4) In Māgha, a few seeds of sesamum and sugar mixed together may be swallowed.
(5) In Phālguna, a consecrated draught of curds and sugar may be drunk.
(6) In Chaitra, people should break their fasts with a little ghi and molasses.
(7) In Vaishākha, the only satisfaction allowed to those observing the vrat is to lick their own palms three times.
(8) In Jyeshtha, the fast is observed simply on three anjalis or palmfuls of pure water.
(9) In Ashādha, three chillies may be eaten.
(10) In Shrāvana, only cow-urine and molasses are tasted.
(11) In Bhādrapada, cow-dung and sugar are partaken of.
(12) In Āshvina, the application of chandan (sandal wood) either in the form of an ointment or of powder.
Only a few very pious and enthusiastic devotees observe all Sundays in the above manner. In average cases, the devotee allows himself rice, ghi, sugar, milk, i.e., white food, the restriction being only as to colour.[98]
People observing vows in honour of the sun take food only once during the day, and that too in bājas or dishes made of khākhara (or palāsh) leaves. This is considered one of the conditions of worship, there being some mysterious relation between Sūrya and the khākhara.[99]
If the Pushya Nakshatra happens to fall on a Sunday, the worship of the sun on that day is believed to be most efficacious in fulfilling the desires of the devotees.[100]
Of the days of the month, the seventh day of both the bright and the dark halves of each month[101] and the Amāvāsyā day, i.e., the last day of a Hindu calendar month,[102] are set apart for Sun-worship. The ceremonies of the worship are the same as those on Sundays. In fact, in almost all the observances in connection with the sun the same ceremonials are to be gone through. Very often a Brahman recites the pātha directing his hosts or hostesses to perform certain ceremonial gestures. On the last of the number of days which the devotee has decided to observe, the vrat is celebrated and Brahmans are feasted. This celebration of the vrat is known as vratujavavun.[103]
The special occasions for Sun-worship are the Sankrānti days and the solar eclipses.
In each year there are twelve Sankrānti days on which the sun moves from one sign of the zodiac to another. Sun-worship is performed on all these Sankrāntis, but Makara-Sankrānti, which falls on the 12th or 13th of January, is considered the most important.[104] The Uttarāyana-parvan falls on this day, i.e., the sun now crosses to his northern course from his southern, and the time of that Parvan is considered so holy that a person dying then directly attains salvation.[105] On this day, many Hindus go on a pilgrimage to holy places, offer prayers and sacrifices to the sun, and give alms to Brahmans in the shape of sesamum seeds, gold, garments and cows.[106] Much secret, as well as open, charity is dispensed,[107] grass and cotton-seeds are given to cows, and lāpsi[108] and loaves to dogs.[107] Sweet balls of sesamum seeds and molasses are eaten as a prasād and given to Brahmans, and dainties such as lāpsi are partaken of by Hindu households, in company with a Brahman or two, who are given dakshinā after the meals.[109]
On solar eclipse days, most of the Hindu sects bathe and offer prayers to God. During the eclipse the sun is believed to be combating with the demon Rāhu, prayers being offered for the sun’s success. When the sun has freed himself from the grasp of the demon and sheds his full lustre on the earth, the people take ceremonial baths, offer prayers to God with a concentrated mind, and well-to-do people give in alms as much as they can afford of all kinds of grain.[110]
The Chāturmās-vrat, very common in Kathiawar, is a favourite one with Hindus. The devotee, in performing this vrat, abstains from food on those days during the monsoons on which, owing to cloudy weather, the sun is not visible. Even if the sun is concealed by the clouds for days together, the devout votary keeps fasting till he sees the deity again.[111]
Barren women, women whose children die, and especially those who lose their male children, women whose husbands suffer from diseases caused by heat, lepers, and persons suffering from ophthalmic ailments observe the vow of the sun in the following manner.[112] The vows are kept on Sundays and Amāvāsyā days, and the number of such days is determined by the devotee in accordance with the behests of a learned Brahman. The woman observes a fast on such days, bathes herself at noon when the sun reaches the zenith, and dresses herself in clean garments. Facing the sun, she dips twelve red karan flowers in red or white sandal ointment and recites the twelve names of Sūrya as she presents one flower after another to the sun with a bow.[113] On each day of the vrat, she takes food only once, in the shape of lāpsi, in bajas of khākharā or palāsh leaves; white food in the form of rice, or rice cooked in milk is sometimes allowed. She keeps a ghi-lamp burning day and night, offers frankincense, and sleeps at night on a bed made on the floor.[114]
People who are declared by the Brahmans to be under the evil influence (dashā) of Sūrya, observe vows in the sun’s honour and go through the prescribed rites on Sundays. Such persons take special kinds of food and engage the services of priests to recite holy texts in honour of the sun. If all goes well on Sunday, Brahmans, Sādhus and other pious persons are entertained at a feast. This feast is known as vrat-ujavavun. Some persons have the sun’s image (an ashtadal) engraved on a copper or a golden plate for daily or weekly worship.[115]
On the twelfth day after the delivery of a child, the sun is worshipped and the homa sacrifice is performed.[116]
If at a wedding the sun happens to be in an unfavourable position according to the bridegroom’s horoscope, an image of the sun is drawn on gold-leaf and given away in charity. Charity in any other form is also common on such an occasion.[116]
A Nāgar bride performs sun-worship for the seven days preceding her wedding.[117]
In Hindu funeral ceremonies three arghyas are offered to the sun, and the following mantra is chanted[118]:—
आदित्यो भास्करो भानू रविः सूर्यो दिवाकरः ।
षण्नाम स्मरेन्नित्यं महापातकनाशानम् ॥
It means—one should ever recite the six names of the Sun, Aditya, Bhāskar, Bhānu, Ravi, Surya, Divākar, which destroy sin.
The sun is also worshipped on the thirteenth day after the death of a person, when arghyas are offered, and two earthen pots, containing a handful of raw khichedi—rice and pulse—and covered with yellow pieces of cotton are placed outside the house. This ceremony is called gadāso bharvo.[118]
Rajahs of the solar race always worship the rising sun. They also keep a golden image of the sun in their palaces, and engage learned Brahmans to recite verses in his honour. On Sundays they take only one meal and that of simple rice (for white food is most acceptable to the sun).[119]
Circumambulations round images and other holy objects are considered meritorious and to cause the destruction of sin.[120] The subject has been dwelt on at length in the Dharma-sindhu-grantha, Vratarāja, and Shodashopachāra among the Dharma-Shāstras of the Hindus.[121]
The object round which turns are taken is either the image of a god, such as of Ganpati, Mahādev or Vishnu[122] or the portrait of a guru, or his footmarks engraved or impressed upon some substance, or the agni-kunda (the fire-pit),[123] or the holy cow[124], or some sacred tree or plant, such as the Vad (banyan tree), the Pipal (ficus religiosa),[125] the Shami (prosopis spicegera), the Amba (mango tree), the Asopalava tree (Polyalthea longifolia),[126] or the Tulsi (sweet basil) plant.
It is said to have been a custom of the Brahmans in ancient times to complete their daily rites before sunrise every morning, and then to take turns round temples and holy objects. The practice is much less common now than formerly.[127] Still, visitors to a temple or an idol, usually are careful to go round it a few times at least (generally five or seven). The usual procedure at such a time is to strike gongs or ring bells after the turns, to cast a glance at the shikhar or the pinnacle of the temple, and then to return.[128]
Women observing the chāturmās-vrat, or the monsoon vow, lasting from the eleventh day of the bright half of Ashādh (the ninth month) to the eleventh day of the bright half of Kārtik (the first month) first worship the object, round which they wish to take turns, with panchāmrit (a mixture of milk, curds, sugar, ghi and honey). The number of turns may be either 5, 7, 21 or 108. At each turn they keep entwining a fine cotton thread and place a pendā[129] or a bantāsā[130] or a betel-leaf or an almond, a cocoanut, a fig or some other fruit before the image or the object walked round. These offerings are claimed by the priest who superintends the ceremony.[131] When a sacred tree is circumambulated, water is poured out at the foot of the tree at each turn.[132]
During the month of Shrāvan (the tenth month) and during the Purushottama (or the intercalatory) month, men and women observe a number of vows, in respect of which, every morning and evening, they take turns round holy images and objects.[133]
People observing the chāturmās-vrat (or monsoon vow), called Tulsi-vivāha (marriage of Tulsi), worship that plant and take turns round it on every eleventh day of both the bright and the dark halves of each of the monsoon months.[133] The gautrat-vrat (gau = cow) necessitates perambulations round a cow, and the Vat-Sāvitri-vrat round the Vad or banyan tree. The banyan tree is also circumambulated on the Kapilashashthi day (the sixth day of the bright half of Mārgashīrsha, the second month) and on the Amāvāsyā or the last day of Bhādrapada (the eleventh month).[134]
Women who are anxious to prolong the lives of their husbands take turns round the Tulsi plant or the banyan tree. At each turn they wind a fine cotton thread. At the end of the last turn, they throw red lac and rice over the tree and place a betelnut and a pice or a half-anna piece before it.[135]
The Shāstras authorise four pradakshinās (or perambulations) for Vishnu, three for the goddesses, and a half (or one and a half)[136] for Shiva.[137] But the usual number of pradakshinās is either 5, 7, 21 or 108. In taking turns round the image of Vishnu, one must take care to keep one’s right side towards the image, while in the case of Shiva, one must not cross the jalādhari[138] or the small passage for conducting water poured over the Shiva-linga.[137]
Sometimes in pradakshinās the votary repeats the name of the deity round which the turns are taken while the priest recites the names of the gods in Shlokas.[139] Sometimes the following verse is repeated.[140]
पापोऽहं पापकर्माऽहं पापात्मा पापसंभवः ।
त्राहि मां पुण्डरीकाक्ष सर्वपापहरो भव ॥
यानि कानि च पापानि जन्मांतरकृतानि च ।
तानि तानि विनश्यन्तु प्रदक्षिणपदेपदे ॥
‘I am sinful, the doer of sin, a sinful soul and am born of sin. O lotus-eyed One! protect me and take away all sins from me. Whatever sins I may have committed now as well as in my former births, may every one of them perish at each footstep of my pradakshinā.’
The recitation and the turns are supposed to free the soul from the pherā of lakh-choryasi[141]. Alms are given many times to the poor after pradakshinās.[142]
The reason why pradakshinās are taken during the day is that they have to be taken in the presence of the sun, the great everlasting witness of all human actions.[143]
As all seeds and vegetation receive their nourishment from solar and lunar rays, the latter are believed in the same way to help embryonic development.[144]
The heat of the sun causes the trees and plants to give forth new sprouts, and therefore he is called ‘Savita’ or Producer.[145] Solar and lunar rays are also believed to facilitate and expedite delivery.[146] The medical science of the Hindus declares the Amāvāsya (new-moon day) and Pūrnima (full-moon day) days—on both of which days the influence of the sun and the moon is most powerful—to be so critical for child-bearing women as to cause, at times, premature delivery.[147] Hence, before delivery, women are made to take turns in the sunlight and also in moonlight, in order to invigorate the fœtus, thus securing that their delivery may be easy. [The assistance rendered by solar rays in facilitating the delivery is said to impart a hot temperament to the child so born, and that by the lunar rays a cool one.][148] After delivery, a woman should glance at the sun with her hands clasped, and should offer rice and red flowers to him.[149] Sitting in the sun after delivery is considered beneficial to women enfeebled by the effort.[150] It is a cure for the paleness due to exhaustion,[151] and infuses new vigour.[152]
The Bhils believe that the exposure of a new-born child to the sun confers upon the child immunity from injury by cold and heat.[153]
The practice of making recently delivered women sit in the sun does not seem to be widespread, nor does it prevail in Kathiawar. In Kathiawar, on the contrary, women are kept secluded from sunlight in a dark room at the time of child-birth, and are warmed by artificial means.[154] On the other hand, it is customary in many places to bring a woman into the sunlight after a certain period has elapsed since her delivery. The duration of this period varies from four days to a month and a quarter. Sometimes a woman is not allowed to see sunlight after child-birth until she presents the child to the sun with certain ceremonies, either on the fourth or the sixth day from the date of her delivery.[155]
A ceremony called the Shashthi-Karma is performed on the sixth day after the birth of a child, and the Nāmkaran ceremony—the ceremony of giving a name—on the twelfth day. The mother of the child is sometimes not allowed to see the sun before the completion of these ceremonies.[156] Occasionally, on the eleventh day after child-birth, the mother is made to take a bath in the sun.[157]
Exactly a month and a quarter from the date of delivery a woman is taken to a neighbouring stream to offer prayers to the sun and to fetch water thence in an earthen vessel. This ceremony is known as Zarmāzaryan.[158] Seven small betel-nuts are used in the ceremony. They are carried by the mother, and distributed by her to barren women, who believe that, by eating the nuts from her hand, they are likely to conceive.[159]
In difficult labour cases, chakrāvā water is sometimes given to women. The chakrāvā is a figure of seven cross lines drawn on a bell-metal dish, over which the finest white dust has been spread. This figure is shown to the woman in labour: water is then poured into the dish and offered her to drink.[160] The figure is said to be a representation of Chitrangad.[161] It is also believed to be connected with a story in the Mahābhāarata.[162] Subhadrā, the sister of god Krishna and the wife of Arjuna, one of the five Pāndavas, conceived a demon, an enemy of Krishna. The demon would not leave the womb of Subhadrā even twelve months after the date of her conception, and began to harass the mother. Krishna, the incarnation of god, knowing of the demon’s presence and the cause of his delay, took pity on the afflicted condition of his sister and read chakrāvā, (Chakravyūha) a book consisting of seven chapters and explaining the method of conquering a labyrinthine fort with seven cross-lined forts. Krishna completed six chapters, and promised to teach the demon the seventh, provided he came out. The demon ceased troubling Subhadrā and emerged from the womb. He was called Abhimanyu. Krishna never read the seventh chapter for then Abhimanyu would have been invincible and able to take his life. This ignorance of the seventh chapter cost Abhimanyu his life on the field of Kuru-kshetra in conquering the seven cross-lined labyrinthine forts. As the art of conquering a labyrinthine fort when taught to a demon in the womb facilitated the delivery of Subhadrā, a belief spread that drinking in the figure of the seven cross-lined labyrinthine fort would facilitate the delivery of all women who had difficulties in child-birth.[162]
