Transcriber's Note:
Obvious typographic errors have been corrected.

View of Callao, and distant view of Lima.
Engraved for Stevenson's Narrative of South America.

A

HISTORICAL

AND

DESCRIPTIVE NARRATIVE

OF

TWENTY YEARS' RESIDENCE
IN
SOUTH AMERICA,

IN THREE VOLUMES;

CONTAINING TRAVELS IN ARAUCO, CHILE, PERU, AND COLOMBIA;
WITH AN ACCOUNT OF
THE REVOLUTION, ITS RISE, PROGRESS, AND RESULTS.

BY W. B. STEVENSON,

FORMERLY PRIVATE SECRETARY TO THE PRESIDENT AND CAPTAIN GENERAL OF QUITO,
COLONEL, AND GOVERNOR OF ESMERALDAS, CAPTAIN DE FRAGATA, AND LATE
SECRETARY TO THE VICE ADMIRAL OF CHILE,—HIS EXCELLENCY
THE RIGHT HONOURABLE LORD COCHRANE, &c.

VOL. I.

LONDON:
HURST, ROBINSON, AND CO.
CONSTABLE & Co. AND OLIVER & BOYD, EDINBURGH.
MDCCCXXV.

TO HIS EXCELLENCY THE

RIGHT HON. THOMAS LORD COCHRANE,

Marquis of Maranham,

AS A TESTIMONY OF RESPECT FOR THE IMPORTANT SERVICES

RENDERED TO

SOUTH AMERICAN EMANCIPATION,

AND TO THE COMMERCIAL INTERESTS OF GREAT BRITAIN,

THIS WORK

IS (BY PERMISSION) HUMBLY DEDICATED.

PREFACE.

The interest which the late successful revolution in Spanish America has awakened in Europe renders any genuine account of the new world so highly acceptable to the British nation, that it has become an almost imperative duty in those who may possess original matter to communicate it to the public; for it may be said, without the least exaggeration, that although the countries thus emancipated were discovered in the sixteenth century, they have remained almost unknown till the beginning of the nineteenth.

Fully convinced of these facts, and being urged by my friends, when I was on the eve of again crossing the Atlantic, to publish my collection of notes and memoranda—the gleanings of a twenty years' residence—in order to contribute my quota to the small stock of authentic matter already laid before an anxious public, I have been induced to postpone my voyage, and to embody my observations in the manner in which they now appear.

It is undoubtedly of great importance to become acquainted with the features of a country which has undergone any remarkable change in its political, religious, or literary career, before that change took place; and it is equally important to know the cause of and the means by which the change was effected. I have therefore given a succinct history of the state of the colonies before their fortunate struggle began to germinate, by describing their political and ecclesiastical institutions; the character, genius, and education of the different classes of inhabitants; their peculiar customs and habits; their historical remains and antiquities; and lastly, the produce and manufactures of the country.

My opportunities for obtaining materials for the formation of this work were such as few individuals even among the natives or Spaniards could possess, and such as no foreigner could possibly enjoy at the period of my residence.

Dr. Robertson's celebrated history renders any account of the discovery and conquest of America unnecessary; but as the Spanish authors from whom his work was collected always kept in view the necessity of lulling the anxiety of general curiosity with respect to the subsequent state of the countries under the Spanish crown, that work cannot be supposed to be better than the materials from which it is formed would allow; to which I may add, that the different books published by the philosophic Humboldt are too scientific, and enter into too few details, to become fit for general perusal.

I am induced to believe, that my descriptions of tribunals, corporate bodies, the laws, and administration, the taxes and duties, will not be considered unimportant, because the newly-formed governments will follow in great measure the establishments of Spain, modified by a few alterations, perhaps more nominal than real. Indeed, the present authorities have already determined, that so far as the Spanish codes do not interfere with the independence of the country, they are to be considered as the fundamental laws of the different tribunals.

The Plates are from original Drawings taken by Don Jose Carrillo, a native of Quito, now in England.

Should the following pages merit the approbation of the British public, the author will feel highly gratified by having fulfilled his duty in both hemispheres; nor will this reward in the old world be accounted less honourable than that which he has already obtained in the new.

CONTENTS OF VOL. I.

CHAPTER I.

Arrival at Mocha....Some account of Mayo, one of the Cape de Verd Islands touched at on our passage....Description of Mocha, its Productions, &c....Leave Mocha, and land at Tucapel Viejo....Description of the Indians, their Dress, &c....Indians take me to their Home....Description of the House, Family, Food, Diversions....Appearance of the Country....What Trade might be introduced.

On the 14th of February, 1804, I landed on the Island of Mocha, after a passage of upwards of five months from England, during which we passed between the Cape de Verd Islands, and touched at one of them called Mayo, for the purpose of procuring salt, which appears to be the only article of commerce. It is produced by admitting the sea water on flats, embanked next to the sea, during the spring tides, and allowing it to evaporate: the salt is then collected and carried off before the return of the high tides, when the water is again admitted, and the same process takes place. The sea water is here strongly impregnated with salt, owing probably to the great evaporation caused by the intense power of the heat, which also aids and hastens the process on shore. The inhabitants whom I saw were all blacks, with the solitary exception of a priest, and many of them in a state of nudity, even to an age at which decency if not modesty requires a covering. A small quantity of bananas, the only fruit we could procure, and some poultry, were brought from St. Jago's, another of the islands, visible from Mayo.

The Island of Mocha, situate in 38° 21´ S. and that called Santa Maria, lying about 80 miles to the northward of it, were the patrimony of a family, now residing at Conception, of the name of Santa Maria, who lived on the latter, and sent some people to reside at Mocha, but after the commencement of the war between England and Spain, in 1780, the family, as well as the whole of the inhabitants, were ordered by the government of Chile to quit the islands, under the pretence that these were a resort for smugglers: a pretence derived from the common error, that privacy is preventive of contraband.

During the time that Mocha was in the possession of the Santa Marias a number of the original indian inhabitants, belonging to the tribe found on it when first visited by the Spaniards in 1549, resided there, but they were also removed to Conception.

These two islands having been once inhabited, there are yet to be found some few remains of cattle, which have continued to procreate: on Mocha are horses and pigs, and some barn door fowls. Mocha is about fifteen miles in circumference, hilly in the centre, and sloping towards the coast, more so on the western side, where a tolerably good anchorage and a safe landing place, on a sandy beach, may be found. Fresh water flows from several springs; wild turnips, mint and other herbs grow in abundance; the trees on the hilly part are principally the white cinnamon, named by the Spaniards canelo, the magui, the luma, a tree called espino, and others. Here are also apple, peach and cherry trees, with a variety of wild strawberries, and myrtle-berries. Some solitary seals yet remain on the rocks on the south side of the island.

I left Mocha after remaining there alone thirty-two days, and landed from the brig Polly at Tucapel Viejo, the residence of one of the Caciques, or Ulmenes, of the Araucanian indians, by whom I was most hospitably treated.

The male indians who appeared on the beach were of a reddish brown or copper colour, few of them reaching to the height of six feet. They were finely shaped and very muscular, having a round face, well formed forehead, small black eyes, flattish nose, moderately thick lips and good teeth, but no beard. The whole of the countenance is expressive of a certain portion of vivacity, and not uninteresting; the hair is black and strong, all of it being drawn behind the head and platted. The women are lower in stature than the men, their features similar, and some of the girls, if I be not allowed to call them handsome, I cannot abstain from saying are very pretty. The females wear their hair long, and platted behind their heads: it is afterwards wrapped round with a tape about an inch and a half broad, to one edge of which are attached a number of small hawks' bells: the plait is allowed to hang down the back, and not unfrequently reaches below their knees.

The dress or costume of the indians at first appeared very singular to me. In the men it consisted of a flannel shirt, and a pair of loose drawers of the same material, generally white, reaching below the calves of the legs; a coarse species of rug about two yards wide and two and a half long, with a slit in the middle through which the head was passed: this garment, if so I may style it, hanging over the shoulders and reaching below the knees, is called a poncho. The common ones seemed to be made from a brownish sort of wool, but some were very fancifully woven in stripes of different colours and devices, such as animals, birds, flowers, &c. Of the poncho I shall have occasion to speak again, as it is universally worn in all the provinces of South America which I visited; but I must say here, that I considered it as an excellent riding dress; for hanging loosely and covering the whole body, it leaves the arms quite at liberty to manage the whip and reins. The hat commonly worn is in the form of a cone, without any skirts; for shoes they substitute a piece of raw bull's hide cut to the shape of the sole of the foot, and tied on with slender thongs of leather. The females wear a long white flannel tunic, without sleeves, and an upper garment of black flannel, extending below their knees, the sides closed up to the waist, and the corners from the back brought over the shoulders and fastened to the corners of the piece in front with two large thorns, procured from a species of cactus, or with large silver brooches: it is afterwards closed round the waist with a girdle about three inches broad, generally woven in devices of different colours; very often, however, nothing but the white tunic is worn, with the girdle, and a small mantle or cloak called ichella. The favourite colour among the indians appeared to be a bluish green, though I saw few of their garments of this colour at Tucapel, but remarked afterwards, at the town of Arauco, that all those who came to sell or barter their fruit, &c. wore it. The females generally have nothing on their heads or feet, but have a profusion of silver rings on their fingers, and on their arms and necks an abundance of glass bead bracelets and necklaces.

The occupation of the men, as in most unenlightened countries, appeared to be confined to riding out to see their cattle, their small portions of land, cultivated by the women, and to hunting. The females were employed spinning wool with a spindle about ten inches long, having a circular piece of burnt clay at the bottom, to assist and regulate the rotary motion given by twirling it with the finger and thumb at the upper end. They generally sit on the ground to spin, and draw a thread about a yard long, which they wind on the spindle, tie a knot on the upper end, and draw another thread: though this work is very tedious, compared to what may be done by our common spinning-wheels, yet their dexterity and constancy enable them to manufacture all their wearing apparel. Weaving is conducted on a plan fully as simple as spinning. The frame-work for the loom is composed of eight slender poles, cut in the woods when wanted, and afterwards burnt; four of these are stuck in the ground at right angles, the other four are lashed with thongs at the top, forming a square, and the frame is complete. The treadles are then placed about a foot from the front, having a roller at the back of the frame for the yarn and another in front for the cloth, both tied fast with thongs; the sleys, made of worsted, doubled, have two knots tied in the middle of each pair of threads, leaving a small space between the knots through which to pass the warp. After all the yarns are passed through the sleys the ends are tied in small bunches to the roller, which is turned round by two females, one at each end, whilst another attends to the balls in front; the other ends of the yarn are then tied to the roller in front. The thongs connected with the treadle are fastened one to each of the sleys, and a thong being made fast to the upper part of one of them is thrown over a loose slender pole, placed on the top of the frame and then made fast to the other sley, so that when one treadle is pressed by the foot it draws down one of the sleys, holding every alternate thread, and the other rises, carrying with it the other half of the warp. Instead of a shuttle the yarn is wound round a slender stick, of the necessary length, and passed through the opening formed by the rising of one of the sleys and the falling of the other; the contrary treadle is then pressed down, and a slender piece of hard heavy wood, longer than the breadth of the cloth, is passed across, and the weaver taking hold of both ends drags it towards her and compresses the thread. This piece of wood, shaped somewhat like a long sword, is called the macana, and has often been resorted to as a weapon in time of war. The same rude mode of weaving is common, though not universal, in South America. The manner of weaving ponchos I shall describe when treating of the town of Arauco, for what I saw here did not deserve attention.

Besides the laborious occupation of spinning and weaving, and the usual household labour, each wife (for polygamy is allowed, every man marrying as many wives as he choose, or rather, as many as he can maintain) has to present to her husband daily a dish of her own cooking, and annually a poncho of her own spinning and weaving, besides flannel for shirts and drawers. Thus an indian's house generally contains as many fire places and looms as he has wives, and Abbé Molina says, that instead of asking a man how many wives he has, it is more polite to ask him how many fires he keeps.

The females are cleanly in their houses and persons; dirt is never seen on their clothes, and they frequently bathe, or wash themselves three or four times a day. The men also pay great attention to the cleanliness of their persons. The females attend to the cultivation of their gardens, in which the men work but little, considering themselves absolute masters—the lords of the creation, born only to command, and the women, being the weaker, to obey: sentiments which polygamy supports; plurality of wives tending to destroy those tender feelings of attachment which we find in countries where the law allows only one wife. The principal part of the labour of their farms is performed by the women, who often plough, sow, reap and carry to the thrashing floor the wheat or barley, which, when trodden out by horses, is thrown into the air, that the wind may blow away the chaff. I saw no other grain at Tucapel or its vicinity but wheat and barley, in small patches; but I was told that they produced a hundred fold.

The care of the offspring is entirely committed to the women. A mother immediately on her delivery takes her child, and going down to the nearest stream of water, washes herself and it, and returns to the usual labours of her station. The children are never swaddled, nor their bodies confined by any tight clothing; they are wrapped in a piece of flannel, laid on a sheep skin, and put into a basket suspended from the roof, which occasionally receives a push from any one passing, and continues swinging for some minutes. They are allowed to crawl about nearly naked until they can walk; and afterwards, to the age of ten or twelve years, the boys wear a small poncho, and the girls a piece of flannel, wrapped round their waist, reaching down to the knees. The mother, after that age, abandons the boys to the care of the father, on whom they attend and wait as servants; and the daughters are instructed in the several works which it will ere long become their duty to fulfil. To the loose clothing which the children wear from their infancy may doubtless be attributed the total absence of deformity among the indians. Perhaps some travellers might suggest, that confinement in any shape would be considered disgraceful to the haughty Araucanians, who are pleased to call themselves, "the never vanquished, always victors."

The house to which I was conveyed by the indians was about five leagues from the coast, situated in a ravine, towards the farther extremity of which the range of hills on each side appeared to unite. A stream of excellent water ran at the bottom of the small valley, winding its way to the sea, and fordable at this time of the year, but visibly much deeper at other times, from the marks of the surface water on the banks and on several large pieces of rock lying in the stream.

The low part of the ravine (at first more than three miles wide, and gradually closing as we rode up towards the house) was cultivated in small patches; and among the brushwood were to be seen clusters of apple, pear and peach trees, some of them so laden with fruit that their branches were bent to the ground. The sides of the mountains displayed in gorgeous profusion the gifts of nature; the same kind of fruit trees, laden with their ripe produce, enlivened the view, and relieved the eye from the deep green of the woods which covered the landscape, save here and there the naked spire of a rock washed by the rains and whitened by the sunbeams. The situation of the house appeared to have been chosen not so much for its picturesque beauty, as for the facility of defending it: the only approach was the road which we took, it being impossible to descend the mountains on either side—an impossibility which appeared to increase as we drew nearer to the house.

Four or five of the young indians, or mosotones, rode forward to the house, and when it first opened to our view a crowd of women and children had ranged themselves in front, gaping in wild astonishment at my very unexpected appearance. We rode up to the house, which stood on a small plain, about thirty yards above the level of the stream, and alighted amid the din of questions and answers equally unintelligible to me. The wild stare of curiosity, sweetened with a compassionate expression of countenance, precluded all fear, and I could not avoid saying to myself, Great Author of Nature, I now for the first time behold thy animated works, unadorned with the luxuries, and free, may I hope, from the concomitant vices, of civilization!

The house was a thatched building, about sixty feet long, and twenty broad, with mud walls seven feet high, two doors in the front, opposite to two others at the back, and without windows. The back part on the inside was divided into births, the divisions being formed of canes thinly covered with clay, projecting about six feet from the wall, with a bed place three feet wide, raised two from the floor; the whole appearing somewhat like a range of stalls in a stable. Opposite to these births, and running from one end to the other, excepting the spaces at the two doors, the floor was elevated about ten inches, and was six feet wide: this elevation was partly covered with small carpets and rugs, which with five or six low tables composed the whole of the household furniture. The two doors on the back side led to the kitchen, a range of building as long as the house, but entirely detached from it: here were several hearths, or fire-places, surrounded with small earthen pots, pans and some baskets made of split cane; and over each fire-place was suspended a flat kind of basket holding meat and fish, and answering the purpose of a safe: it is called by the indians a chigua. The horses were unsaddled, and the saddles placed on the floor at one end of the house.

The family, or what I conceived to be the family, was composed of upwards of forty individuals. The father was between forty and fifty years old, and apparently enjoyed all the privileges of a patriarch. There were eight women, whom I considered to be his wives, though during my stay he appeared to associate with only one of them, if allowing her to wait upon him whilst eating and receiving from the others their respective dishes (which she placed successively on the small low table) can be called association. The young men eat the food brought to them at different tables, or in different parts of the house. The women and children adjourned to the kitchen, and there partook of what was left by the male part of the family. From the first day of my arrival to the last of my stay I always ate out of the same dish with the Cacique, or Ulmen, for his rank I did not exactly know. Our fingers supplied the place of forks, and large muscle shells that of spoons: knives I never saw used at table.

Our food chiefly consisted of fresh mutton, jirked beef, fish, or poultry, cut into small pieces and stewed with potatoes or pompions, seasoned with onions, garlic and cayenne pepper, or capsicum. Our breakfast, at about sunrise, was composed of some flour or toasted wheat, coarsely ground, or crushed, and mixed with water, either hot or cold, as it suited the palate of the eater. This flour is produced or manufactured by first roasting the wheat or barley in an earthen pan placed over a slow fire, until the grain takes a pale brown hue. When cold it is ground on a flat stone, about eight inches or a foot wide, and two feet or more in length, as they can best procure it. This is put on the ground, with the end next the female raised about four inches. She then takes another stone, which reaches nearly across the first, and weighs from six to ten pounds; this she presses with her hands, and bruises the grain, which is crushed to a state somewhat like coarsely ground coffee. At the lower end of the stone is generally placed a clean lamb skin, with the wool downwards, which receives the flour, called by the indians machica. Our dinner (made up of the stews or messes which I have mentioned) was generally served at noon in calabashes, or gourds cut in two, being three inches deep, and some of them from twelve to twenty inches in diameter. Our supper, which we took at eight o'clock, was milk, with machica, or potatoes.

I cannot refrain from describing a favourite preparation of milk, called by the natives milcow. Potatoes and a species of pompion, zapallo, were roasted, the insides of both taken out, and kneaded together with a small quantity of salt, and sometimes with eggs. This paste was made into little cakes, each about the size of a dollar, and a large quantity was put into a pot of milk, and allowed to boil for a quarter of an hour. I joined the Indians in considering it an excellent dish. Their poultry, fed on barley and potatoes, was fat and good; their fish, both from the sea and the river, capital; and their beef and mutton in fatness and flavour were far above mediocrity.

The beverage at this time of the year, there being abundance of apples, was principally new cider, but it was sufficiently fermented to produce intoxication, which I had several opportunities of observing among the men: to the credit of the women, however, I must say, that I never saw one of them in a state of ebriety. I was informed that at other times of the year they fermented liquors from the maize, the process of which I shall afterwards describe. Their cider is made in the following rude manner:—a quantity of apples is procured from the woods by the women; they are put into a species of trough, from eight to ten feet long, being the trunk of a large tree scooped into a shape somewhat similar to a canoe. A woman then takes a stick, or cane, nearly the length of the trough, and standing at one extremity, beats the apples to pieces. They are afterwards collected at one end, pressed with the hands, and the juice is received either in large calabashes (dried gourds) or in prepared goats' hides. It is now carried to the house, poured into an earthen jar, and left to ferment. The jars are made by the Indians of baked clay:—some will hold upwards of a hundred gallons, which shews that these people have some skill in pottery.

The only in-door diversion which I witnessed among the Indians at Tucapel was what they certainly considered a dance. About sixteen men and women intermixed stood up in a row, and following each other, trotted about the room to the sound of a small drum, which was made by drawing a piece of the fresh skin of a kid or lamb over an earthen pot used for cooking. This diversion I saw but twice, and in both instances after supper. Indeed the indians are not calculated for this kind of amusement. They associate with each other but little. The females are considered inferior to the men, and consequently no harmony or conviviality appears to result from their company. The principal out-door diversion among the young men is the palican: this game is called by the Spaniards chueca, and is similar to one I have seen in England called bandy. Molina says it is like the calcio of the Florentines and the orpasto of the Greeks.

The company divides into two sets. Each person has a stick about four feet long, curved at the lower end. A small hard ball, sometimes of wood, is thrown on the ground: the parties separate; some advance towards the ball, and others stand aloof to prevent it when struck from going beyond the limits assigned, which would occasion the loss of the game. I was told that the most important matters have been adjusted in the different provinces of Araucania by crooked sticks and a ball: the decision of the dispute is that of the game—the winner of the game being the winner of the dispute.

At Arauco I heard that the present bishop of Conception, Roa, having passed the territory belonging to the indians with their permission, (a formality never to be dispensed with) on his visitation to Valdivia, was apprehended in returning for not having solicited and obtained a pass, or safe-conduct from the Uthalmapu, or principal political chief of the country which he had to traverse, called by the indians, the Lauguen Mapu, or marine district. His lordship was not only made prisoner but despoiled of all his equipage; and it became a matter of dispute, which nothing but the palican could decide, whether he should be put to death or allowed to proceed to Conception. The game was played in the presence of the bishop: he had the satisfaction of seeing his party win, and his life was saved. The propriety, however, of keeping the booty taken from him was not questioned by any one.

That part of the country which I had an opportunity of visiting with some of these kind indians was not extensive, but extremely beautiful. The soil was rich, every kind of vegetation luxuriant, and some of the trees were very large: the principal ones were the espino, the luma, the maque, and the pehuen.

I was informed that the indians have both gold and silver mines, and that they are acquainted with the art of extracting the metal from the ores. One might presume that there was some foundation for this report from the ornaments made of the precious metals seen in their possession: they are of Spanish manufacture, and perhaps either the spoils of war or the result of barter.

A trade of no great importance might be established here. The wool, which is good, and timber, with some gold and silver, would be given in return for knives, axes, hatchets, white and greenish coarse flannel, ponchos, bridle bits, spurs, &c.

CHAPTER II.

Leave Tucapel Viejo, and arrive at Tubul....Description of our Breakfast on the road....Stay at the house of the Cacique of Tubul....Some Appearances of Civilization....Game of Pencs, Wrestling, &c....Anchorage, Trade, &c....Face of the Country....Arrival at Arauco....Taken to the Commandant, Interview described....Town of Arauco....Indians who came to barter....Weaving of fine Ponchos....Excursion to the Water-mills on the Carampangue River....Entertainments, Mate, &c....Visit Nacimiento, Santa Juana, and return to Arauco....Ordered to Conception.

At about three o'clock, on a moonlight morning, in the month of April, I left the house of my kind Toqui, with five indians. We were all on horseback, and travelled till after sunrise, when arriving at what appeared to me to be a common resting place, we alighted, and I witnessed a most romantic scene.

The indians were habited in their rude costume, the poncho, the sugar-loaf hat, the hide sandals, and spurs with rowels at least three inches in diameter. Their horses were as uncouthly caparisoned: a deep saddle was covered with three or four sheep skins, over which was spread a bluish rug of long shaggy wool, the crupper with a broad piece of leather hanging across the horse's rump, and a broader strap attached to each side of the saddle passing round the horse behind, about midway down the thighs, and fastened to the cross piece to prevent its slipping to the ground. These straps were fancifully stamped, and cut into various shapes and devices. The huge wooden box stirrups were large enough to hold the feet of the rider; and the heavy-bitted bridle had beautifully platted reins, terminating in a lash or whip of the same workmanship, divided at the end into eight or ten minor plaits, forming a tuft resembling a tassel.

The spot at which we arrived was enchanting. The branches of a large carob tree extended themselves above our heads, while the beautifully green sward was spread under our feet. A small stream of water worked its way among the pebbles on one side, and in the distance on the other the Pacific Ocean, silvered with the rays of the newly risen sun, heightened in brilliancy by the intervening deep green of the woods, presented itself to our view. What an awfully grand collection of the works of nature! He who could behold them without feeling his bosom swell with such sensations of delight as tongue cannot utter nor pen describe, cannot be made by this faint description to partake of what I felt at that moment.

After the indians had alighted, part of them ran to the brook and brought some water, in bullocks' horns, which they always carry with them for this purpose. They divided it among their comrades, each receiving about a pint. Every one now took from his girdle a small leather bag, the skin of an animal of the size of a cat, and putting a handful of roasted flour into the horn with the water, stirred it about with a small stick and eat it. I followed their example, and this mixture constituted our breakfast. We then pursued our journey. About noon we arrived at Tubul, and went to a large house belonging, as I supposed, to the Toqui, or Cacique. Here are several other houses, forming a small hamlet, all of whose inhabitants are indians.

We were regaled with the usual fare at dinner, with the addition of a lamb, which was killed after our arrival, cut into halves, and roasted over the embers. What may be considered as a certain portion of civilization made its appearance at Tubul: the roasted lamb was laid on a large ill-fashioned silver dish, some silver spoons and forks were placed on the Toqui's table: not a knife was to be seen, but the drinking horns had bottoms. Besides the cider some strong ill tasted brandy and thick sweet wine crowned the board.

My indian comrades or conductors occasioned much sport after dinner, by playing what they call the peuca, which Molina says serves them as an image of war. Fifteen mosotones, young Indians, took hold of each other by the hands and formed a circle, in the centre of which a boy about ten years old was placed. An equal number of young men were then engaged in attempting to take the boy out of the ring, in which the victory consists. The indians forming the ring at first extended their arms as wide as they could, and paced gently round. The others rushed altogether on the ring, and tried to break it, but their opponents closed and the invaders were forced to desist. They then threw themselves into several groups of two or three in each, advanced and attacked at different points, but were again baffled in their efforts, and after many unsuccessful trials to break the ring, and take the boy, they were obliged through fatigue to abandon their enterprise. When the game, which lasted at least three hours, was finished, abundance of cider was brought, and the effects of drinking it were soon visible. Wrestling parties commenced, in which great strength and agility were shown: the first throw decided each contest, and the horns of cider were freely circulated to cheer the drooping spirits of the youths. The females and children stood in groups to witness these sports, and interest and enthusiasm were strongly marked in their countenances.

After a supper of milcow, roasted potatoes, milk, &c. we retired to our beds, which were formed of five or six clean white sheep skins, and some white flannel. We rose at an early hour the next morning; five more young indians were attached to my escort, and we proceeded on our way to Arauco.

There is a roadstead and good anchorage at Tubul, and in any emergency ships may procure an abundance of bullocks, sheep, and excellent vegetables, in exchange for knives, axes, buttons, beads, &c. The water at the mouth of the river is salt, but good fresh water may be easily obtained a little way up on the north side, where a rivulet joins the Tubul.

Having travelled about six miles, we descended to the beach of a very extensive bay, and saw the island of Santa Maria in the horizon. At the foot of the promontory which we had crossed was a small stream and three neat cottages with pretty gardens before them. My guides took me to the first of these cottages, where we were received by a white woman, the wife of a sergeant stationed here as at a kind of advanced post. The sergeant soon made his appearance, and although I had been so very kindly treated by the good indians, I felt a pleasure at finding myself once again among people of my own colour, similar to that experienced by a person who is relieved from an apprehension of danger, by being satisfied that it does not exist. Some dispute arose respecting the indians leaving me and returning home; but it was adjusted by the sergeant sending two soldiers with us, with orders to present me to the commandant, at Arauco. After breakfasting on roasted jerked beef and bread, we proceeded towards Arauco, and arrived there at noon.

The country over which we travelled was every where covered with vegetation, the valleys or bottoms of the ravines with grass and shrubs, and their hilly sides with wood. After descending to the beach, several small ravines opened to the right, containing a considerable number of neat thatched cottages. Quantities of wild vines climbed from tree to tree, laden with grapes as yet green; and clusters of apple, pear, and peach trees adorned the sides of the hills, while the low land from their bases to the sea side was divided and fenced in with branches of trees—cattle, principally milch cows, feeding in the enclosures.

On our arrival at Arauco I was immediately taken to the house of the commandant, who ordered me into his presence, and the soldiers and indians to return. I was not a little surprised at the extravagant appearance of this military hero, who undoubtedly considered himself, in his present situation, equal to Alexander or Napoleon, and but for his figure I should have conceived him to be a second Falstaff. He stood about five feet six inches high, was remarkably slender, and had a swarthy complexion, large Roman nose, small black eyes, projecting chin, and toothless mouth. His hair was combed back from his forehead, abundantly powdered, and tied in a cue a la Frederick. He wore an old tarnished gold laced uniform of faded blue, with deepened red lappels, collar and cuffs, his waistcoat and breeches being of the latter colour; bluish stockings, brown shoes for lack of blacking, and large square brass buckles. A real Toledo was fastened to his side with a broad black leather belt and a brass buckle in front: an equilateral triangular hat covered his head. Such was the visible part of this soldier. His red cloak was on a chair near him, while his worship stood, bolt upright, in his vast importance personale! Never did chivalrous knight listen with more gravity of countenance, measured demeanour or composed posture, to the cravings of a woe-begotten squire, than did my old commandant to my ill-digested narrative. But what a contrast presented itself in his goodly lady, the comandanta, whom I could compare to nothing better than a large lanthorn! She stood about four feet six inches high, and as nearly as I could conceive measured the same round the waist, which was encompassed by an enormous hoop, at least four feet in diameter, having a petticoat of scarlet flannel, sewed into small folds, the bottom of which was trimmed about a foot deep with something yellow. She wore a green bodice, and the sleeves of her undermost garment just covered her shoulders, and were edged with green ribbon and white fringe. Her hair was all combed back from her forehead, and tied behind with a broad black ribbon. On the top of her head appeared a bunch of natural flowers. It might with propriety be said of this goodly dame, that it would be much easier to pass over than to go round her. There were also present the curate of the parish, two Franciscan friars, and some of the inhabitants, one of whom, Don Nicolas del Rio, compassionating the fate of a boy, (for I was then only seventeen) asked the commandant to allow me to be his guest. This request being granted, the chief put on his red cloak, walked with us to the house of Don Nicolas, and, not forgetting one iota of etiquette, presented me to the family, composed of the wife of Don Nicolas and three daughters; their only son being with an uncle, who was governor of Angeles. During the time I remained at Arauco I was treated in every respect as one of the family by these kind and hospitable people. Visiting parties to their gardens, orchards, and vineyards, followed each other daily, and all possible care was taken to render me happy—and not in vain, for I was happy.

Arauco is situated at the foot of a rocky hill, accessible only by a winding path from the inside of the walls by which the town is surrounded. On the top of the hill were four brass guns of eighteen pounds calibre, with a breast-work of stone, a large house for the soldiers, forming their barracks or guard-house, and a small watch tower. The town is a square of about six hundred yards, and is surrounded by a wall of eighteen feet high on three of the sides, the hill forming the fourth; two small breast-works are raised at the corners. An arched gateway stands in the centre of the north side, with a massy wooden door, which is closed every night at eight o'clock, and opened at six in the morning. From the gateway is a street to the square, or market-place, where the church is erected. There is also a convent of Franciscan friars, which was formerly a Jesuits' college. The garrison consisted of thirty privates with the respective subalterns and officers. The whole population amounts to about four hundred souls.

The town is well supplied by a spring in the rock with most excellent water, which falls into a large stone basin, and thence runs through the square, the principal street, and out at the gateway. Fruit, fish, poultry, and cider called chicha, are brought in daily by the indian women, and sold or bartered principally for salt, which is the article most in demand, there being none but what is imported. The greater part used for culinary purposes is from Peru, but a coarser kind is obtained from the coast of Chile, near to Valparaiso. The general salutation of the indians is marry, marry; and I was told, that when a Cacique or any other chief sends to a Spaniard his marry, marry, it is a sure sign that he is at peace with the Spaniards, though other tribes may be at war with them.

I had several opportunities at Arauco of seeing the indians employed in weaving the fine ponchos, some of which, I learnt, were worth from a hundred to a hundred and fifty dollars. The wool is first washed and picked or combed, for they have no idea of carding. It is then spun with the spindle, as already described, and afterwards dyed the necessary colours, such as blue, green, yellow, red, &c., and if one be wanted which they have not the materials to produce, they purchase a piece of Manchester flannel of the colour required, pick it to pieces, reduce it to wool, and spin it over again, the yarn being required to be much finer than that of the flannel, and always twisted of two or more threads. The poncho is woven in stripes of one, two, or three inches broad, which are subsequently sewed together. Sometimes, and for the finest ponchos, no loom whatever is used. The coloured threads or yarns are rolled on a round piece of wood; the weaver ties the other ends of them to her girdle, and lifts and depresses the threads with her fingers, passing the woof rolled on a cane instead of a shuttle, and beating it with the macana. This may undoubtedly be considered the lowest pitch of weaving, but the patterns on the stripes are very pretty and ingenious, and the repetitions of the devices are extremely exact.

After a few days' rest, it was proposed by Don Nicolas that I should accompany his daughters on an excursion to some of the neighbouring towns and villages: a proposal highly gratifying to myself, and apparently not less so to my new acquaintance. A permission or passport was procured for me from the commandant, and I was ordered to present it at every military post we might arrive at. Whether there were any necessity for this document I do not know; but I think it was provided to give me an idea of the authority of the military chief; for I was never asked for it, and when I presented it at any post it was never read; but a curl of the upper lip showed the contempt with which it was viewed by the subalterns of this great man!

Our cavalcade, on as delightful a morning as ever broke on joyous travellers, made a very gay appearance. The three daughters of Don Nicolas were mounted on good horses, with square side-saddles, the upper part of which had rather the shape of small chairs, having backs and arms covered with velvet, fastened with a profusion of brass-headed nails. A board about ten inches long and four broad, covered and nailed to match, was suspended on the far side of each horse; so that the rider sat with her left hand to the horse's head, contrary to the custom in England. The bridles, cruppers and appendages were of exquisite platted work, ornamented with a number of silver rings, buckles and small plates. I rode a horse belonging to my good host, with saddle and trappings decorated in the same manner. The saddle was raised about four inches before and behind, and some sheep skins were put on the seat, covered with a red rug of very long wool. Four sumpter mules were laden with bedding and provender, two mosotones, young indians, were appointed to attend to them, and two females to wait on their young mistresses. We mounted, and at the gate were joined by the commandant's two daughters, who had two soldiers for their guard. Never did I feel more delighted than when, having passed the gateway and advanced a few yards, I turned round to view this novel scene, to which, in my mind, a Canterbury pilgrimage was far inferior. Five young ladies in their rigid costume; their small but beautifully wrought ponchos; their black hats and feathers; their hoops, spreading out their fancifully coloured coats, ornamented with ribbons, fringes, and spangles; the gay trappings of their horses; the two soldiers in uniform; the indians; the servant girls, and the sumpter mules, which closed the procession; the merry countenances of all; the parents, relations and friends, waving their hats and handkerchiefs from the walls of the town; the sound of the church and convent bells, summoning the inhabitants to mass; the distant view of the sea on one side, and that of the enchanting plain and mountain scenery on the other—reminded me of fairy regions, and at times caused me almost to doubt the reality of what I beheld. It was predetermined that we should breakfast at a farm-house about two leagues from Arauco. Thither we rode, leaving the indians to follow with their charge.

Our arrival was anticipated, and a splendid breakfast had been prepared: roasted lamb, fowls, fried eggs and fish smoaked on the table; whilst chocolate and toasted bread, excellent butter and cheese finished the repast. We honoured our host by eating heartily, and waited the arrival of the indians: they were ordered to follow us to the mills. We shortly reached the bank of the river Carampangue, and after riding about twelve miles came to the mills called de Carampangue. The river is in some places from eighty to a hundred yards wide, and in others not above twenty; running slowly towards the sea, into which it empties itself about four miles from Arauco. Its origin is said to be in the Cordilleras. Where the mills are situated the river is twenty-two yards wide, with a considerable fall, and water is drawn from it for their service by channels. These mills are three in number, with vertical water-wheels and one pair of stones to each mill. I was informed that the stones are brought from a considerable distance, and that they cost about one hundred and fifty dollars the pair. They are black, with small white stains, resembling in size and shape the wings of flies, and hence are called ala de mosca. When by any accident they are broken, the only remedy is to procure new ones, the people being ignorant of any cement with which to unite the pieces; and probably the expense of iron work would amount to more than that of new stones; nay, I question whether they have a blacksmith in this part of the country who could forge hoops to brace them. The only precaution taken to prevent such accidents is the passing a number of thongs of raw hide, while fresh, round the stones, and when dry they are not perhaps very inferior to iron hoops. The wood-work is as rude, the miller being the carpenter, blacksmith, mason, &c. The flour is not bolted, but sifted by hand. This however is no part of the business or trade of the miller, who is only required to grind the corn; for the meal is carried home to its owner, and separated from the bran with large hair sieves made by the indians.

We dined at one of the houses, partly on the fare presented to us, and partly on our own, brought by the sumpter mules. The afternoon was spent in rambling about the neighbouring country and picking myrtle berries, which are delicious, and called by the people mutillas. They are about the size of a large pea, of a deep red colour and of a peculiarly sweet and aromatic flavour. They are sometimes prepared by crushing them in water and allowing them to ferment for a few days, which produces a pleasant beverage called chicha de mutilla. We found abundance of wild grapes, (which though neither large nor sweet were very palatable) some few plums, and plenty of apples, pears and peaches. On our return to the miller's house we were presented with mate, which is a substitute for tea, and is used more or less in every part of South America, but since the present revolution it has become less prevalent, partly because the custom of drinking tea a la Inglesa is more fashionable, and partly because a regular supply of the herb cannot be procured from Paraguay, where it grows, and from whence it derives its name. The mate is prepared by putting into a silver or gold cup about a teaspoonful of the herb of Paraguay, to which are added a bit of sugar, sometimes laid on the fire until the outside be a little burnt, a few drops of lemon juice, a piece of lemon peel and of cinnamon, or a clove. Boiling water is poured in till the cup is full, and a silver tube, about the thickness of the stalk of a tobacco pipe, six inches long and perforated at the lower end with small holes, is introduced. Through this the mate is sucked, with the risk of scalding the mouth. A cup supported on a salver, most curiously chased, or filigreed, is commonly used: however a calabash, with a fillet of silver round the top, was used on this occasion. One tube serves the whole party, and the female who presides will not unfrequently give a hearty suck when the cup is returned to her, and take another after replenishing it, before it is handed to the company. A great deal of etiquette is observed with the mate. It is first offered to the person who is the greatest stranger, or most welcome visitor, a priest, if there happen to be one present, which is generally the case. Nothing but the severe indisposition of Friar Vicente at Arauco freed us from his presence: an event which was not regretted by the party until dancing was proposed in the evening, when his ghostly fathership was missed, as no one could play on the guitar so well as he: however one of the soldiers offered his services; the instrument was produced and tuned, the dance named, and the sparkling eyes of the whole company, which had greatly increased since our arrival, bespoke a wish to "trip it on the light fantastic toe;" but to my astonishment, a young man and woman stepped into the middle of the room, and began to jig to the sounds of the guitar, sounds not to be equalled except by the filing of a saw, or the boisterous singing of the performer. This I was told was a bolero. They danced about five minutes, and were relieved by two others. In this manner the diversion was kept up until after midnight, with the assistance of cider, chicha de mansana, chicha de mutilla, bad wine, and some brandy made from the wild grape of the country. A hot supper closed the scene, and we retired to the beds prepared for us at the different houses.

The following morning after breakfast we mounted our horses, and having crossed the river at a ford, pursued our route to Nacimiento, which is a small village surrounded by a wall with four brass guns. The greater part of the inhabitants are indians, and apparently very poor. We spent the night at the house of the curate, but not so agreeably as we passed the preceding one at the mills.

On the next day we went on to Santa Juana, another frontier town, standing on an island formed by the river dividing itself into two branches for the space of about half a mile and again uniting. This river is the Bio-bio, and may with propriety be called the northern boundary of Chile. The towns on the south side of the Bio-bio are under great risk of being sacked by the indians, and are merely kept as advanced posts by the Spaniards. We rested one day at Santa Juana, and returned by a different road to Nacimiento, from thence to the Carampangue mills, and the day after to Arauco, having spent seven days in this most agreeable excursion.

I was exceedingly surprized at being informed that war had been declared between England and Spain; and in a few days afterwards I received orders to proceed to Conception. I remained at the house of my friend Don Nicolas del Rio, until my departure, enjoying every day more and more the kind hospitality of this worthy South American and his excellent family, whom I left with the most sincere regret, impressed with the idea that I should never see any of them again. I was, however, deceived, for after a lapse of seventeen years we met under circumstances which enabled me to repay a part of their kindness.

CHAPTER III.

Account of Cultivation of Farms, &c. in Araucania....Thrashing, &c....Produce....Cattle....Locality....Topographical Divisions....Government (Indian)....Laws and Penalties....Military System....Arms, Standards, &c....Division of Spoil....Treaty of Peace....Religion....Marriages....Funerals....Spanish Cities founded in Araucania....Ideas on New Colonies....Commerce.

The plough used by the Creoles and Spaniards and adopted by the indians is a piece of crooked wood, generally part of the trunk and one of the principal branches of a tree. The portion which is intended to move the soil, for it cannot properly be called ploughing, is about five feet long and six inches broad. One end is pointed and sometimes charred; at the other a handle rises about three feet high, forming with the bottom piece an obtuse angle, greater or less according to the will of the maker, or the chance of finding a piece of wood suitable for the purpose. One end of the beam is inserted at the angle and is supported about the middle of the lower part of the plough by a piece of wood passing through it into a mortise made in the lower part, where it is secured, as well as in the beam, by small wedges. The removal of those in the beam serves to raise or depress it for the purpose of making the furrow deeper or shallower. The beam is from ten to twelve feet long, the one end fastened as already mentioned, and the other lashed to the yoke, which is tied with thongs just behind the horns of the bullock. Instead of harrows they use a bunch of thorns, generally of the espino. One would imagine that this rude implement had been found in the hands of the indians at the time the country was discovered; but according to Townsend's description of the plough used in some parts of Spain, it was one of the improvements carried to America by the earliest settlers. Indeed, rude as it is, it is seen in every part of South America which I visited, having in some places the addition of a piece of flat iron, about a foot long and pointed at one end, attached by thongs to that of the lower part of the plough, and called reja: probably from the verb rajar, to split or divide.

When a farmer selects a piece of ground for cultivation he cuts down the trees, with which he makes a fence by laying them around the field. He then ploughs or breaks the ground, sows his wheat or barley, and harrows it in with a bunch of thorns: here the cares of husbandry cease until harvest. The corn is now cut, tied into sheaves, and carried to the thrashing floor, where it is trodden out by a drove of mares, which are driven round at a full gallop, till the straw becomes hard, when it is turned over, and the trampling repeated two or three times, so as to break the straw into pieces of two inches long. At this stage it is supposed that the grain is freed from the ears. The whole is shaken with large forks, made of wood or forked branches of trees; the chaff and grain fall to the ground, and are formed into a heap, which is thrown up into the air with shovels. The wind blows away the chaff, and the grain remains on the floor. It is now put into sacks made of bullocks' hides, placed on the backs of mules, and carried to the owner's house; but not before the tythe or diesmo has been paid, and one bushel, primicia, to the parson. The straw is occasionally preserved for the horses in the rainy season; at other times it is burnt or left to rot.

For a thrashing floor a piece of ground is selected, and having been swept and cleared, is enclosed with a few poles and canes. It is seldom used twice, and the size is proportioned to the quantity of corn to be trodden out.

Maize, sometimes called indian corn, is cultivated in great quantities in this as well as in every other part of South America. Four varieties are to be found here, all of which are very productive and much appreciated. It is sown in lines or rows, two, three, or four plants standing together, at the distance of half a yard from the other clusters. Each stem produces from two to four cobs, and some of them are twelve inches long. The indians prepare the maize for winter, whilst in the green state, by boiling the cobs, from the cores of which are taken the grain, which is dried in the sun and kept for use. It is called chuchoca, and when mixed with some of their hashes or stews is very palatable. Another preparation is made by cutting the corn from the core of the green cobs, and bruising it between two stones until it assumes the consistency of paste, to which sugar, butter and spices, or only salt is added. It is then divided into small portions, which are enclosed separately within the inner leaf of the cob or ear and boiled. These cakes are called umitas. The dry boiled maize, mote, and the toasted, cancha, are used by the indians instead of bread. One kind of maize, curugua, is much softer when roasted, and furnishes a flour lighter, whiter, and in greater quantity than any other kind. This meal mixed with water and a little sugar is esteemed by all classes of people. If the water be hot the beverage is called cherchan, if cold ulpo.

M. Bomare considers the maize as indigenous to Asia alone, and C. Durante to Turkey; but Solis, Zandoval, Herrera and others prove that it was found at the discovery of the New World in the West Indies, Mexico, Peru and Chile. Indeed I have opened many of the graves, huacas, of the indians, and observed maize in them, which was beyond all doubt buried before the conquest or discovery of this country.

There are two kinds of quinua, a species of chenopodium. The seed of the one is reddish, bitter, and used only as a medicine. The other is white, and is frequently brought to table. When boiled it uncurls and has the appearance of fine vermicelli. It is sometimes boiled in soup, and is also made into a kind of pudding, seasoned with onions, garlic, pepper, &c.

Of the bean, phaseolus, they have several kinds, which are grown in abundance, constituting both in a green and dried state a great part of the support of the lower classes of Creoles and indians. The bean is indigenous, and was cultivated before the arrival of the Spaniards.

Seven or eight varieties of potatoe of an excellent quality are raised, and in some shape or other introduced to every table and almost at every meal. Indeed Chile is considered by many naturalists to be the native soil of this vegetable. The small potatoes are often preserved by boiling them and drying them in the sun, or among the Cordilleras covering them with ice, until they assume a horny appearance. When used they are broken into small pieces, soaked in water, and added to many of their stews. A species called pogny is very bitter, and is considered, with probability, to be poisonous. For use it is soaked in water till the bitterness is removed, then dried, and sometimes reduced to powder, called chuno. For food it is prepared like arrow root, which it resembles.

They have the white and the yellow flowered gourd. Of the former, generally called calabashes, there are about twenty varieties, but only two of them are sweet and eatable. However, the bitter kinds are remarkably serviceable, for when dried and cleaned their shells are substitutes for dishes, bowls, platters, bottles, tubs, or trays. The largest serve the purposes of barrels for water, cider, and other liquids, as well as baskets for fruit, butter and eggs. They are sometimes very curiously cut and stained, and for certain uses bound or tipped with silver. The yellow flowered, known to us by the name of pumpkin or pompion, and here called zapallo, are excellent food, whether cooked with meat as a vegetable, or made into custard with sugar and other ingredients. That the gourd is a native of South America seems to be supported by several striking circumstances. The seeds and shells are found in the graves, or huacas; the plant was universally met with among the different tribes of indians at the time of their discovery; Almagro states that on his passage down the Maranon some of the indians had calabashes to drink with; and lastly, those who bring their produce from the woods of Maynas to Cusco, Quito and other places, always use gourd shells.

The pimento, guinea, or cayenne pepper, capsicum, is much cultivated and valued by the natives, who season their food with it. Although at first very pungent and disagreeable, strangers gradually habituate themselves to, and become fond of it. There are several varieties.

I have been thus particular in mentioning these indigenous plants, because from the slender or exaggerated accounts given to the public no perfect idea can be formed of the native productions of this country.

European vegetables prosper extremely well in Araucania, and abundance of them are to be seen in every garden.

In some parts of the Araucanian territory there is a great stock of horned cattle, which is well grown, and often tolerably fat. The beef is savoury, owing perhaps to the prevalence of aromatic herbs, more particularly a species of venus' comb, called by the indians loiqui lahuen, by the Spaniards alfilerilla; and trefoil, gualputa. There is no scarcity of sheep; but pigs are not much bred, as the indians are averse from eating their flesh: a prejudice which has supplied some fanatical priests with a reason for considering the natives of Jewish extraction! Turkeys, barn door fowls and ducks thrive extremely well. I never saw any geese here, and though they may be found in other parts, the indians have a dislike to them for food.

The tract of country which may be properly called Araucania extends from the river Bio-bio in 36° 44´ south latitude, to Valdivia in 39° 38´, the province of Conception bounding it on the north, and the Llanos or plains of Valdivia on the south. The Cordillera forms the eastern limit, and the Pacific the western. It is divided into four governments, or tetrachates, called uthal mapus:—1. lauguen mapu, the maritime country; 2, lelbun mapu, the plain country; 3, mapire mapu, the foot of the Cordilleras; 4, pire mapu, the Andes. Each tetrachate is again divided into nine allaregues, or provinces, and these are subdivided into nine regues, or districts. This division existed prior to the arrival of the Spaniards, but the date of its establishment is unknown. It evinces, however, more wisdom than civilized countries are willing to allow to what they term barbarous tribes, who no doubt return this compliment, by adjudging those nations to be barbarous who observe any rules or laws different from their own.

Such is the common characteristic of civilization and uncivilization! But can that country be called barbarous which, although its code of laws is not written on vellum, or bound in calf, has an established mode of government for the administration of justice and the protection of property? The Araucanians have ever been a warlike race, and yet their government is aristocratical. They are prompt to resent an insult, but they possess virtues of a private and public nature, which deny to civilization its exclusive pretensions to patriotism, friendship or hospitality.

The four uthalmapus are governed by four Toquis, or tetrachs, who are independent of each other in the civil administration of their respective territories, but confederated for the general good of the whole country. The Apo-ulmenes are subordinate governors of provinces, under the respective Toquis; and the Ulmenes, the prefects of the counties, or districts, are dependent on the Apo-ulmenes. All these dignities are hereditary in the male line, attending to primogeniture, but when there is no lineal male descendant of the person reigning, the vassals enjoy the privilege of electing a new governor from among themselves, and on reporting their choice to the Toquis, they immediately order it to be acknowledged.

The badge of a Toqui is a battle-axe; that of an Apo-ulmen a staff, or baton, with a ball of silver on the top, and a ring of the same metal round the middle: the Ulmen has the baton without the ring.

To the hypothetical historian this aristocracy in the most southern limits of the new, so similar to the military aristocracy of the dukes, the counts, and the marquises in the northern parts of the old world, would prove that the latter was peopled by migrations from the former, at a time beyond the reach of record, or even of oral tradition.

The Araucanian code of laws is traditionary, (composed of primordial usages, or tacit conventions, formed in such general councils as are yet assembled by the Toquis in cases of emergency) and is called aucacoyog. Molina, Ulloa, and other writers are silent upon the curious fact of the possession by this people of the quipus, or Peruvian mode of knotting coloured threads as a substitute for writing or hieroglyphics. That they do possess this art at the present day, the following narrative will testify. In 1792 a revolution took place near Valdivia, and on the trial of several of the accomplices, Marican,[1] one of them, declared, "that the signal sent by Lepitrarn was a piece of wood, about a quarter of a yard long, and considerably thick; that it had been split, and was found to contain the finger of a Spaniard; that it was wrapped round with thread, having a fringe at one end made of red, blue, black, and white worsted; that on the black were tied by Lepitrarn, four knots, to intimate that it was the fourth day after the full moon when the bearer left Paquipulli; that on the white were ten knots, indicating that ten days after that date the revolution would take place; that on the red was to be tied by the person who received it a knot, if he assisted in the revolt, but if he refused, he was to tie a knot on the blue and red joined together: so that according to the route determined on by Lepitrarn he would be able to discover on the return of his chasqui, or herald, how many of his friends would join him; and if any dissented, he would know who it was, by the place where the knot uniting the two threads was tied."

Thus it is very probable, that the Toquis of Araucania preserve their records by means of the quipus, instead of relying on oral tradition. The principal crimes of this people are murder, adultery, robbery and witchcraft. If a murderer compound the matter with the nearest relations of the deceased, he escapes punishment. Such is also the case in robbery and adultery; the composition in robbery being restitution of property stolen; in adultery, maintenance of the woman. Witchcraft is always punished with death. In murder, however, retaliation is generally called in to decide; and in most instances the injured relatives collect their friends, enter and despoil the territory or premises of the aggressor. These malocas, as they are stiled, are sources of great confusion.

When a general council has resolved to make war, one of the Toquis is usually appointed by his brethren to take the command in chief; but should the four agree to nominate any other individual in the state, he becomes duly elected, and assumes the Toquis' badge, a war axe—the four Toquis laying down their insignia and authority during the war. The person thus elected is sole dictator. He appoints his subalterns, and is implicitly obeyed by all ranks. War being determined on, and the Toqui chosen, he immediately sends his messengers, werquenis, with the signal; and as all Araucanians are born soldiers of the state, the army is soon collected at the rendezvous assigned.

The arms of the infantry are muskets, which from the Spaniards they have learned to use with great dexterity, though bows and arrows, slings, clubs and pikes are their proper weapons. They have also their cavalry, in imitation of their conquerors; and, possessed of a good and ample breed of horses, are very excellent riders. The arms of this branch of their force are swords and lances, their system being to come to close quarters with the enemy as soon as possible. Their standards have a fine pointed star in the centre, generally white, in a field of bluish green, which is their favourite colour. Military uniforms are not used, but a species of leather dress is worn under their ordinary clothing, to defend the body from arrow, pike and sword wounds. This is doubtless of modern invention, for before the arrival of the Spaniards they had no animal of sufficient size to afford hides large or thick enough for such a purpose.

The whole of the provisions of an Araucanian army consist of the machica, or meal of parched grain. Each individual provides himself with a small bag full, which diluted with water furnishes him with sustenance until he can quarter on the enemy, an object of the last importance to the leaders. In the camp or resting-place every soldier lights a fire: a practice which during the first wars with the Spaniards (so beautifully recorded by Ercilla in his Araucania) often deceived the enemy as to their numbers. What Robertson says in praise of the Chileans must be wholly ascribed to the Araucanians, in order to avoid the confusion which would be created were we to consider the present inhabitants of Chile as the persons spoken of by that author.

After a general action or a skirmish the booty taken is equally divided among the individuals who were at the capture. They judiciously consider that rank and honours repay the leaders, and that a larger share of the booty would probably induce them to be more attentive to spoil than to conquest, to personal good than to national welfare: a policy worthy of the imitation of all nations.

Abbé Molina, in his History of Chile, speaks of sacrifices after an action; but although I inquired, when at Arauco in the year 1803, and more particularly in the province of Valdivia in 1820, I never could obtain any account from the natives which gave the least countenance to this assertion. It is possible, however, that during the first wars with the Spaniards the barbarous proceedings of the latter to the captured Indians gave rise to a retaliation which was confounded with sacrifice. Among the religious ceremonies of Araucania human sacrifices are decidedly not included.

The independent spirit of the Araucanians prevents their ever sueing for peace. The first overtures have always been made by the Spaniards, who are the only nation with which they have contended; for although the Inca Yupanqui invaded Chile about the year 1430, the northern limit of his acquired territory was, according to Garcilaso, the river Maule. When the proposals are accepted by the indians, or rather by the commanding Toqui, he lays down his insignia, which the four Toquis of the uthalmapus resume, and accompanied by the Apo-ulmenes and principal officers of the army, they adjourn to some appointed plain, generally between the rivers Bio-bio and Duqueco. The two contending chiefs, with their respective interpreters, meet, and the Araucanian claiming the precedence, speaks first, and is answered by the Spaniard. If the terms offered to the indians meet their approbation, the baton of the Spanish chief, and the war axe of the Toqui are tied together, crowned with a bunch of canelo, and placed on the spot where the conference was held. The articles of the treaty are written, but agreed to rather than signed, and they generally state the quantity and quality of the presents which the indians are to receive. The negociation ends in eating, drinking, riot and confusion. Raynal, treating of the Araucanians, says—"As these Araucanians are not embarrassed by making war, they are not apprehensive of its duration, and hold it as a principle never to sue for peace, the first overtures for which are always made by the Spaniards."

Their religion is very simple. They have a Supreme Being, whom they call Pillian, and who is at the head of a universal government, which is the prototype of their own. Pillian is the great invisible Toqui, and has his Apo-ulmenes and his Ulmenes, to whom he assigns different situations in the government, and entrusts the administration of certain affairs in this world. Meulen, the genius of good and the friend of mankind, and Wencuba that of evil, and the enemy of man, are the two principal subordinate deities. Epunamun is their genius of war; but it appears that he is seldom invoked as a protector, being only the object by which they swear to fight, destroy, &c. These three may be considered their Apo-ulmenes; and their Ulmenes are a race of genii, who assist the good Meulen in favour of mortals, and defend their interests against the enormous power of the wicked Wencuba. The Araucanians have no places of worship, no idols, no religious rites. They believe that as their God and his genii need not the worship of men, they do not require it; that they are not desirous of imposing a tribute or exacting a service, except for the good or interest of their servants; and that they thus resemble the Toquis and Ulmenes, who can call upon them to fight for their country and their liberties, but for no personal offices. They, nevertheless, invoke the aid of the good Meulen, and attribute all their evils to the influence of the wicked Wencuba.

The Spanish government has taken great pains to establish the Christian religion among the different tribes of indians in South America, and for the education of missionaries for the conversion of the Araucanians a convent of Franciscan friars, called de propaganda fide, is established at Chillan. These individuals, however, are chiefly natives of Spain, and being ordained presbyters can easily obtain a mission; and as pecuniary emoluments are attached to the employment, the order has always endeavoured to preclude Americans. There are also minor convents at Arauco, Los Angeles and Valdivia. As the missionaries only require the young indians to learn a few prayers, attend mass on particular days, and confess themselves once a year, they make some proselytes; but in the year 1820, when the Spanish government was overthrown at Valdivia, the indians immediately accused their missionaries of being enemies to the newly-established system, and requested their removal. Another proof of dislike to the priests, if not to the religion, is, that they are generally massacred when any revolution takes place among the indians. Such was the case in 1792 at Rio-bueno.[2] According to the confessions of those who were taken and tried upon that occasion, their plan was to burn all the missions, and murder the missionaries.

Witchcraft and divination are firmly believed by the Araucanians. Any accident that occurs to an individual or family is attributed to the agency of the former, and for a due discovery they consult the latter. Particular attention is paid to omens, such as the flight of birds, and dreams. These are either favourable or otherwise according to the bird seen, or the direction of its flight, &c. An Araucanian who fears not his foe on the field of battle, nor the more dreadful hand of the executioner, will tremble at the sight of an owl. They have also their ghosts and hobgoblins: but is there any nation on earth so far removed from credulity as not to keep the Araucanians in countenance in these matters?

The belief of a future state and the immortality of the soul is universal among the indians of South America. The Araucanians agree with the rest in expecting an eternal residence in a beautiful country, to which all will be transferred. Pillian is too good to inflict any punishment after death for crimes committed during life. They believe that the soul will enjoy the same privileges in a separate state which it possessed whilst united to the body. Thus the husband will have his wives, but without any spiritual progeny, for the new country must be peopled with the spirits of the dead. Like the ancients, they have their ferryman, or rather ferrywoman, to transport them thither. She is called Tempulagy, being an old woman who takes possession of the soul after the relations have mourned over the corpse, and who conveys it over the seas to the westward, where the land of expectation is supposed to exist.

When an indian becomes enamoured of a female, or wishes to marry her, he informs her father of his intention, and if his proposals be accepted, the father at a time agreed upon sends his daughter on a pretended errand. The bridegroom with some of his friends is secreted on the route she has to take: he seizes the girl, and carries her to his house, where not unfrequently her father and his friends have already arrived to partake of the nuptial feast, and receive the stipulated presents, which consist of horses, horned cattle, maize, ponchos, &c. The ceremony is concluded by the whole party drinking to excess.

On the death of an individual the relations and friends are summoned to attend, and weep or mourn. The deceased is laid on a table, and dressed in the best apparel he possessed when alive. The females walk round the body, chaunting in a doleful strain a recapitulation of the events of the life of the person whose death they lament; whilst the men employ themselves in drinking. On the second or third day the corpse is carried to the family burying place, which is at some distance from the house, and generally on an eminence. It is laid in a grave prepared for the purpose. If the deceased be a man, he is buried with his arms, and sometimes a horse, killed for the occasion: if a woman, she is interred with a quantity of household utensils. In both cases a portion of food is placed in the grave to support them and the Tempulagy, or ferrywoman, on their journey to the other country. Earth is thrown on the body, and afterwards stones are piled over it in a pyramidal form. A quantity of cider or other fermented liquor is poured upon the tomb; when, these solemn rites being terminated, the company return to the house of the deceased to feast and drink. Black is here as in Europe the colour used for mourning.

The indians never believe that death is owing to natural causes, but that it is the effect of sorcery and witchcraft. Thus on the death of an individual, one or more diviners are consulted, who generally name the enchanter, and are so implicitly believed, that the unfortunate object of their caprice or malice is certain to fall a sacrifice. The number of victims is far from being inconsiderable.

In my description of Araucania I have in some measure followed Molina's ingenious work; but I have not ventured to state any thing which I did not see myself, or learn from the indians, or persons residing among them.

The Spaniards founded seven cities in Araucania. The Imperial, built in 1552 by Don Pedro Valdivia, generally called the conqueror of Chile, is situated at the confluence of the two rivers Cantin and Las Damas, 12 miles from the sea, in an extremely rich and beautiful country, enjoying the best soil and climate in Araucania. In 1564 Pius IV. made it a bishop's see, which was removed to Conception in 1620. In 1599 it was taken and destroyed by the indians, and has never been rebuilt. The site at present belongs to the lauguen mapu, or tetrachate of the coast.

Villarica was also founded by Valdivia in 1552, on the shore of the great lake Sauquen, 65 miles from the sea. It was destroyed by the Toqui Palliamachu, and its site forms part of the tetrachate of the mapire mapu. Report speaks of rich gold mines in the environs of the ground where Villarica stood and from which it took its name. The climate is cold, owing to the vicinity of the Cordillera.

Valdivia bears the name of its founder. Of this city I shall have occasion hereafter to give a circumstantial account.

Angol, or La Frontera, was established by Pedro Valdivia in the year 1553. It was razed by the Indians in 1601, and has since remained in ruins. It is now in reality the frontier, though Valdivia little surmised that it would be so when he founded it. The river Bio-bio bounded it on the south side, and a small rapid stream on the north. The soil and climate are excellent, and the situation was well chosen for a city.

Cañete was founded in 1557 by Don Garcia Hurtado de Mendosa, and destroyed during the first long-contested war with the Araucanians, by the Toqui Antiguenu. It was built on the site where Valdivia was defeated and slain, and now forms part of the lelbum mapu tetrachate.

Osorno is the most southern city in South America, being in 40° 20´, at the distance of 24 miles from the sea, and 212 south of Conception. It was founded in 1559 by Don Garcia Hurtado de Mendosa, and destroyed by the indians in 1599. It was again founded on the old site, on the banks of Rio-bueno, by Don Ambrose Higgins, who was afterwards president and captain general of Chile, and promoted to the vice-royalty of Peru. Charles IV. conferred on Higgins the title of Marquis of Osorno, as a reward for his services in Araucania. The first supreme director of the Chilean republic, Don Bernardo O'Higgins, was the natural son of Don Ambrose.

Conception is the seventh city founded by the Spaniards, but as it is not included in the Araucanian territory I shall defer any description of it for the present.

Cesares is a place about which much has been said and written. I have in my possession original mss. relating to it, a translation of which will be published.

In all the treaties between the Spaniards and the indians one of the principal articles has been, that the latter were to oppose with force of arms the establishment of any foreign colony in their territory. This stipulation they obeyed in 1638, at the island of Mocha, where they murdered the remains of a crew of Dutchmen, who went to take possession of that island after their ship had been wrecked by bad weather; and also when the Dutch Admiral Henry Brun attempted in 1643 to form a settlement at Valdivia, and met with the same fate: a fate, however, which might have been occasioned by the natural hatred entertained at that period by the natives against all foreigners who attempted to obtain possession of any part of their country. This jealousy and hatred of Europeans has always been promoted by the Spaniards, whom the indians stile chiape, vile soldier; but all other foreigners they call moro winca: winca signifying an assassin, and moro a moor. These epithets proceed from the same source; for the Spaniards are in the habit of calling all who are not of their own religion either jews or moors, thus wishing to impress upon the minds of the indians that all foreigners are worse than themselves! Notwithstanding the late wars, caused by the revolution of the colonies, have tended very materially to civilize the Araucanians, the greater part of them joined the Spaniards against the creoles, or patriot forces; but the ejection of the last remains of the Spanish soldiers from Araucania in 1822 has induced the indians to despise them for what they call their cowardice. The new government of Chile have not availed themselves of this favourable opportunity to conciliate the indians, by soliciting their friendship, or, after the manner of the Spaniards, acquiring it at the price of presents. Thus the Araucanians, having become accustomed to some species of luxuries, find themselves deprived of them by the fall of the Spanish system in Chile, and the nonconformity of the new institutions to the old practices; and thus a chasm has been formed that might be filled by a colony from some other nation, which by attention and courtesy to the indians might conciliate their good will and obtain from them whatever was solicited. Kindness makes an indelible impression upon the minds of most uncivilized people, while ill-treatment exasperates and drives them to revengeful extremities.

The existence of gold mines in Araucania is undoubted, although they are not regularly wrought. I have seen fine specimens of ore, some of which were procured from the indians, and others found by accident in the ravines.

The soil and climate are very good, and in some parts both are excellent for grain, pasturage and European fruits. In trade little could be done at present; but should the indians become acquainted with the use of those commodities which produce real comforts to society, I have no doubt that white and greenish blue flannels, salt, sugar, tobacco, bridle-bits, knives, axes, hatchets, nails, buttons, glass beads and other trinkets would be exchanged for hides, ponchos, and some gold. The ponchos, particularly those of good quality called balandranes, would find a ready market in Peru or Chile.

This interesting part of South America is less known than any other accessible portion. Others are less known, but they are interior countries, lying between the range of the Andes and Buenos Ayres, Paraguay, Brazils and Colombia—immense tracts of the earth kept in reserve for the speculations of coming ages! But Araucania, from its locality, climate, and productions, appears destined to become one of the first and fairest portions of the new world; and should the eyes of philanthropical speculators be directed to its shores, their capitals would be more secure in the formation of new establishments than in loans to many of the old.

FOOTNOTES:

[1] Original manuscript, in the possession of the author, found among the archives at Valdivia.

[2] Original MS. from the archives at Valdivia.

CHAPTER IV.

Valdivia....Port....Fortifications....River....City-foundation....Revolutions....Inhabitants....Garrison....Government....Rents and Resources. Churches....Exiles....Missions in the Province of Valdivi....War with the Indians and Possession of Osorno....Extract from a Letter in the Araucanian Tongue, and Translation.

The following account of the city and province of Valdivia is partly extracted from mss. in my possession, found in the archives of that city.

Valdivia, situated in 39° 50´ south latitude, and in longitude 73° 28´, is one of the best ports on the western shores of South America: it is also the strongest, both from its natural position and its fortifications. The mouth of the harbour is narrow, and the San Carlos battery on the small promontory on the south, with that of Niebla on the north side, commands the entrance, their balls crossing the passage. There are likewise on the south side the batteries Amargos, the high and low Chorocamayo, and at the bottom of the bay the castle Corral, commanding the anchorage. In the small island of Mansera is a battery for the protection of the mouth of the river leading to the city, besides an advanced post on the south side at Aguada del Ingles, and two, La Avansada and El Piojo, on the north. At the taking of Valdivia by Lord Cochrane in 1820, one hundred and eighteen pieces of cannon, of eighteen and twenty-four pounds calibre, were found mounted. Some of them were beautiful brass pieces, particularly two eighteens at Mansera, which measured eleven feet in length, were handsomely carved and embossed, and bore the date of 1547. His lordship sent them to Valparaiso, where I had the mortification to see them broken up and converted into grape shot, by the orders of Governor Crus; who thus deprived Chile of a noble monument of her naval glory, and Chilean posterity of the pleasure of viewing, as their property, part of those engines brought from the old, for the purpose of enslaving the new world! The anchorage is good, being most completely sheltered, and capable of holding a great number of ships.

On the north side of the harbour is the river, which leads to the city. Its banks are covered with trees, suitable for ship-building and many other purposes. Among them are the white and red cedar, alerces; the pellinos, a species of oak, and the luma. The river abounds with fish, particularly the pege rey, the lisa, and the bagre. At its mouth are caught robalo, corbina, choros, xaiba and apancoras.

The city of Valdivia stands on the south side of the river, and is sixteen miles from the port. On the left, ascending the river, are some few remains of the Dutch settlements. The natives call them hornos de los Olandeses; supposing that Henry Brun's vessels anchored here, and that these ruins are the wrecks of the ovens built by the Dutch for the purpose of baking their bread. The tradition is quite incredible, for vessels cannot enter the river, there not being above four feet water in some places, and the channel being so extremely narrow, that a launch cannot pass. Indeed at low water the large canoes of the inhabitants have to wait for the tide.

The city was built in 1553, and bears the name of its founder. The indians took it from the Spaniards in 1599, and destroyed it in 1603, when the inhabitants fled to the port, from whence some of them passed to Chile. In 1642 the Marquis of Mansera, Viceroy of Peru, sent the Colonel Don Alonzo de Villanueva as governor, with orders to capture the city, which he effected by a singular ruse de guerre. Landing to the southward of Valdivia, he introduced himself alone among the indians, with whom he remained two years, and having gained the confidence and esteem of some of the Caciques, he solicited them to appoint him their governor in Valdivia; assuring them that such an election would produce a reconciliation with the Spaniards, and insure the annual presents. This request was acceded to; and in 1645 the city was rebuilt and repeopled. Some of the inhabitants are descendants of noble European families, but the greater part are those of officers and soldiers who have been sent at different times to garrison the place; some are indians, and a few slaves. The population amounted to 953 in 1765, and in 1820 to 741: a decrease attributable to the emigration to Osorno, and to many being employed in the armies of the contending parties. This census does not include the garrison, which in 1765 consisted of 249 individuals, and in 1820, when taken by Lord Cochrane, of 829, besides a remainder of 780 of the royal army.

Under the Spanish regime the government was administered by a military officer, dependent on the President and Captain-general of Chile; but in 1813 the inhabitants declared themselves independent of all Spanish authority. They however restored the old government in the year following, and submitted to it until 1820, when Valdivia was incorporated with the Republic of Chile. For the support of Valdivia a situado was annually sent from the royal treasuries of Lima and Santiago. In the year 1807 this remittance amounted to 159,439 dollars, and according to the original statement was distributed as follows:—

In 1765 the situado was 50992 dollars, and in 1646 it was only 28280.

Whilst the Spaniards held Valdivia the resources of its government were very limited. Being a close port all foreign commerce was prohibited, and the few taxes collected in the whole province, including the diesmo, never exceeded 500 dollars.

In the city there is a parish church, another belonging to the Franciscan convent of missionaries, formerly of the Jesuits, and a chapel appertaining to the hospital of San Juan de Dios. The ecclesiastical department was dependent on the see of Conception, but the conventual was a branch of the establishment at Chillan, subject to the provincialate of Santiago de Chile.

Valdivia was a place of exile, presidio, to which convicts were sent from Peru and Chile. Their number was but small, and they were employed in the public works.

The province of Valdivia extends from the river Tolten in 38° to the Bueno in 40° 37´ south, and from the Andes to the Pacific, being about 52 leagues long and 45 wide. The three principal rivers in this province are Tolten, Bueno and Valdivia. Their origin is in three separate lakes of the Cordillera, from whence they run in a westerly direction, receiving in their progress several smaller streams and emptying themselves into the sea. Valdivia river enters the harbour of the same name, which is the only one in the province. This river, after uniting its waters to those of San Josef, Cayumapu, Ayenaguem, Putabla, Quaqua and Angachi, besides a great number of rivulets and estuaries, becomes navigable for canoes of 200 quintals or 20 tons burthen. Between the fort Cruces and Valdivia several small but beautiful islands are found: the principal are Realexo, Del Almuerso, Balensuela, El Islote, De Mota, San Francisco, De Ramon, De Don Jaime and Del Rey, which is the largest, being about seven leagues in circumference. There are besides a great number of smaller ones. In all the streams and ravines in the neighbourhood of the city and port are to be seen the vestiges of gold washings, labaderos, which are at present totally neglected. After heavy rains grains of gold as large as peas are often found, but there are no accounts in the treasury of the working of any mines since the year 1599, when the first revolution of the indians took place, and the city fell into their hands. At Valdivia I saw two chalices made of the gold thus accidentally collected.

"Tolten el Bajo is the northernmost mission. Situated between the rivers Tolten and Chaqui, it extends about four miles along the sea coast, and is one of the largest missions, reducciones, in the province, containing about 800 indians. The Tolten rises in the lake Villarica. It has no port, but is navigable with canoes; being too deep to be fordable, it has a bridge, which gives the indians the command of the road between Valdivia and Conception. Horned cattle and sheep are not scarce here; and maize, peas, beans, potatoes, barley, and a small quantity of wheat are cultivated; but in general the soil is not very fertile. Though the indians are more submissive than those of some other missions, they are equally prone to the common vices of drunkenness and indolence. Their commerce consists in bartering coarse ponchos for indigo, glass beads, and other trifles. At the annual visit of the comisario a kind of market is held for such traffic: at this visit the indians renew the parlamento, or promise of fidelity to the King of Spain. The comisario assures them, in a set speech, of the spiritual and temporal advantages which they will derive from remaining faithful to their King; and the Cacique, having in a formal harangue acknowledged his conviction of the truth of this assurance, the indians, being on horseback, make a skirmish with their lances and wooden swords, macanas, and, riding up to the comisario, alight, and point their arms to the ground, in sign of peace, which is all they ever promise. They worship Pillian, and their ceremonies are the same as those of the rest of the Araucanian nation: for although they call themselves Christians, their religion is reduced to the ceremony of attending at mass, &c.

"Querli extends from Purulacu to the river Meguin, being about 18 miles, and containing 70 indians. Their commerce is an exchange of coarse ponchos, sheep and hogs, for indigo, beads, &c.

"Chanchan, which extends about 12 miles, contains 40 indians, produces maize, peas, beans, barley, and a little wheat. Owing to the vicinity of the fort de Cruces the indians are more docile and domesticated.

"Mariquina is about 54 miles in circumference, and contains 110 indians. The soil is good, and there is an abundance of apples, some pears and cherries.

"Chergue is 42 miles long and 4 broad. It contains 135 indians. Its produce and commerce are similar to those of the places above mentioned.

"Huanigue is situated near the Cordillera, on the banks of lake Ranigue, the source of the river Valdivia. This lake is about 20 miles in circumference, and is rich in fish, particularly pege, reyes, and a species of trout. In 1729 the indians of this mission revolted, and they have never been sufficiently reconciled to admit of a missionary to offer peace or fealty. The indians of Huanigue wear nothing on their heads: for shirts they substitute a species of scapulary, made of raw bullock's hide, covering it with the poncho. They are expert fishers, and pay little attention to the cultivation of the soil, which is very fertile.

"Villarica. The ruins of this city are yet visible, particularly those of the walls of orchards and of a church. The town stood on the side of a lake, bearing the same name, about 25 miles in circumference, and abounding with fish. The soil is very fertile, and the indians raise maize, potatoes, quinua, peas, beans, barley and wheat. Apple, pear, peach and cherry-trees are seen growing where they were planted by the Spaniards before the destruction of the city. The indians neither admit missionaries nor comisario. They have all kinds of cattle and poultry, which they exchange with other tribes for ponchos, flannels, &c. being very averse to trade with the Spaniards.

"Ketate and Chadqui, containing about 280 indians, are at the distance of 34 leagues from Valdivia. There is plenty of fruit, vegetables and cattle; the soil is good, and the inhabitants docile; subject to missionaries and comisario.

"Dongele, or Tolten Alto, is on the banks of a rapid river of the same name. It is distant from Valdivia 120 miles, and possesses a rich soil, productive of maize, peas and other pulse, fruit and cattle: there are 80 indians of manageable habits.

"Calle-calle and Chinchilca, 45 miles from Valdivia, contain some small fertile vallies. The maize grown here is very large; indeed all the vegetable productions are good, and the meat from their cattle is fat and well-tasted. They have 70 peaceable Indians, who receive missionaries and comisario.

"Llanos is the most fruitful part of the province of Valdivia. It is about 48 miles long, from Tunco to the lake Rames, and on an average 15 broad. It produces wheat of an excellent quality, barley, all kinds of pulse, and fruit. The beef and mutton are very fat and savoury. The number of indians residing in the Llanos is 430. They are docile, and not so drunken and indolent as other tribes. From a place called Tenguelen to another, Guequenua, there are many vestiges of gold mines, labaderos, where at some remote period a great number of persons must have been employed in mining, which is at present entirely neglected."[3]

As any authentic accounts of this almost unknown but highly interesting country cannot fail to be acceptable, I shall here introduce some extracts from the journal kept by Don Tomas de Figueroa y Caravaca, during the revolution of the indians in the year 1792, Figueroa being the person who commanded the Spanish forces sent against the Indians by the government of Valdivia.

"October 3d I left Valdivia with an armed force of 140 men, and the necessary ammunition and stores. We ascended the river Pichitengelen, and the following morning landed at an appointed place, where horses and mules were in readiness to convey us to Dagllipulli; but the number of horses and mules not being sufficient, I left part of our baggage and provisions behind, under guard, and proceeded with the rest to Tegue, about six leagues distant, where we arrived in the afternoon, and owing to the badness of the road did not reach Dagllipulli before the 6th. I encamped; and being informed in the afternoon, that some of the rebels were in the neighbourhood, with a party of picked soldiers and horse I scoured the woods, and burned twelve indians' houses, filled with grain and pulse. After securing what I considered useful for ourselves, I followed the indians in the road they had apparently taken towards Rio-bueno, but on my arrival I learnt that they had crossed the river in their canoes. I therefore immediately returned to Dagllipulli. On the 10th the Caciques Calfunguir, Auchanguir, Manquepan, and Pailapan came to our camp, and offered to assist me against the rebels Cayumil, Qudpal, Tangol, Trumau, and all those on the other side of Rio-bueno.—13th. An indian who had been taken declared to me that the Cacique Manquepan was acting a double part, he having seen him go to the enemy at night with his mosotones.—16th. Burnt twenty-four houses belonging to the indians, and seized thirty-two bullocks.—19th. I told the Cacique Calfunguir that I doubted the fidelity of Manquepan, and that he had been playing the chueca (a game already described); at night an indian came to my tent and told me that Calfunguir had joined Manquepan; that both had gone to the rebels, taking with them their mosotones, and that they would probably return immediately, in the hopes of surprising me. However this did not occur; and on the following morning I advanced with part of my force to Rio-bueno, but did not arrive until the two Caciques had taken to a small island in the river, leaving in my possession a number of horses and cattle. Whilst stationed here two indian women were observed to ride full speed towards the river, apparently determined to pass over to the enemy, but some of the friendly indians took one of them, and brought her to me, having killed the other. I questioned her as to her motives for joining the rebels, but received no answer; when the indians observing her obstinacy, put her and a small child which she had in her arms to death. I retired to my camp, taking with me the cattle, &c. left by the enemy on the bank, of Rio-bueno.—21st. The traitor Manquepan came again to our camp, and having consulted the whole of the friendly Caciques as to the punishment which he and his comrades deserved, it was unanimously determined, that he and all those who had come with him as spies should be put to death. I immediately ordered my soldiers to secure them, and having convinced them that I well knew their infamous intentions and conduct, I ordered that Manquepan, and the eighteen mosotones who had come with him into our camp as spies, should be shot. This sentence was put in execution in the afternoon of the same day.—29th. We finished a stackade, and mounted four pedereroes at the angles, as a place of security in the event of any unexpected assault. I sent to Valdivia forty women and children, captured at different times in the woods.—Nov. 1st. Three large canoes were brought to our camp, having ordered them to be made, for the purpose of crossing Rio-bueno, should the rebels persist in remaining on the opposite banks, or on the islands in the river.—10th. After mass had been celebrated at three A. M. and my soldiers exhorted to do their duty in defence of their holy religion, their king and country, we marched down to the river side, and launched our three canoes, for the purpose of crossing over to one of those islands where the greater number of the rebels appeared to have been collected. I embarked with part of the troops, and arrived on the island without suffering any loss from the stones, lances and shot of the enemy.

"Having landed, I observed a party of about a hundred indians on mount Copigue, apparently determined to attack the division I had left behind, which being observed, the division advanced and routed the rebels.—During the night the indians abandoned their entrenchments on the island, and we took possession of them.—On the 11th, in the morning, I immediately landed part of my force on the opposite shore and pursued the rebels. At eleven A. M. I came up with part of them, commanded by the Cacique Cayumil, who was killed in the skirmish. I ordered his head to be cut off and buried, being determined to take it on my return to Valdivia. We continued to pursue the enemy, and in the course of the day killed twelve indians, one of whom was the wife of the rebel Cacique Quapul. As it was almost impossible for me to follow the enemy any further, our horses being tired, and it being insecure to remain here, we returned to our camp on the 13th, taking with us 170 head of horned cattle, 700 sheep and 27 horses, which had been abandoned by the fugitives. A female indian was found in the woods, on our return, with a murdered infant in her arms; she declared that her child was crying, and that being fearful of falling into our hands she had destroyed it.—21st. We marched to the banks of the Ravé, where I had a parlamento with the Caciques Catagnala and Ignil, who, as a proof of their fidelity, offered to surrender the city and territory of Osorno.—22nd. The Caciques Caril and Pallamilla, with Ignil and Cataguala and all their mosotones, joined us, and we marched towards the ruined city of Osorno, and having arrived at the square or plasa, I directed the Spanish flag to be placed in the centre, and in the presence of all the indians I asked the Caciques if they made cession of this city and its territories to his Majesty the King: to which they answered they did. I immediately ordered the erection of an altar, and having placed the troops and indians in front, high mass was chaunted by the chaplain; after which I took the Spanish flag in my hand, and placing myself between the altar and the troops, called attention, attention, attention, and proclaimed three times Osorno, for our Lord the King Charles the fourth and his successors: to which the priest replied, amen, and the troops and indians gave repeated vivas. A discharge of our pedereroes and small arms then took place, and the Caciques came forward, and pointing their arms to the ground in token of peace and fidelity, kissed the flag. The remainder of the day was spent in feasting and rejoicing."

The above extract affords a fair specimen of the mode of warfare pursued by the Spaniards and indians. The following is from a letter written in the Araucanian tongue, as it is pronounced:—

"Ey appo tagni Rey Valdivia carapee wilmen Lonco gneguly mappu ranco fringen. Carah nichfringen, fenten tepanlew pepe le pally cerares fringuey Caky Mappuch hyly eluar Rupo gne suniguam Caaket pu winca; engu frula Dios, gnegi toki el meu marry marry piami Jesu Cristo gne gi mew piami."

TRANSLATION.

"The King's Governor of Valdivia, to any person who may be at the head of the people or congress of the Spaniards supposed to be living at Lonco:—assured that some of my dear countrymen are residing in the fear of God among the infidels of the country, I send you health in our Lord Jesus Christ, who is the true health."

FOOTNOTE:

[3] Where the number of Indians has been given it is to be understood as referring to such as are capable of managing a horse and lance and going to war. Of these the province of Valdivia contains about 2150, and the total indian population is estimated at 10500 souls.

CHAPTER V.

City of Conception de Mocha....Foundation....Situation....Government....Tribunals....Bishop....Military....Churches....Houses....Inhabitants and Dress....Provincial Jurisdiction....Produce....Throwing the Laso....Fruit....Timber Trees....Shrubs....Mines....Birds....Wild Animals....Lion Hunt....Shepherd Dogs....Breeding Capons....Return to Conception.

I left Arauco at seven A. M. with two soldiers as guides and guards, for the news having arrived of a declaration of war between England and Spain, I was now considered a prisoner. We crossed the Carampangy, and about noon reached the small village Colcura. Its situation is very romantic, being a high promontory, which commands an extensive prospect of the country and the sea, with a distant view of the island Santa Maria. We dined at the house of the cura, who treated me with the greatest attention. We afterwards rode about twelve miles to a large farm house, and became the guests of the family for the night, enjoying the good things provided by the hospitality of these kind people, who welcomed us as though we had conferred rather than received a favour by calling at their dwelling. The following morning, after taking mate, we proceeded to San Pedro, on the banks of the Bio-bio. This is one of the forts built by the Spaniards on the frontiers of Araucania. It was taken and destroyed by the indians in 1599, but rebuilt by the Spaniards in 1622. It is garrisoned by a detachment of troops from Conception. During the late troubles in Chile it was alternately in the possession of the Spanish and Patriot forces; but from the year 1819 the latter have kept it in possession. Commanding the river where it is most fordable, this fort served as a protection to Conception against the combined fury of the Spaniards and indians.

In the afternoon we crossed the Bio-bio, and arrived at Conception. The river Bio-bio, which is two miles in breadth at San Pedro, rises in the Cordillera, and enters the sea about five miles to the south of Talcahuano, the port of Conception, having two mountains at the mouth called las tetas de Bio-bio, paps of Bio-bio. It is navigable by canoes and flats to a considerable distance from the mouth. The finest timber grows on its banks, which the wars of conquest and emancipation have repeatedly deluged with blood!

The city of Conception de Mocha, or Penco, the original name of the country where it stands, was founded in the year 1550 by Don Pedro de Valdivia; sacked and burnt by the Toqui Lautaro in 1553, and again destroyed in 1603. The indians were repulsed by Don Garcia Hurtado de Mendoza, and it was rebuilt; but a dreadful earthquake ruined it in 1730, when the sea was driven up to the city and inundated the surrounding country. Conception is built on a sandy uneven soil, six miles east of Talcahuana, its sea-port, and about one mile north of the Bio-bio A small river called the Andalien runs through the city, supplying a beautiful fountain in the principal square. According to Ulloa its latitude is 36° 43´ 15´´ south, and its longitude 72° 54´.

In 1803 the government of this city was in the hands of a Governor, nominated by the King, and a Cabildo, corporation, at the head of which were two Alcaldes ordinarios or mayors. The Cabildo is formed of eight Regidors and four other officers, who are called, de officio, Alferes real, royal ensign; Alcalde de provincia, provincial alcalde; Alguasil mayor, city sheriff; and Fiel Executor, examiner of weights and measures. Each member has an elective vote and a Sindico Procurador, who has consulting powers.[4]

The alcaldes are annually elected by the regidors (without any interference whatever of the governor) out of the resident citizens, with the exception of ecclesiastics, soldiers, and debtors to the crown. If one of the alcaldes die or be absent, the eldest regidor exercises his functions. A demand of justice may be made to the alcalde, but there is an appeal to the audience at Santiago, the capital of Chile. This court was first established at Conception in 1567, but removed to Santiago in 1574. For the military department an intendente, maestre de campo, and quarter master are provided. Here is also a chamber of finances, with an accountant and treasurer.

Conception is the see of a bishop, that of Imperial, as before stated, having been transferred to this city in 1620. It is a suffragan of Lima, and its chapter consists of a dean, archdeacon, and four prebendaries.

Besides the armed militia of the place and province, a regular military force has always been kept up ready to repel any attempt of the Araucanians on Conception, the frontier towns or forts. Since 1819 an army has been stationed here under the command of General Freire, upon whom the indians have on one occasion made an attack. They were led by Benavides, and passed to Talcahuano, where they committed several murders.

A new cathedral has been begun, but owing to the convulsed state of the country the work is suspended, and will probably never be resumed. The building is of brick and stone, and possesses some merit. The timber which had been collected for this edifice was applied to other purposes by the Spanish General Sanches. There are four conventual churches—the Franciscan, Dominican, Agustinian, Mercedarian; one nunnery with the avocation of our Lady of Conception, and the hospital of San Juan de Dios. The convents are attached to their respective provincialates of Santiago. When General Sanches retired from Conception in 1819, he ordered several of the best houses in the city to be burnt, opened the nunnery, and took the nuns with him, but abandoned them at Tucapel, where these victims of a barbarous chief yet remain among the indians, having been persuaded by Sanches and some Spanish priests, that to return to their home would be treason to their King, the Lord's anointed, and subject them to all the miseries temporal and eternal of an excommunication de ipso facto incurrenda.

The houses are commonly one story high, but some are two, built of tapia, mud walls; or adoves, large sun-dried bricks, and all of them are tiled. The largest have a court-yard in front, with an entrance through arched porches, and heavy folding doors, having a postern on one side. Two small rooms usually complete the front view. The windows have iron gratings, with many parts of them gilt, and inside shutters, but no glass. This article has been too dear, and it is consequently only used in the windows of the principal dwelling apartments of the richer classes. On each side of the court, or patio, there are rooms for domestics, the younger branches of the family, and other purposes. In front of the entrance are the principal ones, generally three; a species of large hall, furnished with antique chairs, with leather backs and seats, and one or more clumsy couches to correspond in shape and hardness, a large table made of oak or some similar wood, and very often a few old full-length portraits of persons belonging to the family, hanging in gilt frames. The beams of the roof, which are visible, are not unfrequently ornamented with a profusion of carved work. Two folding doors open into the parlour: the side next the front patio is raised about twelve inches above the floor, which is carpetted, and furnished with a row of low stools, covered with crimson velvet, with cushions to match at their feet, and a small table about eighteen inches high, as a work table, or for the convenience of making mate. This portion of the parlour is allotted to the ladies, who sit upon it cross-legged: a custom no doubt derived from the moors. If a gentleman be on familiar terms with the family, he will take a seat on one of the stools on the estrado, or cross his legs and sit among the ladies; more especially if he can play on the guitar, or sing, which are the favourite accomplishments. Other male visitors, after bowing to the ladies, seat themselves on the opposite side, where chairs are placed to match the stools and cushions. Facing the entrance to the parlour is the principal dormitory, with an alcove at the end of the estrado, where a state bed is displayed, ornamented with a profusion of gilt work, and fitted up with velvet, damask, or brocade curtains, and gold or silver lace and fringe. The sheets and pillow cases are of the finest linen, and trimmed with deep lace. Not unfrequently one or more silver utensils peep from underneath. It appears as if the whole attention of the females were devoted to this useless pageant, which is only used on the occasion of a birth, when the lady receives the first visits of congratulation.

Behind this part of the building there is another court, or patio, where the kitchen and other appropriate apartments are situated, and behind the whole is the garden. Thus it is not uncommon for a house to occupy fifty yards in front and eighty yards in depth, including the garden. The patios have corridors round them, the roofs of which are supported by wooden pillars. The dwellings of the lower classes are on the same plan, except that they have no courts or patios, the fronts being open to the street; but they have usually a garden at the back, where the kitchen is built separately from the house, as a precaution against fire.

In the principal square stand the cathedral and bishop's palace on one side; the barracks with a corridor on another; the governor's palace and its offices on the third, and some of the larger houses on the fourth. The extent of the square is about one hundred yards on each side. The streets cross each other at right angles. The generality of the cities and large towns in South America are built according to this arrangement.

Among the inhabitants are to be found some families of ancient nobility. The present Duke de San Carlos, a grandee of the first class, and late Spanish Ambassador in England, is of the family of the Caravajales, and a native of Conception.

The dress of the men is similar to the European, but either a long Spanish cloak or a poncho is worn over it, the latter being generally preferred, particularly for riding—an exercise of which both the ladies and gentlemen are very fond, and in which they excel. The women wear a bodice fancifully ornamented, and over a large round hoop, a plaited petticoat of coloured flannel, black velvet or brocade. In the house they have no head dress, but in the streets, if going to church, the head is covered with a piece of brown flannel, about a yard broad, and two long; if on pleasure or a visit, a black hat similar to the men's is worn, under which a muslin shawl is thrown over the head. Many of the young women prefer the basquiña y manton, a black silk or stuff petticoat without a hoop, and a black silk or lace veil; but others like the hoop, as it shews their slender waists to advantage. The hair is braided, or platted, hanging in loose tresses down their backs. The ladies are so fond of jewellery that necklaces, ear-rings, bracelets and finger-rings are never dispensed with; and some of the principal wear diamonds and other precious stones of great value. The rosary, too, is a necessary part of the dress of both old and young.

During the summer, and in fine weather, the evening is dedicated to a promenade, generally on the banks of the Bio-bio, and afterwards to friendly visits. The luxury of harmony and friendship is enjoyed in all its extent. The guitar, the song, the dance and refreshments are to be found in every street. Conviviality takes the reins, whilst affection and esteem curb the grosser passions.

The climate is similar to that of the southern provinces of France. The winter season is rainy, but not cold; and the heat of the summer sun is moderated by the winds from the south, which are cooled by travelling over the Pacific; or by those from the east, which are refreshed by passing over the snowy tops of the Cordillera.

The jurisdiction of Conception extends from the river Maule in 34° 50´ to Cape Lavapies in 37° 10´. In it are the correginientos or prefectures of Puchacay and Rere. Its principal towns and villages are Gualqui, San Juan, Quilpolemu, Luanco, Villavicencio, Comicó, and Chillan, which was ruined by the Araucanians in 1599, and has not since been a place of much note.

The inhabitants of this province consist of a few Spaniards, some white creoles, mestizos, a few slaves of different colours, and fewer indians, the aboriginal tribe of Promaucians being now extinct. The whites or Creoles are a very fine race. The men are well formed, and have regular features and good complexions. The women are generally handsome and remarkably polite. The mestizos can scarcely be distinguished from the whites, and it is perhaps their situation in life, not the uncontroulable accident of birth which constitutes the difference. The greatest blessing to a stranger, hospitality, is the constant inmate, or rather ruler of every house, cottage or cabin; and, contrary to the rites of other hospitable people, who limit this virtue to a stated period, the longer a stranger remains the more kindly is he treated. Those who come to visit are often tempted to establish a residence, and may positively call themselves strangers at home.

Nature has been extremely bountiful to this country. Its equable and mild climate, and its rich soil produce every fruit, pulse and vegetable known in Europe, if we except some exotics, which have been reared in the more southern latitudes: oranges, lemons, sugar-cane, bananas and sweet potatoes do not thrive here, owing perhaps more to the cold rains in the winter than to any other cause. Horned cattle, and horses, of an excellent quality, are in great plenty. The vineyards are numerous and fertile. Those near the river Maule yield a grape of a very superior taste, from which a large supply of wine is produced for home consumption and for the Lima market, where any quantity is acceptable and finds a ready sale. For want of proper vessels, however, a large portion is lost, and the quality of the whole much injured. Light wines might be made equal to the best French, and generous ones equal to Sherry and Madeira. A sort of wine called Muscadel far exceeds that of the same name in Spain, and is quite as good as Frontignac. The simple utensils used are made of baked clay, in which the juice is fermented and the wines preserved, having only a wooden cover. Notwithstanding such disadvantages, some of the wines are of remarkably good strength and flavour. Their brandy, from a want of proper vessels, is also greatly deteriorated. The vines mostly grow on espaliers, and are not detached stems as in the generality of the European vineyards.

Excellent wheat is produced in great abundance, the crops yielding from eighty to one hundred fold. Very large quantities are annually sent to Lima, Guayaquil, Panama, and Chiloe. The average price at Conception is ten reals for 216 pounds weight, about five shillings and sixpence; and at Lima thirty reals, or sixteen shillings and sixpence. It may be considered the great staple commodity of the country.—Barley, maize, garbansos, beans, quinua, and lentils are also cultivated for exportation, and yield heavy crops. Potatoes, radishes and other esculents, as well as all kinds of culinary vegetables and useful herbs are raised in the gardens. The zapallo is very much and justly esteemed, being, when green, equal to asparagus, and when ripe, similar to a good potatoe. It will keep in a dry place for six months. Tobacco was formerly grown near the river Maule, but the royal monopoly put an end to its cultivation, which on the emancipation of the country will probably again be attended to.

The greater portion of these rich lands is appropriated to the breeding and fattening of horned cattle, goats and sheep, and the necessary attendance upon them forms the chief occupation of the lower classes. The generality of the cows are never milked, but are left to rear their calves in the plains. When the latter are a year old they are separated, branded, and put on another part of the farm, for enclosed fields or pastures are a refinement with which the graziers of South America are unacquainted. Indeed the farms themselves are divided by such landmarks as a hill, a mountain, a river, the sea, &c. The price of land being low, disagreements respecting boundaries are very rare.

Land in the interior, of such quality as to produce every sort of grain, or to feed all kinds of cattle, is often sold for a dollar, or even much less, the quadra, one hundred square yards, being more than two acres. When the horned cattle are sufficiently fat, or rather at the killing season, which is about the months of February and March, from five hundred to a thousand, according to the size of the farm, are slaughtered. The whole of the fat is separated from the meat and melted, forming a kind of lard called grasa, which is employed in domestic purposes. The tallow is also kept separate, and the meat is jerked. This process is performed by cutting the fleshy substance into slices of about a quarter of an inch thick, leaving out all the bones. The natives are so dexterous at this work that they will cut the whole of a leg, or any other large part of a bullock into one uniformly thin piece. The meat thus cut is either dipped into a very strong solution of salt and water, or rubbed over with a small quantity of fine salt. Whichever mode of curing is adopted, the whole of the jerked meat is put on the hide and rolled up for ten or twelve hours, or until the following morning. It is then hung on lines or poles, to dry in the sun, which being accomplished, it is made into bundles, lashed with thongs of fresh hide, forming a kind of network, and is ready for market. In this operation it loses about one third of its original weight. The dried meat, charqui, finds immediate sale at Lima, Arica, Guayaquil, Panama and other places. Besides the large quantity consumed in Chile, it furnishes a great part of the food of the lower classes, the slaves, and particularly the seamen, being the general substitute for salt beef and pork. The grasa and tallow are also readily sold at the places above mentioned, and are of more value than the meat. The hides are generally consumed in making bags for grain, pulse, &c., thongs for the various purposes to which rope is applied in Europe, or leather of a very good quality.

The slaughtering season is as much a time of diversion for the inhabitants of this country as a sheep-shearing is in England. For two or three days the peasants, huasos, are busy collecting the cattle from the woods and mountains, and driving them into an enclosure made for the purpose. The fat and lean cattle being mixed together, the latter are separated from the former, and driven out; after which one fixed upon for slaughter is allowed to pass the gate, where a peasant stands armed with a sharp instrument in the shape of a crescent, having the points about a foot apart, and as the beast passes he first cuts the hamstring of one leg, and then of the other. Should he miss his aim, a bystander follows the animal at full gallop, and throws the laso over its horns, by which it is caught and detained till another comes up, and either hamstrings or casts a second laso round its hind legs, when the two men, riding in different directions, throw the beast down, and immediately kill it. One of them now takes off the skin, collects into it the tallow and fat, which with the meat he carries to a shed, when the process of jerking, salting, &c. as already described, is immediately begun.

The females in the mean time are all busy cutting up the fat, frying it for grasa, and selecting some of the finer meat for presents and home consumption. The tongues are the only part of the head that is eaten, the remainder being left to rot. In the above manner great numbers of cattle are annually killed, their bones being left to whiten on the ground where they fed.

It is surprizing to Europeans and other strangers to see with what dexterity the laso is thrown. Made of platted or twisted raw hide, it is about one and a half inch in circumference, sometimes less, and being greased in the process of its manufacture, is extremely pliable, stronger than any other kind of rope of treble the thickness, and very durable. The length is from twenty to thirty feet, and at one end is a noose, through which a part of the thong being passed a running knot is formed. Instead of the noose there are occasionally a button and loop. The huaso (or laso thrower) extending the opening formed by passing the thong through the noose, lays hold of the laso, and begins to whirl it over his head, taking care that the opening does not close. Having determined on his object the laso is thrown with unerring precision. A bullock is caught by the horns, and a horse or a sheep by the neck; and as this is often done at full speed, the peasant will wind the end of the laso which he holds round his body, and suddenly stopping his horse, the entangled animal receives such a check that it is frequently upset. One end of the laso is often made fast to the sursingle, or girth of the saddle, particularly when a bull or large bullock is to be caught. On such occasions the horse, as if aware of the resistance he will have to make, turns his side towards the object, and inclines his body in the opposite direction. I have seen him dragged along by the beast, his feet making furrows in the ground, for more than two yards. The people are so expert in this art and so attached to it, that it is deemed quite disgraceful to miss the object. Several of the higher classes exercise it as an amusement, and not only in Chile, but in almost every part of South America which I visited; all classes, when residing in the country, carry the laso behind the saddle. Even the children are often seen throwing the laso, and catching the poultry, dogs and cats, in the houses, yards or streets. Thus this necessary accomplishment grows up with these people. In the late wars it has not been uncommon for the militia to carry their lasos, with which great numbers of Spanish soldiers have been caught and strangled. The rider being at full speed, the moment it was thrown, the unfortunate fellow who happened to be entangled could not extricate himself, and was dragged at the heels of his adversary's horse until he was killed.

Goats are fattened for their tallow and skins, which latter besides their application to the purposes of holding wine, spirits, cider, &c. are generally tanned with the bark of the palque or the peumo, instead of that of oak, and for shoes and similar articles make an excellent leather, called cordovan. The goats are altogether productive of great profit.

Some of the horses in the province of Conception are excellent, being similar in size and shape to the famous Andalusian. They are much valued in all South America, and fetch very high prices in Peru. I have seen them at Quito, which, considering the difficulties of transport that are to be surmounted, is a very great distance; but although every effort has been used to preserve the breed out of the territory of Chile, it has as yet been unavailing.

All kinds of provisions are plentiful in this province; poultry is remarkably cheap, fat and well flavoured; ducks and geese breed twice every year; turkeys and barn door fowls during the whole year; and from the mildness of the climate the broods thrive with little loss. The prices are consequently low: a good fat turkey may be bought for about one shilling, and fowls for sixpence a couple.

Apples, pears, peaches, nectarines, plums and cherries, are produced in such profusion that they are considered of no value. Figs are abundant and good; and the strawberry grows wild; I have seen some nearly as large as a hen's egg. The melons and sandias, water melons, are also very large, and are extremely nice, particularly the latter, to which the natives are partial. Olives do not thrive here. Near the river Maule there are cocoa nut trees or palms, differing from the other species of the same genus in the size of the nut, which is usually about as big as a walnut. Some of the trees are thirty feet high; the trunk is cylindrical, and free from leaves except at the top, where, similar to other palms, they form a circle, presenting a most beautiful appearance. The flowers are in four large clusters at the top of the tree, from whence the leaves spring. When in bud they are enclosed in a fibrous woody sheath, and when the fruit begins to form the spathe divides itself into two parts, each about three feet long and two broad. A bunch or cluster, often contains as many as a thousand nuts. Nothing can be more striking than this tree under the burden of its fruit, over which the branches form a kind of dome, supported by the column-like stem. The fruit resembles in every respect the tropical cocoa nut; the kernel is globular, having a space in the centre, which, when the nut is green, is filled with an agreeable milky tasted liquor, but when dry is quite empty. A curious method is employed for divesting the nuts of their outer rind. They are given to the horned cattle, and being swallowed by them, the filaceous substance is digested, and the nuts voided quite clean. All those sent to market have previously undergone this process! If a bunch of flowers or green nuts be cut from the palm, a large quantity of thick sweet sap, similar to honey, is yielded, and on the stem of the tree being tapped the same liquor is produced; this operation however weakens it so much, that the palm either dies or gives no more fruit for a number of years. The greatest quantity of this sap is obtained by cutting down the tree, and lighting a fire at the end where the branches grow: as the tree burns, the sap is driven out at the root and collected in calabashes; fuel is gradually supplied, until the whole of the trunk is consumed, and all the sap extracted, which sometimes amounts to about forty gallons. This tree seldom bears fruit till it is one hundred years old. Whether it be indigenous to Chile, or the produce of the tropical cocoa nut planted here, I could never ascertain. The natives make baskets of the leaves, and sometimes thatch their cottages with them. Walnuts are also grown, and together with cocoa nuts are exported to Lima, Guayaquil, &c. The gevuin is another species of nut, called by the Spaniards avellano, from its taste being like that of the hazel nut. This tree grows to the height of fifteen feet; the fruit is round, about three quarters of an inch in diameter, and covered with a coriaceous shell, which is at first green, afterwards of an orange colour, and when ripe of a dark brown; the kernel is divided into two lobes, and is generally toasted before being eaten. The molle may be classed without impropriety among the fruit trees, because the indians prepare from its berries (which are black, the size of peas, and grow in small clusters round the slender branches of the tree) a kind of red and very palatable wine, called chicha or molle. Frazier says in his voyage, "it is as pleasant and as strong as wine, if not more so." The taste is really agreeable, and its flavour peculiarly aromatic.

The maqui is another tree, bearing a fruit like a guind, or wild cherry, from which a pleasant fermented beverage is made, called theca. The people are fond of the fruit, and parties go into the woods to gather it. A friend told me, that in one of these excursions, when a boy, he had wandered into a wood to gather maqui, and seeing a woman in a tree with her face of a purple colour, he supposed that she had been rubbing it with the fruit for the sake of frightening him; however, determined to shew his courage, he ascended the tree, when, to his great surprise and terror, he found that it was an idiot belonging to the village, who had hanged herself with her handkerchief tied to one of the uppermost branches! The peumo produces a fruit which is much liked, though I never could eat it on account of its strong oily and rather rancid smell. The tree is tall, and its fruit has the appearance of green olives; to prepare it for eating it is dipped in warm water, but not boiled, because that operation renders it bitter. The pulp is whitish and buttery, and I have no doubt that as large a quantity of oil might be obtained from it as from the olive. Great quantities of murtillas, myrtle berries, are found in this province, and are very delicate. Pernetty, who saw some in the Falkland Isles, or Malvinas, says, "the fruit is of a beautiful appearance and very pleasant taste; by being put into brandy with a little sugar, it forms a delicious liquor, which has in a slight degree the smell of ambergris and of musk, by no means disagreeable even to persons who dislike those perfumes." From these berries the natives also make an agreeable fermented liquor, chicha de murtilla. The arrayan, a myrtle, grows to the height of seventy feet. The fruit, which is about the size of a large pea, is eaten, and has a pleasant taste. A delicate liquor is made from it, and the wood is very valuable.

The principal trees found in the province of Conception are the canelo, or boghi, which grows to the height of fifty feet, and produces good timber. It has two barks; the inner one is whitish, but when dried assumes the colour of cinnamon, and somewhat resembles that spice in taste. The Araucanians entertain so much veneration for this tree, that a branch of it is always presented as a token of peace, and when a treaty is concluded it is tied to the top of the Toqui's axe, and the President's baton. The luma grows from forty to fifty feet high; its wood is tough, and is used for small spars and oars, but it is too heavy for masts. Large cargoes are sent to Lima for coach making and rafters. On rich soils the espino attains the size of an oak. Its wood is very solid and of a dark brown, veined with black and yellow, and is capable of receiving an excellent polish. It is used for cart wheels, being very ponderous and durable, and makes excellent fuel, and the hardest and best charcoal. The flowers of the espino are flosculous, of a deep yellow colour, and so very fragrant that they are called aromas. A species cultivated in the gardens bears a larger flower, which having a long and slender footstalk, is often inserted by the ladies in the flower of the jessamine and placed in their hair. The joint scent of the two is delightful. The pehuen, or pino de la tierra, grows in the southern parts of this province, but it arrives at greater perfection in Araucania. It is from seventy to eighty feet high, and eight in circumference. At the height of thirty feet it has generally four opposite horizontal branches, which gradually decrease in extent until they terminate in a point at the top, presenting the form of a quadrangular pyramid. The cone, or fruit, resembles that of the pine, and the seeds are considered a great delicacy. These piñones, as they are called, are sometimes boiled, and afterwards, by grinding them on a stone, converted into a kind of paste, from which very delicate pastry is made. The pino is cultivated in different parts of this province on account of its valuable wood and the piñones; it may be said, indeed, to be the only tree, except those which yield wine, to which the natives pay any attention. The resin exuding from it is called incienso, and is used by the Chileans as incense.

The banks of the Bio-bio are thickly covered with both red and white cedar trees, some of which are seventy feet high, and twenty in circumference. They are split into slender planks, for slight work, but their exportation from this province is not great, because the deals can be purchased at a much lower price in Chiloe, where, I have been informed by persons of veracity, there are cedars which yield from eight to nine hundred boards, twenty feet long, twelve inches broad and one thick. It is said that water keeps better at sea in casks made of the red cedar, than in those of any other wood. The floripondio grows to the height of six feet, and has a profusion of delightfully fragrant pendant flowers, which are white, bell-shaped, and from eight to ten inches long, and three in diameter at the mouth. Their odour partakes of that of the lily, and one tree, when in bloom, is sufficient to perfume a whole garden. The floripondio arrives at greater perfection on the coasts of Peru, where it is seen in the hedgerows. A species of cactus, quisco, is very common in some parts of this province; it bears thorns from eight to nine inches long, of which the females make knitting needles.

There are a great variety of shrubs in the forests of Conception, and some of them are very aromatic. Those which are particularly useful for dyeing are the diu, thila and uthin, of which the bark and leaves dye black. The juice of the berries of the tara, and of the mayu are used for writing ink, as well as for dyeing. The leaves of the culen, another shrub, have a taste somewhat similar to tea, for which they are often substituted. They are considered a vermifuge and a tonic. Frazier says, that the culen produces a balsam, very efficacious in healing wounds; but I never witnessed this quality. Senna grows luxuriantly near the Maule, and is equally as good as that of the Levant; an infusion of its leaves is often given, and I believe successfully, as a diuretic, particularly in calculous complaints. A shrub called here the palqui, and in Peru the holy herb, yerba santa, is thought to be an antidote to inflammatory diseases; for this purpose the green leaves are soaked in water, then rubbed between the hands, and again soaked, until the water be quite green, in which state a copious draught is taken; and for external inflammation it is applied as a wash. There are several wild plants which yield bright and permanent colours for dyeing. Red is obtained from the relbun, a species of madder; Contra yerba, a kind of agrimony, furnishes yellow, as does another plant called poquel; a violet is procured from the culli and the rosoli; and the panqui yields a permanent black. This peculiar plant grows in moist swampy places; its height is from five to six feet, and the principal stem is sometimes six inches in diameter; the leaves are roundish, rough and thick, and at full growth are three feet in diameter. When the plant is in perfection, the natives cut it down, and split the stem, which contains a large portion of tanin. The black for dyeing is obtained from the expressed juice of the root.

I scarcely ever met with any person in this province who did not assure me that gold mines were to be found in numberless places; I certainly never saw any worked, but the universal assurance of the inhabitants, and what has been written by Molina, Frazier, and other persons of veracity, leave me no room to doubt their existence.

Among the feathered tribe I observed a bird about the size of a pullet, having black and white feathers, a thick neck, rather large head, a strong bill a little curved, and on the fore part of the wings two reddish spurs, like those of a young dunghill cock. It is on the alert the moment it is alarmed, and rising from the ground, hovers over the object which has disturbed it. The noise which it makes when in this situation, and which is probably intended as a signal of danger to other birds; has induced some of the natives to call it tero-tero; but others name it despertador, awakener. Finches, gilgueros, and the thili, a kind of thrush, are numerous, as are the grey and red partridge. Both the latter birds are much esteemed, though I preferred the large wood pigeons, torcasas, some of which are the size of a small pullet. Feeding entirely on herbage, they are particularly fond of the leaves of turnips, and they make their appearance in such numbers that they would destroy a whole field in one day. Their flesh is of a dark colour, but juicy and savoury. Of the larger species of herons I saw three different kinds, one as large as the European heron, and quite similar to it; one of a milk white colour, with a neck more than two feet long, and its red slender legs equally long; and another not quite so large, with a beautiful tuft of white feathers on its head. In several places near the coast I observed flamingoes, and was charmed with their delicate pink plumage; they are not eaten by the natives. I also remarked several species of wild ducks, and three of wild geese; one called of the Cordillera is very good eating, the others I was told are strong and fishy. The wild swan is as large as the European swan, but is not so handsome. It has a black bill and feet, black and white plumage, and is in shape much like a goose, but is never eaten. I had in my possession a tame eagle, which measured ten feet from one tip of its wings to the other; its breast was white spotted with black, the neck and back also black, and the tail and wings of a brown tinge with transverse black stripes. I saw several of the same kind and others of a smaller species in the woods. Parrots very much abound, but their plumage is not handsome, being of a dirty dead green. These birds are very destructive of the fruit and maize.

At Villavicencio I was highly entertained in hunting a pagi, or Chilean lion. On our arrival the people were preparing to destroy this enemy to their cattle; several dogs were collected from the neighbouring farms, and some of the young men of the surrounding country were in great hopes of taking him alive with their lasos, and of afterwards baiting him in the village for the diversion of the ladies; whilst others were desirous of signalizing the prowess of their favourite dogs. All of them were determined to kill this ravenous brute, which had caused much damage, particularly among their horses. The hunt was the only subject of conversation on the Sunday, which was the day fixed for its occurrence. At four o'clock we left the village, more than twenty in number, each leading a dog, and having a chosen laso on his arm, ready to throw at a moment's warning. About a mile from the village we separated, by different bye-roads, into five or six parties, the men taking the dogs on their horses, to prevent, as they said, the possibility of the scent being discovered by the pagi. All noise was avoided—even the smoking of segars was dispensed with, lest the smell should alarm their prey, and they should lose their sport. The party which I joined consisted of five individuals. After riding about four miles we arrived at a small rivulet, where a young colt was tied to a tree, having been taken for that purpose. We then retired about three hundred yards, and the colt being alone began to neigh, which had the desired effect, for before sunset one of our party, placed in advance, let go his dog and whistled, at which signal three other dogs were loosed and ran towards the place where the colt had been left. We immediately followed, and soon found the pagi with his back against a tree, defending himself against his adversaries. On our appearance he seemed inclined to make a start and attempt an escape. The lasos were immediately in motion, when four more dogs came up, and shortly afterwards their masters, who hearing the noise had ridden to the spot as fast as the woods would permit them. The poor brute seemed now to fear the increase of his enemies. However he maintained his post and killed three of our dogs; at which the owner of one of them became so enraged, that he threw his laso round the neck of the pagi, when the dogs, supposing the onset more secure, sprang on him, and he was soon overpowered, but so dreadfully wounded and torn that it became necessary to put an end to his life. The length of this animal from the nose to the root of the tail was five feet four inches, and from the bottom of the foot to the top of the shoulder thirty-one inches. Its head was round, and much like that of a cat, the upper lip being entire, and supplied with whiskers; the nose flat, the eyes large, of a brownish hue, but very much suffused with blood; the ears short and pointed. It had no mane. The neck, back and sides were of a dusky ash colour, with some yellowish spots; the belly of a dirty white; the hair on its buttocks long and shaggy. Each jaw was armed with four cutting, four canine, and sixteen grinding teeth; each of its fore paws and hind feet with five toes, and very strong talons. Four lasos attached to the girths of the saddles of two horses were fastened to the pagi, which was thus dragged to the village, where we arrived about nine o'clock, and were received by the whole of the inhabitants with shouting and rejoicing. The remainder of the night was spent in dancing and carousing.

The people informed me that the favourite food of the pagi is horse-flesh; that watching a good opportunity it jumps upon the back of its prey, which it worries, tearing the flesh with one paw whilst it secures its hold with the other; after sucking the blood it drags the carcase to some hiding place, covers it with leaves, and returns when hungry to devour it. If it enter a place where horned cattle are kept, the bulls and cows immediately form a circle, and place the calves and young cattle in the centre; they then face their enemy boldly, and not unfrequently oblige him to retreat, on which happening, the bulls follow him and often gore him to death. It would therefore appear to be more from fear than choice that he is attached to the flesh of horses. The animal was never known to attack a man; so timid is he of the human race, that he runs away at the appearance of a child, which may perhaps be accounted for from the abundance of cattle supplying him so easily with food that he is seldom in want of flesh.

The vicuña and guanaco are known in Chile; I shall however defer a description of them until I treat of the llama and alpaca of Peru. The chilihueque, spoken of by several travellers, seems to be the same as the llama, but as I never saw it I am unable to determine this point. The description and properties of the two are very similar. The culpen is a species of fox, and is very destructive to poultry and lambs. It is rather more foolish than daring, but not void of the latter quality. It will advance within eight or ten paces of a man, and after looking at him for some time, will retire carelessly, unless pursued, when it betakes itself to the bush. Its colour is a dark reddish brown, with a long straight tail covered with shaggy hair; its height is about two feet. For the preservation of the lambs against this enemy the natives train their dogs to the care of the flock in a curious manner. A young puppy is taken, before its eyes are open, and an ewe is forced to suckle it every night and morning until it can follow the flock, when, either under the direction of a shepherd boy, or in company with an old trained dog, it is taught to keep the sheep together, to follow them in the morning to graze, and to drive them to the fold at night. It is never allowed to follow its master. No shepherd could be more faithful to his trust than one of these dogs; it leaves the fold with the flock in the morning, watches it carefully during the day, keeping off the foxes, eagles and other animals, and returns with it at sunset. It sleeps in the fold, and the sheep become so habituated to the society of their guardian that they allow him to wander among them without any alarm. At night, when the dog arrives with his charge, he first drives them into the fold; he then runs two or three times round it, as if to be certain of its safety against any lurking enemy, and afterwards goes to the house and barks, but immediately returns to the fold, where he waits for his supper. If it be brought he remains quiet, otherwise he again visits the house and barks until he is properly attended to, when he lays himself down among the sheep. Some people have imagined that it is a peculiar breed of dogs that are so trained, but this is an error which experience enables me to contradict; for I have seen several different kinds in charge of different flocks, the whole of their sagacity being the effect of their training. Whilst on the topic of the training of animals I cannot refrain from mentioning the ridiculous appearance of the capons, which are taught to rear broods of chickens. When one or more hens bring forth their young, these are taken from them, and a capon being caught, some of the feathers are plucked from its breast and the inner part of its thighs, and the animal is flogged with nettles, and is then put under a basket with the young chickens. This is generally done in the evening, and in the morning, after brooding the chickens all night, the old capon struts forth with its adopted family, clucking and searching for food with as much activity as the most motherly old hen! I was told that capons rear a brood much better than hens; and I have seen one of them with upwards of thirty chickens. The hen being thus freed from her brood soon begins to lay eggs again, which is a very great advantage.

After an excursion of three weeks, I returned to Conception with my friend, Don Santiago Dias, to whom I brought letters of introduction from my good host at Arauco, Don Nicolas del Rio, which were most willingly attended to, and rendered my detention as a prisoner of war a delightful series of excursions into the country, and of parties of pleasure in the city.

FOOTNOTE:

[4] I have made particular mention of the form of the Cabildos, because they have been preserved since the revolution just as they existed before it.

CHAPTER VI.

Sent to Talcahuano....Description of the Bay and Anchorage....Plain between Conception and Talcahuano....Prospectus of a Soap Manufactory here....Coal Mine....Town, Custom-house, Inhabitants, &c....Fish, &c. caught in the Bay....Colonial Commerce....Prospectus of a Sawing Mill.

After staying a few days at Conception, I was sent for by the governor to Talcahuano, a ship being there ready to sail for Lima. I took with me a note to a resident in the port, and was received by him with the greatest possible kindness; he requested me to make his house my home until the ship should be ready to sail; a request with which I very willingly complied.

The bay of Talcahuano is one of the largest on the western shores of South America: from north to south its length is about ten miles, that is from the main land on one side to the main land on the other; from east to west it is seven miles. In the mouth of the bay lies the island Quiriquina, forming two entrances; that on the east side is the safer, being two miles wide with thirty fathoms water, decreasing gradually towards the usual anchorage at Talcahuano, where, about half a mile from the shore, there are ten fathoms water. It is well sheltered from the north wind; but the swell is so great during a norther (as the north winds are here called) that it is almost impossible to land, though at any other time the landing is good on any part of the beach.

From Conception to Talcahuano, a distance of six miles, the surface of the ground is composed of loose sand intermixed with sea shells; about half a yard deep a continued stratum of marine shells is found, exactly similar to those shell-fish with which the sea abounds at this place: they are the choro, muscle, pie de burra, or ass's foot, the bulgados, a species of snail, and the picos, barnacles. This stratum is generally from twelve to fifteen feet thick; and a similar one is found in the hills, three hundred feet above the level of the sea; being, no doubt, the effect of some tremendous earthquake, which took place before this country was known to the old world; for it is certain, that what now constitutes the valley of Penco or Conception was at some remote period a part of the Pacific Ocean. From these shells all the lime used in building is procured. The land between Talcahuano and Conception is not fit for cultivation; it presents rather a dreary appearance; however, some cattle graze on the marshy or low parts, and their meat is considered very delicate. Abundance of salsola grows in this neighbourhood, from which kali might be procured in great quantities for the purpose of manufacturing soap, which, as tallow and other fat can be bought here at a low rate, would be a very lucrative speculation. Soap bears a high price in Peru, and in almost every part of the country, being seldom under forty dollars the quintal or hundred pounds weight in Lima, and higher in the interior. The facility of procuring good lime and plenty of fuel would be of importance to such an establishment, besides which, the cheapness of copper, from the mines of Coquimbo and Copiapo, for making the necessary utensils, is an advantage of some consideration.

Of all the Spanish writers Herrera alone makes mention of the existence of coal in the province of Conception. In Dec. 8, 1. 6, c. 11, he says, "there is a coal mine upon the beach near to the city of Conception; it burns like charcoal;" and he was not mistaken, for the stratum does exist on the north side of the bay of Talcahuano, near the anchorage on that side, and very near the ruins of Penco Viejo, which was destroyed by the earthquake in 1730, and not rebuilt, because the present anchorage was considered preferable. To what extent the coal reaches has never yet been ascertained; all that has been used has been obtained by throwing aside the mould which covers the surface. This coal is similar in appearance to the English cannel, but it is reasonable to suppose, that if the mine were dug to any considerable depth, the quality would be found to improve, and that the work might be productive of immense wealth to its possessor.

There is a custom-house at Talcahuano, and the necessary officers for collecting the importation and exportation duties; barracks for the garrison belonging to the small battery, a house for the residence of the commanding officer, a parish church, also about a hundred houses, with several large stores, bodegas, for corn, wine, and other goods. The population consists of about five hundred inhabitants, principally muleteers, porters, and fishermen.

The bay abounds with excellent fish; the most esteemed are the robalo; this fish is from two to three feet long, nearly of a cylindrical form, having angular scales, which are of a gold colour on the back, declining to a very beautiful transparent white on the belly: it has a bluish stripe along the back, bordered on each side with a deep yellow; the flesh is delicately white, and has a delicious taste. The corbina is generally about the size of the robalo, though sometimes much larger; its body is of an oval form, covered with broad semi-transparent white scales, on which are some opaque white spots; it is encircled obliquely with a number of brownish lines, the tail is forked, and the head small; its flesh is white and well tasted. The lisa is a kind of mullet; it is found both in fresh and in salt water; the latter, however, is much better than the former: it is about a foot long, its back is of a dirty greenish colour, its sides and belly white, with large scales; its flesh is white, very fat, and is excellent. The peje rey is very similar to a smelt, but when full-grown is of the size of a herring; it has not the same odour as the smelt, but is equally nice when cooked.

In the vicinity of Talcahuano is the gold fish, about ten inches long, flat and of an oval form, with small scales; it is of a bright gold colour, and has five zones or bands surrounding it. One round the neck is black, two others about the middle of the fish are grey, one near the tail is black, and the fifth, at the juncture of the tail with the body is grey; its flesh is very delicate. The chalgua achagual, called by the Spaniards peje gallo, cock fish, is about three feet long; its body is round, rather thicker in the middle than at the neck or near the tail; it is covered with a whitish skin, but has no scales; on its head it has a cartilaginous crest about three quarters of an inch thick—its flesh is not good. The tollo, a species of dog-fish, is about three feet long; it has two triangular dorsal spines, remarkably hard, but no other bones; it is salted and dried, and sent to the Lima market, being rarely eaten fresh, although it is then very good. On the coasts the natives catch a variety of species that are common to other seas, such as the skate, the dog-fish, saw-fish, old wife, conger eel, rock cod, whiting, turbot, plaice, bonito, mackerel, roach, mullet, pilchard, anchovy, &c.

Among the mollusca tribe the muscle is very fine; I have frequently seen them eight inches long, and their flavour is excellent. They are often salted and dried; after which they are strung on slender rushes, and in this manner large quantities are exported. The white urchin is of a globular form, about three inches in diameter, with a whitish shell and spines; the interior substance is yellow, but very good to eat. The pico is a kind of barnacle, adhering to steep rocks at the water's edge: from ten to twenty of them inhabit as many separate cells of a pyramidal form, made of a cretaceous substance, with a little aperture at the top of each cell; they receive their food at this hole, where a kind of small bill protrudes, similar to that of a bird, and hence the animal receives its name of pico, a bill. They are very white, tender, and most delicate eating. The loco is oval, and its shell is covered with small tuberosities: it is from four to five inches long, and the interior or edible substance is white, and very excellent. Of the molluscas the piuri is the most remarkable, in respect both to its shape and habitation; the latter is formed of a coriaceous matter, adhering to the rocks, and which is divided into separate cells, by means of strong membranes. In each of these, in a detached state, is formed the piuri; it is about the size of a large cherry, which it so much resembles in colour, that the following anecdote is related: a native of Chiloe had never seen any cherries until he came to Conception, and observing an abundance there he exclaimed, "What a charming country this is, why the piuries grow on the trees!" This animal, if it deserve to be so called, is eaten either roasted or boiled, and has a taste similar to that of the lobster: great quantities are annually dried for exportation.

Of the crustaceous fishes, the xaiva, crab, has a shell that is nearly spherical, about three inches in diameter, and two inches deep, furnished with spines upon the edges. The apancora, another of the crab species, has an oval shell, denticulated, and generally larger than the xaiva; both are red when boiled, and their flesh is well tasted. Crawfish, camarones, are sometimes caught of the enormous weight of eight or nine pounds each, and are very good.

The principal commerce between this port and some of the other Spanish colonies consists in the exportation of wheat, with which article about six ships, of not less than four hundred tons burthen each, are annually laden, making an average of two thousand four hundred tons, which in an infant country, and for colonial consumption, may be considered very great. Nearly the whole of this wheat is carried to Lima. Of jerked beef, charqui, about six thousand quintals, with a proportionate quantity of tallow and fat, grasa; and of wine, on an average, two thousand jars, containing eighteen gallons each, are annually exported. The minor articles are raw hides, wool, dried fruits, salt fish and pulse. The imports are a small quantity of European manufactured goods, sugar, salt and tobacco; the taxes on which produce from one hundred and two to one hundred and five thousand dollars per annum.

I have already mentioned the benefit which would result from a soap manufactory being established at Talcahuano; another establishment, however, of still greater importance, might be formed either on the banks of the Bio-bio, or on those of the Maule: I mean a sawing mill. Both of these rivers have a sufficient current for the purpose, and an abundance of good timber in their vicinity. A dock yard on a trifling scale has been established and small craft have been built at Maule; but Guayaquil is the great dock yard on the western coast of South America, and vessels of eight hundred tons burthen have been built there; beside which the timber markets of Peru have been almost exclusively supplied with wood from the forest of Guayaquil: this article is becoming scarce in that district, and recourse must soon be had to some other parts, and there are none that present the same facilities as the two I have now mentioned. The forests of the province of Conception are as yet untouched; the price of labour there does not exceed one-third of that at Guayaquil; the hire of cattle for bringing the wood from any part of the forests to the river side bears the same proportion as the price of labour; the advantage of superiority of climate is also attached to this province, as well as that of the total absence of ravenous beasts and poisonous reptiles, which abound in the woods, rivers and estuaries of Guayaquil. The conducting of timber to the port of Talcahuano for embarkation, and its shipment in small vessels in the Maule, are facilities of considerable importance; to which we may add the short passage from either of these two places to the principal established market of Lima, the passage from Guayaquil being of a treble duration. Small vessels only can get out of the Maule, because a bar at the entrance of the river would prevent the egress of large ships when deeply laden. Another powerful reason why sawing mills might be established with greater ease on those rivers than at Guayaquil is, that they would increase the means of subsistence among the labouring classes, and consequently would merit their protection; whereas at the latter place sawing is the occupation of a great portion of the inhabitants of the city, who make very high wages, in consequence of which any establishment detrimental to so numerous a body of artizans would be strenuously resisted, and probably attended with fatal results. It will no doubt appear surprizing to persons in England acquainted with this branch of the arts, that three quarters of a dollar, equal to about three shillings and two pence, should be paid at Guayaquil for sawing a plank from a log of wood ten or twelve inches square by eighteen feet long, the timber not being harder than the English fir. The price for timber brought down to the port of Talcahuano is very low. Liñe, somewhat resembling ash, and applicable to the same uses, may be delivered in logs twenty feet long and twelve inches square, for about one dollar each, and all other kinds of wood at similar rates; while a single inch plank from the same tree would be worth nearly double the sum at Lima. Attached to an establishment of this kind, the carrying of fire wood to Lima would be attended with considerable profit—a cargo of fire wood weighing fourteen quintals is sold here for only one dollar, while in Lima it often sells for from one to one and a half dollar per quintal.

The ship Dolores de la Tierra being ready to sail for Lima, I was ordered on board, and obliged to leave with regret an enchanting country, where I had been treated with unbounded hospitality by its inhabitants. My kind host, Don Manuel Serrano, took care to recommend me to the captain, beside which he sent on board, for my use, more provisions than would have served me for three such voyages.

The foregoing is a brief description of Conception as I saw it in the year 1803. I visited it again in 1820, and in the course of my narrative I shall have occasion to mention it at my second visit, and to contrast its appearance at those two periods.

If in my description of this part of South America I have sometimes touched on the changes that have happened or are likely to happen, it has been when speaking of places which I did not afterwards visit.

CHAPTER VII.

Leave Talcahuano in the Dolores....Passage to Callao....Arrival....Taken to the Castle....Leave Callao....Road to Lima....Conveyed to Prison.

My present situation was very disagreeable. The government of Conception had placed me on board a Spanish vessel, and had given orders to the captain to deliver me up, the moment he should arrive at Callao, to the governor of the fortress. At the same time he had been charged with letters, containing perhaps an account of my having landed on the Araucanian coast; of having visited part of that almost unknown territory, as also part of the province of Conception. Such it was reasonable to expect would be the information conveyed, if either the reports prevailing at that time respecting the cruel system of Spanish jealousy in their colonies were to be credited; or those which have been more recently circulated, that all foreigners would be incarcerated, sent to the mines or to places of exile, for having merely dared to tread the shores of this prohibited country. I should have desponded, had not practice taught me to regard those reports as exaggerated tales, the fictions or dreams of the biassed, and not worthy of the least belief. I was, at the time I landed, ignorant of the existence of any prohibitory laws; but I now reflected, that no doubt foreigners were not allowed to settle in a Spanish colony without having obtained those permissions and passports which are considered equally as indispensable here as in the British colonies; documents which are as essentially necessary to Englishmen as to foreigners; but I also recollected the kind treatment which I had received at Conception, as much a Spanish colony as the place of my destination; I had learned, too, that foreigners resided in this part of the country, some of whom were in the actual employ of the government; it had come to my knowledge that an Irishman, Don Ambrose Higgins, had filled the offices of Captain-General of Chile, and of Viceroy of Peru.—These reflections contributed to make me comparatively happy, and by adhering to a maxim which I had established, never to allow the shadow of future adversity to cloud the existence of present comfort, my life was always free from fear and disquietude. My stay among the pastoral indians of Arauco, for barbarous I cannot call them, had been one continued scene of enjoyment, unalloyed with any apprehension of approaching evils, and this conduct had not contributed a little to make me so welcome a guest. I had followed the same principles whilst at Conception with equal success.

The ship in which I embarked had on board eight thousand fanegas of wheat, with some other Chilean produce, and an abundance of poultry, for the Lima market; she was built at Ferrol in the year 1632, of Spanish oak, and was the oldest vessel in the Pacific; her high poop and clumsy shape forming a great contrast with some of the recently-built ships at Guayaquil, or those from Spain. The conduct of the captain, the officers and passengers, was marked with every kindness. I had a small cabin to myself, but I messed with the captain and passengers, and the eleven days which we were at sea were spent in mirth and gaiety, not a little heightened by the female part of a family going to settle in Lima. The father kindly invited me, should an opportunity present itself, to reside at his house during my stay in that city, an invitation of which I should certainly have availed myself had not circumstances prevented it. We were all anxiety to arrive at Callao, the sea-port of Lima, and although I had fewer reasons to wish it than others, still the idea of seeing something new is always pleasing, particularly to a traveller in a foreign country; besides, I had been informed on my passage that war had not been declared between England and Spain, and that the conduct of the government was to be attributed to their wish to prevent any English spies from residing at liberty in the country.

On the eleventh day after our leaving Talcahuano we made the island of San Lorenzo, which forms one side of the bay of Callao. It exhibits a dreary spectacle, not a tree, a shrub, nor even a blade of grass presents itself; it is one continued heap of sand and rock. Having passed the head land, (where a signal post was erected and a look-out kept, which communicated with Callao, through other signals stationed on the island) the vessels in the offing, the town and batteries at once opened on our view. The principal fortress, called the Royal Philip, Real Felipe, has a majestic appearance, although disadvantageously situated; it is on a level with the sea, and behind it the different ranges of hills rise in successive gradations until crowned with the distant prospect of the Andes, which in some parts tower above the clouds. These clouds, resting on the tops of the lower ranges seemed to have yielded their places in the atmosphere to those enormous masses, and to have prostrated themselves at their feet. As we approached the anchorage the spires and domes of Lima appeared to the left of the town of Callao. At the moment of landing, which is the most pleasing to travellers by sea, the passengers were all in high spirits, expecting to embrace ere long those objects of tender affection, from whom they had been separated by chance, interest, or necessity.

Previous to our coming to an anchorage, the custom-house boat with some others visited our ship, and I was sent ashore in that from the captain of the port. I was immediately conveyed to the castle, and delivered to the Governor. On my landing at Callao, I observed a considerable bustle on what may be called the pier. This pier was made in 1779, during the Viceroyalty of Don Antonio Amat, by running an old king's ship on shore, filling her with stones, sand, and rubbish, and afterwards driving round the parts where the sea washes piles of mangroves, brought from Guayaquil, and which appear to be almost imperishable in sea water. At the landing place I saw several boats employed in watering their ships, for which purpose pipes have been laid down, three feet under ground, to convey the water from a spring; hoses being attached to the spouts, the casks are filled either floating on the sea or in the boats.

The houses make a very sorry appearance; they are generally about twenty feet high, with mud walls, flat roof, and divided into two stories; the under one forms a row of small shops open in front, and the upper one an uncouth corridor. About a quarter of a mile from the landing place is the draw-bridge, over a dry foss, and an entrance under an arched gateway to the castle, the Real Felipe. I was presented to the Governor, a Spanish colonel, who immediately ordered me to the caloboso, one of the prisoners' cells: this was a room about one hundred feet long and twenty wide, formed of stone, with a vaulted roof of the same materials, having two wooden benches, raised about three feet from the ground, for the prisoners to sleep on. A long chain ran along the bench for the purpose of being passed through the shackles of the unhappy occupants, whose miserable beds, formed of rush mats, were rolled up, and laid near the walls. I had an opportunity to make a survey of this place before the prisoners entered; until then I was left quite alone, pondering over my future lot, for this was the first time I could consider myself a prisoner; however, I consoled myself with the hope of release, or if not, a removal to some more comfortable situation. In this hope I was not mistaken, for before the prisoners, who were malefactors employed at the public works, arrived, a soldier came and ordered me to follow him. He took up my bed, while I took care of my trunk, and in this manner I left the abode of crime and misery in which I had been placed. I was conducted to the guard-house, where that part of the garrison on duty are usually stationed. I now found myself among such a curious mixture of soldiers as eyes never witnessed in any other part of the world; but I reconciled myself to my lot, especially as it was not the worst place in the castle. In a short time I was sent for to the officers' room. I there found several agreeable and some well-informed young men, with two very obstinate and testy old ones, who, though of superior rank, were heartily quizzed by their subalterns. Such is the ease and frankness of the South Americans in general, that before I had been an hour in the room, one of the officers, a young lieutenant, and his brother, a cadet, had become as familiar with me as if we had been old acquaintance. They were natives of Lima, both had been educated at San Carlos, the principal college, and both lamented that the most useful branches of science were not taught in the Spanish colleges to that extent, and with that precision which they are in England. The lieutenant also observed, that as the rectors and heads of their colleges were churchmen, the studies were confined principally to theology, divinity and morality, which circumstance caused them to neglect the useful sciences; and this he ascribed as a reason why in those studies the students made little progress. But, continued he, our libraries are not destitute of good mathematical and philosophical books, which some of our young men study, and they are at all times willing to instruct their friends. I spent the time in a very agreeable chit chat with my new acquaintance till ten o'clock, when the lieutenant rose and requested me to wait his return, saying he was going to the governor for el santo, the watchword, and for the orders of the night. He returned in about half an hour, pulled off his uniform coat, put on a jacket, and then told me, in the most friendly manner, that the governor had given orders for my removal to Lima on the following morning; on which he congratulated me, saying, that as that was a large city I should be more comfortable, although a prisoner, than at Callao; he also informed me that, it being the first day of the month, September, 1803, part of the garrison would be relieved by detachments from the capital, and that he was included in that number, and would be happy in giving me a seat in the valancin, hackney coach, which he should hire. About twelve o'clock my bed and trunk were carried to his sleeping room, and I remained in conversation with him till day broke; we slept about an hour, and then arose to breakfast, which consisted of a cup of very good chocolate for each of us, some dry toast, and a glass of water. At eleven o'clock, the detachment having arrived, we left Callao in a valancin, which is a kind of carriage, having the body of a coach on two wheels, drawn by two horses, one in the shafts and the postillion mounted on the other.

The city of Callao, which was destroyed by an earthquake in 1746 and swallowed up by the sea, was at a short distance to the southward of the present town. On a calm day the ruins may yet be seen under water at that part of the bay called the mar braba, rough sea, and on the beach a sentry is always placed for the purpose of taking charge of any treasure that may be washed ashore, which not unfrequently happens. By this terrible convulsion of nature upwards of three thousand people perished at Callao alone. I afterwards became acquainted with an old mulatto, called Eugenio, who was one of the three or four who were saved; he told me that he was sitting on some timber which had been landed from a ship in the bay, at the time that the great wave of the sea rolled in and buried the city, and that he was carried, clinging to the log, near to the chapel, a distance of three miles.

From Callao to Lima it is six miles, with a good road, for which the country is indebted to Don Ambrose Higgins; but he unfortunately died, after being Viceroy three years, leaving this useful work incomplete. The finished part extends only about two miles from the gateway, at the entrance to the city, and has a double row of lofty willows on each side, shading the foot-walk. He also furnished it, at every hundred yards, with neat stone benches; and at about every mile a large circle with walls of brick and stone, four feet high, and stone seats are erected. These circles are formed for carriages to turn in with greater ease than on the road. On each side of the foot-walk runs a small stream of water, irrigating the willows in its course, and nourishing numberless luxuriant weeds and flowers. It was the intention of the Viceroy to carry the road down to Callao in the same style as it now exists near the city, but only the carriage road was finished. It has a parapet of brick raised two feet high on each side, to keep together the materials of the road. On the right hand side, going from the port, may be seen the ruins of an indian village, which was built before the discovery of South America. Some of the old walls are left, formed of clay, about two feet thick and six feet high, and which perhaps owe their present existence to the total absence of rain in this country. To the right is the town of Bellavista, to which parish Callao is attached, being called its anexo. Here is a hospital for seamen and the poorer class of the inhabitants. Half way between the port and the city stands a very neatly built chapel, to which is connected a small cloister; it is dedicated to the Virgin of Mount Carmel, and many visit it to fulfil some vow or other which they have made at sea to this Madonna, she being the protectress of seamen. Near the chapel is situated a house at which are sold good brandy and wine, and it may easily be guessed which establishment has the most customers! On approaching the city the quality of the soil appears to be very good; large gardens with luxuriant vegetables for the market, and fields of lucern and maize are here cultivated, and close to the city walls there are extensive orchards of tropical fruit trees, all irrigated with water drawn by canals from the river Rimac. The gateway is of brick, covered with stucco, with cornices, mouldings, and pillars of stone: it has three arches; the centre one for carriages has folding doors, the two lateral posterns are for foot passengers.

The mind of a traveller is naturally led to expect to find the inside of a city correspondent with the appearance of its entrance; but at Lima he will be deceived. The distant views of the steeples and domes, the beautiful straight road, its shady avenue of lofty willows, and its handsome gateway, are contrasted, immediately on passing them, with a long street of low houses with their porches and patios; small shops with their goods placed on tables at the doors; no glass windows; no display of articles of commerce; numbers of people of all colours, from the black African to the white and rosy coloured Biscayan, with all their intermediate shades, combined with the mixture of colour and features of the aborigines of America:—the mere observation of this variety of colours and features produces a "confusion beyond all confusions."

As a prisoner of war, although the two nations were at peace, I was conducted by my kind friend to the city gaol, carcel de la ciudad, where I remained shut up for eight months with about a hundred criminals of the worst description. Owing, however, to a recommendation and the promise of a remuneration from my good friend the lieutenant, the alcalde lodged me in a room at the entrance of the prison, allotted to persons of decent families, or to such as had the means of paying for this convenience.

I was fortunate enough to find here a native of Lima, an officer in the army, who was confined on suspicion of forgery. He was a very excellent man, and conducted himself towards me in a manner which contributed, not only to my comfort whilst I was a prisoner, but finally to my liberation. My first object in my confinement was to make myself perfectly master of the Spanish tongue, and to obtain some knowledge of Quichua, the court language of the Incas, and used wherever their authority had been established. I was the more desirous of becoming acquainted with this language, because it is spoken in the interior of Peru by all classes of people: the respectable inhabitants, however, also speak Spanish.

CHAPTER VIII.

Lima, Origin of its Name....Pachacamac....Foundation of Lima....Pizarro's Palace....Situation of the City....Form of the Valley Rimac....River.... Climate....Temperature....Moists and Rain....Soil....Earthquakes....Produce.

Lima is the capital of Peru, and derives its name from Rimac, which original name its river still retains; but the valley was called by the indians Rimac Malca, or the place of witches; it being the custom among the aborigines, even before the establishment of the theocrasia of the Incas, as well as during their domination, to banish to this valley those persons who were accused of witchcraft. Its climate is very different from that of the interior, and having a great deal of marshy ground in its vicinity, intermittent fevers generally destroyed in a short time such individuals as were the objects of this superstitious persecution. It is recorded, that when Manco Capac and his sister Mama Ocollo were presented by their grandfather to the indians living at Couzcou, and were informed by him that they were the children of the sun, their God, the fair complexion of these strangers, and their light coloured hair, induced the indians to consider them as rimacs, and they were in consequence exiled to Rimac Malca, the place of witches, now the valley of Lima.

In September, 1533, Don Francisco Pizarro arrived at Pachacamac, a large town belonging to the indians, where a magnificent temple had been built by Pachacutec, the tenth Inca of Peru, for the worship of Pachacamac, the creator and preserver of the world. This rich place of worship was plundered by Pizarro, and the virgins destined to the service of the Deity, though in every respect as sacred as the nuns of Pizarro's religion, were violated by his soldiers; the altars were pillaged and destroyed, and the building was demolished. However, when I visited it in 1817, some of the walls still remained, as if to reproach the descendants of an inhuman monster with his wanton barbarity. I wandered among the remains of this temple, dedicated by a race of men in gratitude to their omnipotent creator and preserver: a house unstained with what bigots curse with the name of idolatry; unpolluted with the blood of sacrifice; uncontaminated with the chaunt of anthems, impiously sung to the Deity after the destruction of a great number of his creatures; of prayers for success, or thanksgivings for victory; but hallowed with the innocent offerings of fruits and flowers, and sanctified with the incense breath of praise, and hymns of joyous gratitude. It is difficult to describe the feelings by which we are affected when we witness the ruins of an edifice destined by its founder to be a monument of national glory, or even of personal honor; but when we contemplate with unprejudiced eyes the remains of a building once sacred to a large portion of our fellow creatures, and raised by them in honour of the great Father of the universe, wantonly destroyed by a being, in whose hands chance had placed more power than his vitiated mind knew how to apply to virtuous purposes—we cannot avoid cursing him, in the bitterness of our anguish. Cold indeed must be the heart of that man who could view the ruins of Pachacamac with less regret than those of Babylon or Jerusalem!

Pizarro having arrived at Pachacamac, and being desirous of building a city near the sea coast, he sent some of his officers to search for a convenient harbour either to the north or to the south. They first visited the harbour of Chilca, which, though a good one, and near Pachacamac, was still defective; the coast was a sandy desert, and the poor indians who lived upon it for the purpose of fishing were often forced to abandon their houses, because their wells of brackish water became dry. The commissioners were obliged to look out for another situation, and having arrived at Callao they found that its bay was very capacious, with the river Rimac entering it on the north. They afterwards explored the delightful surrounding valley, and reported their success to Pizarro, who immediately came from Pachacamac, and approving of the situation, laid the foundation of Lima, on the south side of the river, about two leagues from the sea. On the 8th day of January, 1534, he removed to it those Spaniards whom he had left for the purpose of building a town at Jauja. Lima is called by the Spaniards La Ciudad de los Reyes, from being founded on the day on which the Roman Church celebrates the epiphany, or the feast of the worshipping of the kings or magi of the east. Its arms are a shield with three crowns, Or, on an azure field, and the star of the east; for supporters the letters J. C. Jane and Charles, with the motto—Hoc signum vere Regum est. These arms and the title of royal city were granted to Lima by the Emperor Charles V. in 1537. Pizarro built a palace for himself, about two hundred yards from the river, on the contrary side of the great square, or plasa mayor, to that where the palace of the Viceroy now stands; and the remains of it may yet be found in the Callejon de Petateros, mat maker's alley. He was murdered here on the 26th of June, 1541.

According to several Spanish authorities Lima is situated in 12° 2´ 51´´ south latitude, and in 70° 50´ 51´´ longitude west of Cadiz. To the northward and eastward of the city hills begin to rise, which ultimately compose a part of the great chain of the Andes; or rather they are parts of the high mountains which run north and south about twenty leagues to the eastward of Lima. These mountains gradually descend to the sea coast, producing between each row beautiful and fertile valleys, of which the Rimac is one. The chain opening at the back of Lima forms the valley Lurigancho, which closes on its suburbs. That of the greatest height, bordering on the city, is called San Cristobal, and the other Amancaes; the former is 1302 feet above the level of the sea, and the latter 2652. The mountains slope towards the west, and when seen from the bridge appear to have reached the level about three miles from that station, which extremity, viewed from the same place, is the point where the sun disappears at the time of the winter solstice. To the south west is the island called San Lorenzo; more to the south lies Morro Solar, about eight miles distant, where large hills of sand are observed, which, stretching to the eastward and gently rising, form with the Amancaes a crescent, enclosing the picturesque valley Rimac, through which the river of that name majestically flows, producing in its course or wherever its influence can be obtained all the beauties of Flora and the gifts of Ceres.

The site of Lima gradually inclines to the westward, the great square, plasa mayor, being 480 feet above the level of the sea. Thus all the streets in this direction, with many of those intersecting them at right angles, have small streams of water running along them, which contribute very much to the cleanliness and salubrity of the city and its inhabitants. The water which runs through the streets, as well as that which feeds the fountains and the canals for the irrigation of gardens, orchards and plantations, which fill the whole valley, is drawn from the river Rimac. This river has its origin in the province of Huarochiri, and receives in its course several small streams, which descend the mountains, and are produced by the melting of the snow on the tops of the Andes, as well as by the rains which fall in the interior, at which time the river swells very much, and covers the whole of its bed, which at other times is in many places almost dry. The water in Lima is said to be crude, holding in solution a considerable quantity of selenite, besides being impregnated with abundance of fixed air; hence, indigestions and other affections of the stomach are attributed to it; but Dr. Unanue very justly asks, "may not these diseases be derived from Cupid and Ceres?" The water is certainly far from being pure; for the artaxea, which supplies the city fountains, and the pugios, which supply the suburbs, called San Lazaro, are stagnant pools; both are often full of aquatic plants, which decay and rot in them; they moreover contain water that has been employed in the irrigation of the plantations and farms at the back of the city, and not unfrequently animals have been drowned in them.

The climate of Lima is extremely agreeable; the heat which would naturally be expected in so low a latitude is seldom felt, and those who have been accustomed to the scorching sun and suffocating heat of Bahia, on the opposite side of the Continent, or to those of Carthagena, in the same latitude, are astonished at the mild and almost equable climate of Lima. The following thermometrical observations, made in the years 1805 and 1810, will evince the truth of what has been asserted:—

THERMOMETRICAL OBSERVATIONS,

MADE AT NOON IN THE SHADE OF AN OPEN ROOM AT LIMA.

The coolness of the climate is occasioned by the wind and a peculiar state of the atmosphere. The wind generally blows from different points of the compass between the south west and the south east. When from the former direction, it crosses in its course a great portion of the Pacific Ocean, and when it comes from the eastward it has not to pass over sandy deserts or scorching plains, but to traverse first the immense tract of woodland countries lying between the Brazils and Peru, and afterwards the frozen tops of the Cordillera, at a distance of twenty leagues from Lima; so that, in both cases, it is equally cool and refreshing. A northerly wind is very seldom felt in Lima; but when it blows, as if by accident, from that quarter, the heat is rather oppressive. On the 6th of March, 1811, the wind being from the north, I made the following observations with a Farenheit's thermometer, at one o'clock, p. m.

The heat of the sun in summer is mitigated by a canopy of clouds, which constantly hang over Lima, and although not perceptible from the city, yet when seen from an elevated situation in the mountains, they appear somewhat like the smoke floating in the atmosphere of large towns where coal is burnt; but as this material is not used in Lima, the cause and effect must be different.

If I may be allowed to give an opinion different from that of several eminent persons who have written on the climate of Lima, it is, that the vapours which rise on the coast or from the sea are lifted to a sufficient height by the action of the sun's rays to be caught by the current of wind from the southward and westward, and carried by them into the interior; whilst the exhalations from the city and its suburbs only rise to a lower region, and are not acted upon by the wind, but remain in a quiescent state of perfect equilibrium, hanging over the city during the day, and becoming condensed by the coolness of the night, when they are precipitated in the form of dew, which is always observable in the morning on the herbage.

Lima may be justly said to enjoy one of the most delightful climates in the world; it is a succession of spring and summer, as free from the chills of winter as from the sultry heats of autumn.

Notwithstanding this almost constant equability, some writers have imagined that four seasons are distinguishable. Such persons, however, must undoubtedly have either been endowed with peculiar sensibility, or have been gifted with an amazing philosophy. Not content with the beauties of this climate, some have attached to it the properties which belong to the ultra-tropical countries—jealous perhaps of the theoretical comforts from which they are practically free, and in the full enjoyment of a climate the maximum heat of which seldom exceeds 78° of Farenheit's thermometer, and the minimum of which is seldom below 62°, wishing to perfect it by having the maximum at 100°, and the minimum below zero! Peralta, in his 8th canto, has very quaintly described the beautiful climate of this city:—

"En su orisonte el sol todo es aurora

Eterna, el tiempo todo es primavera

Solo es risa del cielo cada hora

Cada mes solo es cuenta del esfera.

Son cada aliento, un halito de Flora

Cada arroyo una Musa lisongera;

Y los vergeles, que el confin le debé