INTERIOR OF 160-TON B. AND O. ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE.
General Electric Company.

Electric Railways

A Treatise on the
MODERN DEVELOPMENT OF ELECTRIC TRACTION, INCLUDING PRACTICAL
INSTRUCTION IN THE LATEST APPROVED METHODS
OF ELECTRIC RAILROAD EQUIPMENT
AND OPERATION

ELECTRIC RAILWAYS

By James R. Cravath
Western Editor “The Street Railway Journal”

THE SINGLE-PHASE ELECTRIC RAILWAY

By Harris C. Trow, S.B.
American Institute of Electrical Engineers. Editor Textbook Department,
American School of Correspondence

ILLUSTRATED

CHICAGO
AMERICAN SCHOOL OF CORRESPONDENCE
1908

Copyright 1907 by
American School of Correspondence

Entered at Stationers’ Hall, London
All Rights Reserved

Foreword

IN recent years, such marvelous advances have been made in the engineering and scientific fields, and so rapid has been the evolution of mechanical and constructive processes and methods, that a distinct need has been created for a series of practical working guides, of convenient size and low cost, embodying the accumulated results of experience and the most approved modern practice along a great variety of lines. To fill this acknowledged need, is the special purpose of the series of handbooks to which this volume belongs.

¶ In the preparation of this series, it has been the aim of the publishers to lay special stress on the practical side of each subject, as distinguished from mere theoretical or academic discussion. Each volume is written by a well-known expert of acknowledged authority in his special line, and is based on a most careful study of practical needs and up-to-date methods as developed under the conditions of actual practice in the field, the shop, the mill, the power house, the drafting room, the engine room, etc.

¶ These volumes are especially adapted for purposes of self-instruction and home study. The utmost care has been used to bring the treatment of each subject within the range of the common understanding, so that the work will appeal not only to the technically trained expert, but also to the beginner and the self-taught practical man who wishes to keep abreast of modern progress. The language is simple and clear; heavy technical terms and the formulæ of the higher mathematics have been avoided, yet without sacrificing any of the requirements of practical instruction; the arrangement of matter is such as to carry the reader along by easy steps to complete mastery of each subject; frequent examples for practice are given, to enable the reader to test his knowledge and make it a permanent possession; and the illustrations are selected with the greatest care to supplement and make clear the references in the text.

¶ The method adopted in the preparation of these volumes is that which the American School of Correspondence has developed and employed so successfully for many years. It is not an experiment, but has stood the severest of all tests—that of practical use—which has demonstrated it to be the best method yet devised for the education of the busy working man.

¶ For purposes of ready reference and timely information when needed, it is believed that this series of handbooks will be found to meet every requirement.

Table of Contents

HEAVY-DUTY CROSS-COMPOUND CONDENSING ENGINE, DIRECT CONNECTED
TO 1,500 K.W. RAILWAY GENERATOR.
St. Louis Transit Company’s Power House.
Fulton Iron Works.

ELECTRIC RAILWAYS.

PART I.

The general name “electric railway” is applied to all railways employing electric motors to supply power for the propulsion of cars. On all electric railways in commercial use to-day, the electric motor is used to furnish power to the driving wheels of the car or locomotive, the electric motor being the most efficient known means of transforming electrical into mechanical energy.

Electric railways are usually classified according to the methods by which current is supplied to the moving car. Thus, where an overhead trolley wire is used, as on the great majority of electric railways, the term trolley road is applied. Where an insulated steel rail is laid alongside the track rail for supplying current, as on the “elevated” roads in America and on a few interurban roads, the term third-rail road is used. Where, as on the street railways of a few large cities, the conductors are placed in a conduit underneath the surface of the street, and current is taken by means of a plow or shoe running in the conduit, the name electric-conduit railway is most commonly applied. There are also a few systems using conductors buried beneath the pavement, and having contact buttons or sections of conductor rail on the street surface, which sections are supplied with current by automatic electromagnetic switching apparatus as the car passes, but which are normally dead and harmless. The overhead trolley and the third-rail systems are by far the most common.

A further general classification of electric railways has recently been made because of the introduction of alternating-current railway motors. The great majority of electric railways employ direct-current motors. Where alternating-current motors are used, the road is spoken of as one using single-phase alternating-current motors or three-phase alternating-current motors, as the case may be.

All electric railway systems in commercial use are operated on an approximately constant potential or voltage, and the various electric motor cars operating on the system are connected across the lines in parallel. The most common practice is to utilize the rails and ground as one side of the circuit, and the overhead trolley wire or “third rail” as the other side, as in [Fig. 1]. The trolley wire or third rail is, of course, thoroughly insulated from the ground. The positive poles of the generators at the power house are usually connected to the trolley wire, and the negative poles to the rails and ground. The various electric motor cars, being connected in parallel or multiple between the trolley wire and the ground, draw whatever current is necessary for their operation. Where the conduit system is used, both sides of the circuit are insulated from the ground, and the contact shoe or plow collects current from two conducting rails in the conduit, one of these conducting rails being positive and the other negative. A double-trolley system is also in use to a limited extent. In this system, both the positive and the negative sides of the circuit are insulated from the ground, one trolley wire being positive and the other negative.

Further discussion of the matters just outlined will be taken up in the succeeding pages.

Fig. 1.

Fig. 2. Railway Motor.

CAR EQUIPMENT.

MOTORS.

The voltage most commonly employed by electric railways is 500 to 600; and the motors are 500-volt direct-current series-wound motors, designed especially for railway service. The electric railway motor must be dustproof and waterproof because of the position it occupies under the car. For this reason electric railway motors are made in the form of a steel case ([Fig. 2]), which entirely surrounds the field-magnet poles and takes the place of the yokes or frames that support the fields on stationary motors. Cast steel is the material now usually employed for railway motor cases and fields, on account of its mechanical strength and its high magnetic permeability. The four poles project inwardly from the case, as seen in the open motor case, [Fig. 3], which is that of a Westinghouse No. 69 motor.

Fig. 3. Railway Motor. Upper Field Raised.

Railway motors have usually four poles because this permits of a symmetrical and economical arrangement of material around the armature, and hence permits the motor to be placed in the small space available on the car truck. Two-pole motors have been used in the past, but they were not as compact as the four-pole type.

Characteristics of Railway Motors. The curve sheet, [Fig. 4], for the Westinghouse No. 69 motor represents in general the characteristics of all direct-current railway motors.

The figures for each curve are found with names corresponding to the curve to which they apply, at each side represented by vertical distance on the sheet. The amperes, represented by the horizontal distance, are marked at the bottom, and apply in common to all the curves.

The tractive effort at different current consumption is represented by a line curving upwards somewhat. This shows that the tractive effort increases, in a proportion greater than directly, as the current increases.

The torque required in starting may be many times greater than that necessary to maintain the car at full speed. The series-wound motor, therefore, furnishes this great starting torque more economically than a shunt-wound motor the torque of which is proportioned to the current. This feature of the series-wound motor makes it especially adapted to street railway work.

WESTINGHOUSE
No. 69 RAILWAY MOTOR
500 VOLTS
GEAR RATIO, 14 TO 68. WHEELS, 33″
CONTINUOUS CAPACITY, 25 AMPERES AT 300 VOLTS,
OR 23 AMPERES AT 400 VOLTS.

Fig. 4. Characteristic Curves of Railway Motor.

The efficiency curve shows the motor to have an efficiency of about 83 per cent with gears. Much other information may be obtained by a proper study of the curves. The fields are worked near the point of magnetic saturation. This economizes metal and space and is also an advantage because of the fact that when so worked the armature reactions have very little effect on the fields. The neutral points between fields are consequently shifted very little and it is therefore not necessary to shift the brushes when the motor is reversed.

Fig. 5. Armature Winding.

Armature Winding. The armature winding is what is commonly known as the series or wave winding, shown developed in the paper on Direct-Current Dynamos. This winding is shown in [Fig. 5], which is an end view of an armature and commutator. In the figure, however, the armature is shown with a much smaller number of slots than a railway armature should have in practice. One reason for the employment of the wave or series winding on railway motor armatures, is that with this winding no cross-connections are necessary when only two brushes are used, and these two brushes may be placed 90° apart in a convenient and accessible position. Another reason is that the current, in flowing from one brush on the commutator to another, must always pass through the magnetic field of all four of the motor poles. This makes it impossible for any unbalancing of the magnetic circuit to cause more current to flow through one portion of the armature than is flowing through another portion. In a railway motor it has been found quite possible to have one pole or pair of poles exerting a greater magnetic attraction on the armature than another pair, owing to differences in the iron and differences in the clearance between the armature and pole pieces, which differences cause more magnetic lines of force to flow from some pole pieces than from others. With the lap-armature or the ring-armature winding, since the various portions of the armature under different poles are in parallel with one another, any difference in the magnetic flux between different poles will cause a different amount of current to flow in the various paths through the armature.

By reference to the winding diagram given in [Fig. 5], it may be noted that a complete circuit through two coils ends at the segment adjacent to the one from which the start was made. It may also be noted in the table of motor data that all of the armatures have an odd number of segments and an odd number of slots. It is absolutely necessary in a wave winding to have an odd number of segments. Otherwise the winding could not be made symmetrical and the circuit through two coils be made to return to a segment adjacent to that from which the start was made. With equal spacing between the top and bottom leads of the two coils, an even number of segments would make the circuit return either on the segment from which the start was made or two segments from it.

The first drum-wound street railway motor armatures had as many slots in the armature as there were coils and segments. The great number of slots necessarily made the teeth very thin and consequently weak. This is very objectionable as sometimes the armature bearings wear away, allowing the face of the armature to drag on the pole pieces and thin teeth are bent out of shape.

Armatures are now almost entirely constructed with either two or three coils to a slot. When two coils are used in each slot with an odd number of slots an even number of coils results. If these were all connected to the commutator an even number of segments would be necessary. As this is not possible with a wave winding, one of the coils is “cut out.” The ends are cut short and taped and it is termed a “dead” coil. This makes the winding somewhat unsymmetrical, all the coils not bearing the same angular relation to the commutator segments to which they are connected. This difference is, however, not great enough to affect the operation of the machine.

The Westinghouse 49 motor is an example of an armature with a dead coil. By reference to the table of motor data it will be seen that this armature has 59 slots. Two coils in each slot would make 118 coils. One of these, however, is cut out, giving 117 segments.

Cutting out a coil can be avoided by putting three coils in each slot.

An odd number of coils results then no matter what the number of slots may be. In the majority of examples given in the table there are three times as many segments as slots. The sides of the slots of modern street railway armatures are straight. The coils are prevented from flying out by bands of wire extending over the tops of the coils around the armature. Steel or silicon bronze wire of about No. 14 gauge is used. Recesses are made in the armature teeth for the reception of these bands so that the wire when wound will come flush with the face of the armature. The bands are usually ¾ to 1½ inches wide. The wires are well soldered together to secure them in place. One trouble experienced with armatures is the slipping off of these bands. The heated armature expands and stretches them. When the armature cools the bands are loose and then often slip off. When they do so the coils fly out by centrifugal force, strike the pole pieces and ground the motor.

Fig. 6. Armature Coil.

Armature Coils. Railway motor armatures are to-day universally constructed with form-wound coils, which are wound on a form of proper shape and carefully insulated before being placed in the armature.

The coils of the smaller motors (those up to 40 or 50 horsepower) are usually wound with round wire. The cotton covering of the wire is depended upon for insulation. To strengthen this, however, the coils after being wound are immersed in an insulating compound and then baked in an oven. The whole coil is usually wrapped with insulating tape (See [Fig. 6]). The armatures of larger motors have coils made of copper bars. Mica is often placed between and around the bars for insulation, though oiled linen cloth tape cut bias is also employed, especially in repair work.

Field Coils. Field coils are so constructed that they may be readily removed should they become grounded or short-circuited. Some makers wind them on a brass shell or form which is slipped over the pole piece. In some motors the field coils are composed of copper ribbon, wound bare, with ribbons of insulating material between the turns. Field coils of wire for the smaller motors, if not wound on shells, are wound on forms and before completion are taped in such a manner that they will hold their shape without being enclosed in a spool. The terminals are brought out where they will be of easy access when the field is in place (See [Fig. 7]).

Fig. 7. Field Coil.

Armature Leads. In [Fig. 3] is seen a completed armature in the motor casing of a Westinghouse No. 69 motor. Since the motors are four-pole, the two sides of any one coil occupy slots 90° apart in the armature coil, as indicated in [Fig. 5]. The ends of the coils are connected to commutator bars 180° apart. The relative position of the commutator connections of any armature coil can, of course, be varied so as to bring the brushes in the most convenient position in the motor casing. Brushes are always of carbon, and are placed where they can be easily reached from the opening in the motor casing over the commutator.

Motor Leads. The reversing of the current through the armature, independent of the field current, to secure reversal of direction of rotation of the armature, makes it necessary that four wires enter the motor. The portions of these wires connected permanently to the motor are termed the motor leads because they “lead out” the current. Sometimes an ordinary two-way connector is used in connecting these leads to the wires of the cable, but often a jack-knife connector is employed to facilitate connecting and disconnecting. Considerable difficulty has been experienced by the wearing away of the insulation of the leads where they rest on the motor shell. To avoid this there has recently come into use a lead protected by a spiral metal covering. Brushes. That the motor may operate in either direction equally well, the carbon brushes are placed radially or nearly so. No provision is made for shifting their position relative to the fields. They usually occupy a position equidistant between pole tips. The common types are either ½ or ⅝-inch thick and from 2¼ to 4 inches wide.

Fig. 8. Brush Holder.

Brush Holders. Two methods of securing the brush holders are employed. In [Fig. 3], the brush holders may be seen to be secured in position by being bolted through the end of the motor shell. [Fig. 8] shows the brushes mounted on a yoke which is secured to the motor shell. The yoke is of wood and provides the necessary insulation. Where the holders are fastened directly to the shell a block and washers of vulcabeston or other insulating material intervene to furnish the insulation between the shell and the holder. In practice the greatest difficulty experienced with brush holders is preventing them from becoming grounded by dirt and carbon dust which collects on the insulation.

Opening Cases for Inspection. Accessibility for inspection and repairs is essential in all railway motors. A lid is always provided directly over the commutator to facilitate inspection of the commutator and brushes. To open up the motor casing for more extensive inspection or repairs, three general schemes are employed. One is to have the lower half of the casing swing downward on a hinge as in [Fig. 9], which illustrates the Westinghouse No. 38 B motor. The armature may be placed either in the lower half, as shown in [Fig. 9], or in the upper half. When a motor of this type is to be opened the car is run over a pit, and the repair men work entirely from below.

Often the hinge pins are removed and the lower shell containing the armature is dropped down by means of a jack placed underneath.

Two handholes are usually provided in the bottom shell for observing the clearance between the armature and the pole pieces and also for removing dirt that may collect in the bottom of the shell. Another scheme is to have motors open from the top, either by hinging the upper part of the motor casing, as in [Fig. 3], or by having the top part of the casing lift off. Where this form of motor is used, the car body is hoisted clear of the truck, and the trucks are run out from under the car body before work is done on the motors. In this case, all the work can be done from above without the use of pits.

Fig. 9. Railway Motor. Lower Half of Casing Swung Down.

A third design is the box-frame motor casing, from which the armature can be removed endwise only. Such an arrangement is shown in [Fig. 10], which is a view of a No. 66 motor of the General Electric Company. In this motor a sufficiently large opening is provided in the ends of the motor casing to permit of the armature being removed endwise. A plate or head, which accurately fits into this opening, carries the armature bearing. In removing armatures from motors of this kind, the usual method is to take the motor out of the trucks and stand it on end with the pinion up. The bolts being removed from the end plate, the armature can then be hoisted out of the case by means of a special hook attached to the pinion. Another plan that has been used in removing armatures from such motors, is to place the motor in an apparatus where the armature shaft can be held between centers, as in a large lathe. The motor casing is then moved along in a direction parallel to the armature shaft, until the armature is exposed.

This latter box-frame type of motor is very compact; a stronger casing can be made for a given weight and space than if it were divided horizontally. Moreover, the magnetic circuit cannot be disturbed by imperfect contact between two parts of the casing. Where this type of motor is used, the bearings project inward under the commutator and armature, thus getting long bearings with a short motor, which is important where the room is limited, as, for example, in the case of a large motor mounted on a standard-gauge truck.

Fig. 10. Box-Frame Motor.

Gearing. In most cases, spur gearing is used to transmit power from the armature shaft to the car axle, although a few motors with armatures mounted directly on the car axle are in use. Various gearings other than the simple spur gear have been tried, such as worm gears, chain and bevel gears. Practically all have been abandoned in favor of the single-reduction spur gearing, which is the most satisfactory from the standpoint of wear and efficiency. This gearing is shown in Figs. [3] and [9]. The gearing is covered with a gear case ([Fig. 9]), which is usually of steel, though gear cases of thin sheet metal and wood are sometimes used. A solid gear is shown in [Fig. 11], and a split gear in [Fig. 12]. The gear ratios in common use vary from 5 to 1 to 2 to 1, the larger ratio being common on the smaller motors. A ratio often used on motors of 30 to 50 horsepower is 4.78 to 1, the gear having 67 teeth, the pinion 14 teeth.

Street car wheels are usually 33 inches in diameter. This makes necessary 612 revolutions per mile. With a gear ratio of 4.78 the armature revolves 2,925 times per mile. At 15 miles per hour, this gives 731 r.p.m.

Fig. 11. Solid Gear.

Fig. 12. Split Gear.

Lubrication. The lubrication of railway motors was for a number of years carried on almost exclusively with grease, which it was customary to place in the gear casing and in grease boxes over the armature and car-axle bearings. Grease becomes most efficient as a lubricant only when the bearing is heated sufficiently to make the grease run like oil. Oil is now being used to a considerable extent, especially for larger motors. It is fed to the bearings by various devices that allow a very slow feed, such as wicks and lubricators adjusted to pass a small amount of oil per hour.

Bearings. Railway motor bearings are usually of Babbitt metal, which metal is cast into a steel shell. This shell fits into receptacles in the motor casing, which can be seen in Figs. [3] and [9]. A steel shell is used so that the worn-out bearings can be easily renewed and the shells taken to a Babbitt melting furnace to have new Babbitt poured into them.

The motor has two sets of bearings, those for the armature and those for the axle upon which the motor is mounted. The axle bearings are always split diametrically to avoid removing a wheel when a bearing is replaced. On the later designs of motors these are of brass, no Babbitt metal being used. The armature bearings are distinguished by the terms “gear end” and “commutator end” bearings. The gear end bearing is usually of larger diameter and of greater length because of the thrust of the gears it must take in addition to the weight of the armature. This bearing is split so that it may be removed and replaced without the removal of the gear. The commutator end bearing is in one piece. Armature bearings are shown in [Fig. 13].

Fig. 13. Armature Bearings.

Motor Suspension. Two methods of suspending motors flexibly on trucks are in common use. That end of the motor which has bearings on the car axle cannot, of course, be flexibly suspended with regard to the axle; but the other end of the motor can be placed on springs, or rest on a bar supported on springs, as shown in [Fig. 14]. This suspension is commonly called nose suspension. Instead of having a special bar and special springs for the nose of the motor, the nose may rest upon some part of the truck that is carried upon springs. Thus, on the M. C. B. type of swivel truck, the nose usually rests on the truck bolster, and thus gets the benefit both of the bolster springs and of the equalizer springs of the truck. Another general plan of suspension is that known in one form as cradle suspension, and in another form as side-bar suspension. A side-bar suspension is shown in [Fig. 15]. Here a larger percentage of the weight of the motor is evidently taken by the springs than in the case of nose suspension. It is desirable to relieve the car axle of as much dead weight as possible. By dead weight is meant weight resting upon it without the intervention of springs.

Fig. 14. Nose Suspension.

Fig. 15. Side-bar Suspension.

Motors of the New York Central Electric Locomotive. These motors are a radical departure from the usual type of railway motors. The locomotive on which they are mounted has four driving axles, upon each of which is mounted an armature, direct, no gears being used, Figs. [16] and [17]. The motors are remarkable for three special features: The method of mounting the armature, the shape of the pole pieces, and the path of the magnetic flux.

Fig. 16. Longitudinal Section of New York Central Locomotive.

The mounting of the armature upon the driving axle and the motor fields on the truck frame makes it necessary to have flat pole pieces in order that the armature may play up and down as the journal box and axle slide in the guides of the truck frame. The shape of the pole pieces may be observed in the drawing [Fig. 16]. When in the central position there is a ¾-inch air gap between the armature and pole pieces. The magnetic flux is continuous through the fields of all four of the motors. It returns through the cast steel side frames of the truck and two bars placed in the path.

The brush holders are so mounted that the brushes occupy a fixed position relative to the armature. The armature is removed by lowering it with the wheels and axle upon which it is mounted. This can be done without disturbing the fields of the motor.

95 TON ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE FOR NEW YORK CENTRAL RAILROAD.
General Electric Company.

CONTROLLERS.

In an ordinary electric car, current is taken from the wire through the trolley wheel and pole, and is first led from the trolley base through overhead switches or a circuit breaker, and then to the controller, from which it passes through the motors and thence through the motor frames, car truck, and wheels to the rails and ground. If the car is designed to be operated from either end, an overhead switch or circuit breaker is placed over each platform of the car so that current can instantly be cut off entirely from the controllers by throwing the switch or circuit breaker at either end of the car.

Fig. 17. Armature Axle and Wheels.

The lighting circuit is run from the trolley base independently of the motor circuit, and has its own switch and fuse box. Current for the lights is taken from the trolley circuit before it reaches the main switches or circuit breakers. Current for electric heaters, if such are used, is likewise taken from a separate circuit. On a 500-volt system five 100-volt lamps are usually connected in series for car lighting. As many multiples of five can be employed as are necessary to light the car.

Rheostat Control. The simplest form of controller is that employed where only one motor is used on a car. A rheostat is placed in series with the motor when started, just as on a stationary motor; and the function of the controller is to short-circuit this resistance gradually until it is entirely cut out and the motor operates with the full voltage. The controller also has a reversing switch by means of which the relative connections of the armature and fields are reversed, which, of course, changes the direction of rotation of the motor armature. Such a simple equipment as this, however, is rarely to be found in practice.

Series-Parallel Control. Single-truck cars usually have two motors, one on each axle; and on such cars a series-parallel controller is the kind usually employed. Diagrams of connections on the various points of a series-parallel controller (Type K6) of the General Electric Company, are given in [Fig. 18].

Fig. 18. Diagram of K6 Controller Combinations.

From these diagrams it is seen that the motors are first operated in series until all the resistance is short-circuited by the controller. When this has occurred, the cars are running at about half speed. The next point on the controller puts the two motors in multiple, with some resistance in the circuit, which resistance is cut out upon the following points, until at full speed the two motors are in multiple, without any resistance in the circuit.

Fig. 19. Motor in Series.

Four Motors. Where four motors are used on a car, as is frequently the case with double-truck cars, the motors on each truck are usually controlled just as in case of the two-motor equipment that has been described; but each pair of motors is operated in multiple. That is, on the first points of the controller, the two motors of a pair are in series, as in [Fig. 19], and the two pairs are in parallel; and on the last points of the controller, all the motors are in parallel, as in [Fig. 20].

Fig. 20. Motor in Parallel.

Controller Construction. The controller (Type K) shown open in [Fig. 21], which in its various forms is the type most commonly used on street cars in the United States, has a contact cylinder or drum mounted upon the main shaft of the controller. This contact drum carries contact rings insulated from the drum, and is suitably interconnected, as indicated in [Fig. 22], which shows the contact rings of the controller as they would appear if rolled out flat. Contact fingers are placed along the left side of the controller, as seen in [Fig. 21], one for each ring on the drum; and as the controller handle is turned to revolve this drum, the contact fingers make contact with the rings on the drum and give the various connections. Alongside the main controller drum is a reverse drum which simply reverses the armature connections of the two motors. Controller Wiring. The connection between motors, controllers, and resistances, with two motors and a K6 controller is shown in [Fig. 22]. A careful study of this will show the combinations to be the same as indicated in the diagram, [Fig. 18]. The wiring is rather complicated; and in practice, to avoid confusion, the ends of each wire are labeled with tags showing the terminals to which they belong.

Fig. 21. Controller.

Car Wiring for K-6 Controllers with two Motors

Fig. 22

Fig. 23. Motors in Series.

Fig. 24. Motors in Parallel.

With the aid of Figs. 22, 23 and 24, the wiring of a type K6 controller with two motors may be followed. Figs. [23] and [24] are for a different controller but can be used to assist in an understanding of the complicated diagram 22. The current leaves the choke or kicking coil of the lightning arrester and passes through the blow out coil of the controller. It then goes to the top finger T of the controller. On the first point the circuit is as shown in [Fig. 23]. The top segment A makes contact with the top or trolley finger. All but the lower five segments of the cylinder are electrically connected together by means of the iron cylinder upon which they are mounted. On the first point then the current passes from the cylinder over R₁, and with straight series connections of the resistances, it goes through all of the rheostats under the car, and returns to the controller over the last resistance lead, R₇. Behind the motor cut-out switches at the base of the controller this lead is tapped into a wire one end of which leads to finger 19 of the controller, and the other end through the cut-out switch and reverse cylinder to No. 1 armature. The current takes the latter path, passes through the armature of the motor and returns by way of the reverse cylinder, thence through the fields of No. 1 motor and then through the cut-out switch of No. 1 motor and to finger E₁, of the controller. Segments O, M, N and L, shown in [Fig. 23], and corresponding segments of Figs. [22] and [24], are insulated from the remainder of the controller cylinder. From finger E₁ and segment O ([Fig. 23]) the current passes over finger 15 through No. 2 cut-out switch and the reverse cylinder to the armature of No. 2 motor. Returning it passes through the reverse cylinder, then back through the fields of No. 2 motor and to the ground, which is usually through a connection on the motor casing.

On points 2, 3, 4 and 5, the successive series points of the controller R₁, R₂, etc., make contact with segments B, C, etc., Figs. [23] and [24], until finally finger 19 rests on segments J, the resistance is all cut out and the motors are connected in series directly across the line. A further movement of the controller handle changes the motors from series to multiple connection and inserts in the circuit a portion of the external resistance. There are four separate stages in making this change. First, the resistance fingers slide off their segments and the resistance is inserted in the line. Second, fingers E₁ and G make contact with segments P and Q. Motor No. 1 is then across the line in series with the resistance; the circuit being from E₁ to ground over G. When the lower finger E₁ makes contact with P, the upper one has not yet left segment O. This short-circuits No. 2 motor, the path being from the ground, up wire G, thence by way of segments P and Q and through connecting clip V, between the two E₁ fingers back through finger 15 to the motor.

A further movement of the controller handle causes the fingers to leave segments M and O and No. 2 motor is open-circuited until finger 15 makes contact with segment N. When this takes place the motors are in multiple. On the successive points after this the external resistance is cut out in the same manner as previously described.

By reference to [Fig. 22], it will be noticed that the leads to the motors and the resistances are tapped on wires of the cables connecting the two controllers on the ends of the car. The two ends of these wires, with the exception of the armature wires, lead to similar binding posts on the two controllers. The armature wires are interchanged connecting at one controller into binding post A A, while the other end connects into binding post A. This change of connection is necessary in order that the reverse handles be forward for forward direction of movement of the car.

Fig. 25. Forward Position of Reverse.

To reverse a series motor it is simply necessary to reverse the direction of flow of the current in either the armature or field. For several reasons, it is advantageous in the case of the street railway motor to reverse the current in the armature rather than in the field. Figs. [25] and [26] show how this is accomplished. The squares shown in the figures represent the lugs on the reverse cylinder as shown in [Fig. 21]. With the reverse handle in one position ([Fig. 25]), the large lugs are under the reverse fingers, and current passes from finger 19 to finger A₁, and from finger 15 to finger A₂. [Fig. 26] shows the relative position of reverse fingers and lugs for the reverse position of the controller handle. In this case the current passes from finger 19 to A A₁, and from finger 15 to finger A A₂. The effect is to change the direction of flow in the armatures while that in the fields remains the same as may be observed by the arrows.

Fig. 26. Reverse Position of Reverse.

Wiring of Type L Controllers. The type L controller, shown in [Fig. 27], while accomplishing the same results as the type K, is wired in a radically different manner. The circuit is opened in changing from series to multiple connections. The controller handle makes two complete revolutions in moving from the series to the multiple position. It is geared to the rheostatic cylinder in such a manner that the first half of both the first and second revolutions gives this cylinder one complete turn. During the second half of the revolution the cylinder is returned to its original position. The controller handle is so connected to the commutating arm that this stands in a central position for the off position of the handle. At the beginning of the first revolution it is swung to the left, throwing the motors in series. At the beginning of the second revolution it is moved to the right, putting the motors in multiple.

The rheostats instead of being wired in series are connected in multiple. Current passes from the blow-out coil to the bottom fingers of the controller S, and thence to the rheostats. On the first point the current returns over R₁ to the controller cylinder. It passes off through a collar at the base of the cylinder through No. 1 cut-out, and the reverse, which is shown in the central position, to No. 1 motor. On returning to the controller over E₁ it passes to the upper section of the commutating arm. In the diagram this is shown in the central position. In series it is thrown to the left. The current then passes from the commutating arm to No. 2 cut-out, and to No. 2 motor. Movement of the controller handle further multiplies the paths through the rheostats and finally, when fingers S rest on the cylinder, the rheostats are short-circuited. If the controller handle is moved still farther, the rheostat cylinder is returned to the off position and the commutating arm is thrown to the left. With the arm in this position the current divides, one portion passing to No. 1 motor as before and to ground by way of the upper section of the commutating arm; while the other branch goes by way of the lower section of the commutating arm to the cut-out switch for No. 2 motor and thence to the motor.

Fig. 27.
Diagram of Connections
for
L2 Controller

Reversing is accomplished by one-quarter revolutions to the right and left of the segments shown. It is evident that this will connect either A₁ or A A₁, to the trolley. And likewise connect the other armature leads.

Reversal. The reversing handle and the main controller handle are made interlocking so that the motors cannot be reversed without first throwing the controller to off position. This is to prevent damage to the motors through careless or inadvertent throwing of the reverse handle when the controller is on some of its higher points. Such a reversal would cause an enormous current to flow through the motors, and would be likely to damage them and to open all the circuit breakers and fuses in that circuit. The reason for the enormous flow of current is, of course, that the counter-electromotive force of the motors, when reversed with the car going at some speed, would materially add to the electromotive force of the trolley line, instead of opposing it as when the cars are in operation. The current flowing through the motor circuit would then be equal to (electromotive force of line + electromotive force of motors) ÷ (resistance of motors), which would result in a very large current.

Magnetic Blow-Out. On the Type K controller as well as on most other successful controllers, the flashing or arcing between contact rings and fingers, which occurs when the circuit is broken, is materially reduced by a magnet that produces what is called the magnetic blow-out to extinguish the arc. This magnet derives its current from the main circuit, and is so arranged as to create a strong magnetic field in the neighborhood of the place where the arc is formed. [Fig. 21] shows a Type K controller open with the magnetic blow-out magnet thrown back on a hinge. The coil which produces this magnet is seen in the right side of the controller. The main contact drum is in the middle, and the reversing drum at the right hand. There are in use a number of other controllers built upon these same general principles but differing in mechanical arrangement.

Controller Notches. All controllers are provided with some device which prevents the motorman from stopping the controller handle between the various points or notches, as the stopping between points might result in drawing an arc or an imperfect contact. The most common arrangement to prevent this is a notched wheel on the controller shaft, against which bears a small wheel of just the right size to enter the notches. The small wheel is held against the notched wheel by a strong spring. As the tendency of the small wheel is to seek the bottom of the notches, it is difficult to stop the controller handle anywhere between notches, and the motorman is thus given a guide which tells him without any effort on his part just where the notches are.

To prevent advancing the controller handle too rapidly and avoid the jerking of passengers, excessive currents and slipping of wheels during acceleration, several devices have been planned. On the multiple unit control systems, a limit switch is usually provided which prevents the controller advancing when the current exceeds a predetermined amount. A device to accomplish the same results on the K type of controllers is termed the Automotoneer. A cam connected with a dash pot prevents movement of the controller handle to the successive notches faster than a previously prescribed rate.

A switch is usually provided in a controller, for cutting out of service one motor or a pair of motors if defective, and allowing the car to proceed with the good motor or motors.

Fig. 28a. Car Wiring for G. E. Train Control System.

WESTINGHOUSE 300 K.W. DIRECT CURRENT ENGINE TYPE THREE-WIRE GENERATORS.
Pittsburgh, Cincinnati, Chicago and St. Louis Railroad, Columbus, Ohio.

MULTIPLE-UNIT CONTROL.

A system called “multiple-unit control” or “train control” has come into use where it is desired to operate motors under a number of different cars in a train; all the motors being controlled from the head of the train or from any other point on the train where the motorman may be stationed.

There are several types of multiple-unit control. In all of them there is on each car a controller of some kind which controls the current flowing to the motors on that car. This controller is operated from a distance by means of electro-magnetic or electro-pneumatic devices controlled by circuits called pilot circuits, which circuits are connected to the motorman’s controller. All the pilot circuits of a train are connected together by means of train plugs which make the connections between the cars. The pilot circuits of each car are connected to a motorman’s controller on that car and this makes it possible to operate the train from any controller.

Sprague Multiple-Unit System. In the earliest form of multiple-unit control—which was that devised by F. J. Sprague—the motors on each car were controlled by an ordinary Type K controller, which had geared to its shaft a small pilot motor. The pilot motor was controlled by the pilot circuits connected with the motorman’s controller.

In the more recent forms of multiple-unit control, the use of main controllers having contact cylinders has been practically abandoned. The contacts are made instead by a number of electro-magnetic or electro-pneumatic contact devices sometimes called contactors.

General Electric Train Control. In the General Electric train-control system each contact for the motor circuits is made by a solenoid magnet which draws together two heavy copper contact fingers to establish the circuit. A magnetic blow-out coil in series with the contact is also provided. The contactors make contact only when energized by a small amount of current from the master or motorman’s controller. In [Fig. 28]a is a diagram of the car wiring for a motor car equipped with this system. The motorman’s controller is a drum controller, but is comparatively small since it has to handle only the small amount of current necessary to operate the solenoid magnets of the contactors. It is evident that by connecting together the pilot circuits, which are connected to the motorman’s controller, so that the pilot circuits will be continuous for the entire length of the train, any number of cars equipped with the train-control system can be operated; and similar contacts will be made by the contactors under all the cars simultaneously, by virtue of the circuits established by the master controller at any platform.

Besides controlling the contactors, the master or motorman’s controller must control an electro-magnetic reversing switch, or reverser, to change the direction of car travel.

The handle of the motorman’s controller is provided with a push button, which must be depressed while the current is turned on. Should the motorman release this push, the circuit through the controller will be opened and all the contactors will fall open. This handle is called the dead man’s handle because it is put there to provide for cutting off the current should the motorman fall dead or in a faint at his post.

The flow of the current in the control circuits, which operates the reverser and picks up the contactors on the several points may be followed in the diagram [Fig. 28]a. With the reverse handle in the forward position and the controller on the first point, current passes from the main circuit through a single-pole fused switch called the control switch and through the auxiliary blow-out coil to a finger bearing on the upper section of the master controller cylinder by which connection is established to the adjacent finger and thence to the reverse cylinder. It leaves this over wire No. 8, passing by way of the connection board and control cut-out switch to the forward operating coil of the reverser, thence through the forward blow-out coil and over wire 81, through the switch underneath contactor No. 2 and to ground G, by way of wire B 2 after passing through the fuse shown. The current through the operating coil of the reverser, having thrown this, the path is changed somewhat. The current then instead of passing from the reverser over wire 81, is conducted through wire 15, through the operating coils of contactors No. 1, 2, 3, and 11 in series, through the switch under contactor No. 12, and to ground through finger 1 of the controller. Contactors 1 and 2 are in multiple and when raised connect the trolley with the contactors controlling the resistance leads. Contactor 3 connects R to the line while contactor 11 places the two motors in series. The motors then operate with all of the resistance in circuit. When contactor 2 raises, it opens the switch immediately below it, making it impossible for the reverse to operate while current is flowing through the motors. On the second notch of the controller an additional path is opened by way of finger 3 of the controller. This path leads from finger 3 through four of the control circuit rheostat coils, through contactor No. 5 and to ground over 32. On the 3rd, 4th and 5th points contactors 6, 7 and 9 respectively are raised. The motors are then in full series. Between the 5th and 6th points all the control circuits are broken preparatory to starting the multiple connections of motors. On the 6th or the first multiple point the ground through finger 1 of the master controller is opened while a ground through finger 3 is established. The current from the reverser then, after raising contactors 1 and 2 as before, instead of passing through contactors 3 and 11, passes through the coils of 4, 12 and 13, through the switch under contactor 11 and to ground over finger 2. Contactor 12 connects motor No. 2 to R₇, while contactor 13 grounds No. 1 motor. The motors now operate in parallel and on successive notches of the controller, contactors 6, 7, 8, and 9 are raised, cutting out all of the resistance. The switches underneath contactors 11 and 12 make it impossible for 11 to raise with 12 and 13 or vice versa. The reason for this arrangement is very evident, as a direct ground for R₇ would result.

The Westinghouse Electro-Pneumatic System of Control. In this system of multiple unit or train control, the current to the motors is supplied through a set of unit switches or circuit breakers which are sometimes placed in a circular case or turret underneath the car and in other cases are ranged in a row under the car. The opening and closing of these unit switches is done with compressed air acting on a piston in an air cylinder. When the circuit is to be closed, compressed air is admitted behind the piston and forces it down against the tension of a seventy-pound spring, and the contacts are brought together. When the switch is to be opened, the air is let out of the cylinder and the spring forces the piston back. The air supply is obtained from the storage tanks of the air brake system. The valve controlling the air supply to the cylinder of each unit switch is operated by electromagnets which derive current from a seven cell, fourteen-volt, storage battery. The small master controller operated by the motorman, makes and breaks the battery connections to the magnets controlling the air valves.

Fig. 28b. Car Wiring for Westinghouse Control System.

An advantage of this over other multiple-unit systems is that by the use of battery current the control system is not disturbed by interruptions of the main supply of current. The chief advantage of this is that it makes it possible to reverse the motors and operate them as brakes in emergencies at all times.

The battery is charged from the main line through lamps as resistance, or may be charged by being connected in series with the air compressor motor.

In the accompanying diagram, [Fig. 28]b, there are two batteries shown which are charged in series with the compressor motor. By means of two double-pole, double-throw switches, first one and then the other battery is connected for charging and for service. The battery is charged in shunt with a resistance and a relay is connected in the circuit as shown, so as to open the battery circuit whenever the current through the motor stops, and thus prevent the battery discharging through the resistance.

The master controller has a double set of segments in order to decrease the length of the shaft. The handle, therefore, is moved only one-sixth of a revolution from off to full speed. The various circuits can be traced by the letters and numbers each wire bears, so that the circuits will not be gone over in detail. The first position of the master controller throws the reverser switch in the proper direction and also closes the main circuit breaker. On the second point the motors are connected in series with all resistance in circuit, and these resistances are automatically cut out one by one. On the next point of the controller the motors are in multiple and the resistances are automatically cut out in a similar manner. The automatic cutting out of resistances is accomplished by a limit switch in conjunction with operating and holding coils on the electro-pneumatic valves. This limit switch is a kind of a relay which has the current from one of the motors flowing through its coil and which acts to open a certain battery circuit which operates the electro-pneumatic valves whenever the current in the motor circuit in question exceeds the amount for which the limit switch is set. The automatic acceleration or cutting out of resistance is accomplished as follows:

Each electro-pneumatic valve has two magnet coils, one of which is an operating coil and the other a holding coil for holding the valve open after it is operated. When first the current flows through a circuit to one of the electro-pneumatic valves, it flows through the operating coil and operates the valve to close the corresponding switch or switches of the main circuit by turning the air into the cylinders. As soon as the main switch is closed, it cuts into circuit the holding coil of its corresponding electro-pneumatic valve and this coil will, with the battery current, hold the switch closed even though the circuit to the operating coil may be opened momentarily by the limit switch as each step of resistance is cut out. This prevents the switches from opening when they are once closed and allows the operating coils to open an air valve each time the current through the limit switch coil falls below the amount for which it is set. The contacts which close the holding coil circuit on each valve whenever a main switch is closed, are called interlocks and are indicated on the diagram.

Fig. 29. Diagram of Electric Heaters.

The main line circuit breaker, which is electro-pneumatically operated, will open automatically on overload and can be reset by the motorman on all the cars of a train by closing a switch located beside each controller.

CAR HEATERS.

Electric Heaters for warming cars in winter, consist of iron wire coils which are warmed by the passage of electric current through them. The heat so evolved varies as the resistance multiplied by the square of the current. The iron wire coils of the heater are mounted on non-combustible insulating supports, and are arranged so that there is a free circulation of air through them. The coils are surrounded with a perforated metal case, the object of which is to prevent injury to the coils and to prevent persons or clothing coming in contact with the hot, live wires of the coils. Heaters are sometimes arranged so that they can be connected in series or parallel to give different degrees of heat.

The diagram, [Fig. 29], shows the most common arrangement of electric heaters recently. The tap from the trolley should be taken off on the trolley side of the circuit breaker. After passing through a fuse the circuit goes to the switch. Each of the heaters contains two coils, one of higher resistance than the other. Two independent circuits are run from the switch, through the heaters and to the ground. One circuit passes through the high resistance coils of the several heaters while the other goes through the low resistance coils. The switch has three points. On the first point a circuit is made through the high resistance coils. The second point connects the low resistance coils while the third point puts both circuits in service. With this arrangement three gradations of heat may be obtained.

To avoid complicated wiring sometimes but one circuit is employed. In such a case the heat must either be all on or off, no gradations being possible.

The chief difficulty encountered with electric heaters is the breaking of the wires because of the scale of oxide that forms gradually when they are run at a high temperature or because of water striking them from passengers’ clothing on wet days, which causes the wires to snap.

The Consolidated Car Heating Company gives the following data on the current required to heat cars:

In his Electrical Engineers’ Hand Book, Mr. Foster gives results of tests made on Brooklyn cars as follows:

When not watched carefully considerable current may be wasted by allowing the heaters to remain turned on when not needed. Many companies hang out signs where motormen may observe them, indicating when the heaters shall be turned on and to what point.

Fig. 30. Electric Heater.

The best practice in electric heating is to have plenty of heaters and run the wire at a low temperature, rather than attempt to heat with a few at high temperature. The greater the number of heaters the larger the radiating surface around which the air can circulate and a given amount of car heating can be accomplished with less current than with a few high temperature heaters. The depreciation of the heater wires is less the lower the temperature at which they are operated. An electric heater is shown in [Fig. 30].

Hot-Water Heaters are frequently used on large electric cars. Hot-water pipes are placed along the sides of the car, and connected with a stove containing hot-water coils at one end of the car. The water, as it is heated in the stove or heater, expands, and consequently becomes lighter per cubic inch or other unit of volume; it therefore tends to rise when balanced against the colder water in the car pipes. Hot water leaves the top of the heater, flows up to an expansion tank and then down through the car piping, and back to the bottom of the heater. The car piping slopes continuously down from the top connection to the bottom connection of the heater. At the top, an opening to the atmosphere is provided through a small water tank, called an expansion tank. This prevents water pressure bursting the pipes as they become heated, and allows any steam that may have formed to escape. The most modern hot-water heaters for cars are completely closed except as to the ash pit at the bottom and a small feed door in the top. The latter is locked so that the fire cannot come out even if the car is tipped over in a wreck. [Fig. 31] shows the pipes of a hot-water heating installation.

Fig. 31. Pipes for Hot-Water Heating.

CAR WIRING.

The wires from motors to controllers, when placed in exposed position under the car, are bunched in cables or covered with hose. In some cases special runways are provided in the bottom of the car to accommodate the car wiring. All the wiring in a car should be heavily insulated with moisture-proof rubber-covered wire, and further protected from mechanical abrasion by a tough outer covering.

Stranded rubber insulated wire is used almost exclusively for wiring all parts of the car. A general idea of the path of the motor circuit wiring may be obtained by reference to [Fig. 22]. The main lead after leaving the trolley stand is cleated to the trolley board on top of the car. At the end of the car it passes through the roof and to the circuit breaker. On leaving the breaker it is led down a post, through the floor and to the choke coil and lightning arrester underneath the car. It then passes to the trolley terminal of the controller.

The tap for the light wiring (although shown otherwise in the drawing) is usually taken off the main circuit before the circuit breaker is reached. This arrangement allows the lamps to be burned when the circuit breaker is open. After passing through fuses and switches in the motorman’s cab the circuit for the lights is led through the car in moulding concealing it.

The wires running between the motors, controllers and resistance frames underneath the car, as has been stated, are often carried in canvas hose. Usually two cables are made up, for should all the wires necessary be placed in one cable this would become too bulky to be properly cleated up. To make the canvas hose waterproof and to prolong its life it is usually given several coats of asphaltum paint.

The wiring of the new cars of the New York subway is an example of the most advanced practice. All the wires under the cars are carried in “loricated” conduit, which consists of a wrought-iron tube heavily enameled both inside and out. The motor leads and the other larger wires are carried in separate conduits. The conduits are usually hung to the steel beams of the floor framing by strap bolts. This method of wiring gives a reasonable assurance that it will not become defective. Moreover, it lessens fire risk. The conduits are all grounded and should one of the wires come in contact with the conduit carrying it, the dead ground resulting would cause the fuse to blow instantly, and all danger would cease.

RESISTANCES.

The type of resistance now most common for heavy motor equipment is in the form of cast-iron grids, which are assembled together and connected in series. These grids are sufficiently stiff to render unnecessary any solid insulation between them, and hence they can radiate heat to the best advantage. The only difficulty experienced with them is from the warping or cracking. Resistances for lighter equipment are composed of sheet-steel ribbons wound in coils. Each turn of a coil is insulated from the next by asbestos. Other forms of sheet-steel resistance with asbestos insulation between the turns, have also been used. In [Fig. 32] is shown a Westinghouse grid type diverter for street railway equipment.

ELECTRIC CAR ACCESSORIES.

Canopy Switch. An overhead switch, sometimes called a “canopy switch,” is commonly placed over each street-car platform where a controller is located, usually in the deck or canopy above the motorman’s head. This is simply a single-point switch that may be used by the motorman to cut the trolley current off from the controller wiring so that the controllers will be absolutely dead. When two such switches are used, one on each end of the car, they are connected in series.

Fig. 32. Grid Type of Resistance.

Car Circuit Breaker. Frequently on large equipments an automatic circuit breaker is provided instead of this overhead switch. This circuit breaker can be tripped by hand to open the circuit whenever desired; and is also equipped with a solenoid magnet, which can be adjusted so that it will trip or open the circuit breaker at approximately whatever current it is set for. This circuit breaker protects the motor and car wiring from excessive current, such as would occur in case of a short circuit in motors or car wiring, or in case the motorman turned on current so rapidly as to endanger the windings of the motors. Circuit breakers, however, are most commonly used on cars having controllers located at only one end in a motorman’s cab.

Wiring of Circuit Breakers and Canopy Switches. Figs. 33, 34, and 35 show the methods of wiring circuit breakers and canopy switches for double-end cars.

Fig. 33.

In the parallel connection as shown in [Fig. 33], the trolley leads after passing through the choke coils go directly to the blow-out coil of the controllers. Aside from the fact that two lightning arresters and choke coils are required, this method is preferable for automatic circuit breakers.

Fig. 34.

Fig. 34 shows the hand-operated circuit breakers connected in series. This method is used where non-automatic breakers are employed, but for automatic breakers it has the objection that an overload would throw the breaker set at the lowest point. This might be the breaker on the opposite end to that occupied by the motorman and in such an event would necessitate a trip to the other end to set the breaker. Fig. 35 shows a method of parallel connection requiring but one lightning arrester. This method has the objection that the motorman on the front end would have no assurance that by throwing the breaker over him the power would be cut off. The rear breaker might have been carelessly left set.

Fig. 35.

Fig. 36.

Fuses. A fuse is placed in series with the motor circuit before it enters the controller wiring, but where circuit breakers are used instead of canopy switches, the fuse box may sometimes be dispensed with. The fuse box on street cars is usually located underneath one side of the car body where it is accessible for replacing fuses, but where a motorman’s cab is used, the fuse may be placed in the cab. The fuse may be of any of the types in common use, either open or enclosed. In the Westinghouse fuse box it is necessary only to open the box and drop in a piece of straight copper wire of the right length and size. The closing of the box clamps this wire to the terminals and establishes a circuit through the copper wire as a fuse. Of course this copper wire is of small enough size to be fused by a dangerously heavy current.

Lightning Arresters. A lightning arrester is used on all cars taking current from overhead lines. The lightning arrester is connected to the main circuit as it comes from the trolley base, before it reaches any of the other electrical devices on the car, so that it may afford them protection. A common type of lightning arrester is shown in [Fig. 36]. One terminal of the lightning arrester is connected to the motor frame so as to ground it, and the other is connected with the trolley. In most forms of lightning arrester, a small air gap is provided, not such as to permit the 500-volt current to jump across, but across which the lightning will jump on account of its high potential. To prevent an arc being established across the air gap by the power house current after the lightning discharge has taken place and started the arc, some means of extinguishing the arc is provided. In the General Electric Company’s lightning arrester, the arc is extinguished by a magnetic blow-out, which is energized by the current that flows through the lightning arrester. The instant the discharge takes place the current flows across the air gap. The magnetic blow-out extinguishes the arc, and this opens the circuit, leaving the arrester ready for another discharge. In the Garton-Daniels lightning arrester a plunger contact operated by a solenoid opens the circuit as soon as current begins to flow through the arrester. This plunger operates in a magnetic field, which extinguishes the arc. A choke coil, consisting of a few turns of wire around a wooden drum, is placed in the circuit leading to the motors at a point just after it has passed the lightning arrester tap. This choke coil is for the purpose of placing self-induction in the circuit, so that the lightning will tend to branch off through the lightning arrester and to ground, rather than to seek a path through the motor insulation to ground.

Fig 37. Diagram of Light Circuit.

Often, however, the choke coil is omitted, the coils in the circuit breaker and the blow-out coil in the controller being depended upon to prevent the lightning charge from passing.

Lamp Circuits. The lamp circuit of a car is protected by its separate fuse box, and usually each lamp circuit has a switch. As explained before, five 100-volt or 110-volt lamps are placed in series between the trolley wire side of the circuit and ground. If one lamp in the series burns out, of course, all five are extinguished until the defective lamp is replaced with a new one. Enclosed arc lamps are sometimes used for car lighting.

Cars to be operated from either end are often wired so that by turning a switch the platform light on the front end, a light for the sign and another for the headlight on the rear end will be extinguished and corresponding lights on the rear and front ends lighted. This is accomplished by the method of wiring shown in [Fig. 37]. The interior of the car is lighted by six lights. Headlights of 32 candle power are used. This method requires the use of two switches. In all light wiring schemes a switch should be placed on the trolley side of the lights. This permits the current to be cut off in the event of a ground occurring in the system.

On interurban cars arc headlights are almost invariably used. The circuit for the headlight after passing through a switch in the motorman’s cab goes through a resistance frame usually underneath the car and terminates in a socket near the car bumper. The brackets on which the lamp is hung are grounded so that whenever the plug from the lamp is inserted in the socket and the switch in the cab is turned on, the circuit is made.

Usually there is a pressure of about 60 to 70 volts at the terminals of the lamp. The remainder of the voltage drop, from 500 or 600 volts (or whatever the line may be), is in the resistance under the car. The current through the lamp is usually about four amperes. With 60 volts at the arc and 500 volts on the line, this gives a consumption in the lamp of 240 watts and a loss in the resistance under the car of 2,000 watts, or about 90 per cent. The use of the headlight resistance to cut the voltage down is therefore a very inefficient method. Some schemes of wiring use the incandescent lamps used in lighting the car as resistance for the headlight. Another way is to light the interior of the car with arc lamps placed in series with the arc headlight.

Fig. 38. Trolley Base.

Trolley Base. The trolley base upon which the trolley pole swivels, and which furnishes the tension that holds the trolley wheel against the wire, is designed to maintain, by means of springs, an approximately even tension against the trolley wire, whether the trolley wire is high above the track or near the car roof. This is done by changing the relative leverage which the springs of the trolley base have on the trolley pole according to the height of the trolley pole.

Fig. 39. Trolley Wheel.

Fig. 38 shows one form of trolley base. The trolley base is bolted to a platform constructed for it on the roof of the car; and the supply wire to the motors and other electrical devices on the car, except in cases where a wooden trolley pole is used for certain special reasons, is connected directly to the trolley base. An insulated trolley wire is run down the wooden trolley pole, and connected through a flexible lead to the car wiring.

Trolley Poles. The trolley poles in general use are of tubular steel, which gives the greatest strength for a given weight, and which can usually be straightened if the pole has been bent by striking overhead work when the trolley wheel leaves the wire.

Trolley Wheels. Trolley wheels are from four to six inches in diameter over all, the small wheels being used in the city service, and the large wheels in high speed interurban service. A typical trolley wheel is shown in [Fig. 39]. Various companies use various forms of groove in the trolley wheels, some adopting a groove approximately V-shaped. The U-shaped groove, however, is the most common. The trolley wheel is made of a brass composition selected for its toughness and wearing qualities.

Fig. 40. Trolley Harp.

Trolley Harp. The trolley harp, which is placed on the end of the trolley pole and in which the trolley wheel revolves, usually has some means for making electrical contact with the wheel in addition to the journal bearing. In the harp illustrated in [Fig. 40], which is a typical form, this additional contact is secured by a spring bearing against the side of the hub of the wheel.

Fig. 41. Third Rail Shoe.

Since trolley wheels revolve at a very high speed, some unusual means of lubrication must be provided, since there is no opportunity for ordinary oil or grease lubrication. Graphite, in the shape of what is called a “graphite bushing,” is most commonly used. This is a brass bushing, which is pressed into the hub of the trolley wheel. In this bushing is a spiral groove filled with graphite which is supposed to furnish sufficient lubrication as the bushing wears. Roller-bearing trolley wheels have been used to a limited extent, with considerable success in some cases. Some companies have done away with the graphite bushing, and have provided a very long journal for the trolley wheel instead of the usual short bushing.

Contact Shoes. The contact shoe most commonly used on roads employing the third rail is shown in [Fig. 41]. This is simply a shoe of cast iron hung loosely by links. The weight of the shoe is sufficient to give contact. The motion of the links permits the shoe to accommodate itself to unusual obstructions and variations in the height of the third rail. The shoe is fastened to the truck frame by means of a wooden plank which furnishes the necessary insulation.

Fig. 42. Sleet Wheel.

The Potter third-rail shoe which has been used to a limited extent, employs a spring for giving the necessary tension to make electrical contact between the shoe and the third rail. In some ways this is superior, because a spring tension is quicker in its action than gravity, and the shoe accommodates itself better to variations in the height of the third rail at very high speed. The wear on the shoe, however, is likely to be greater.

Sleet on Trolleys and Third Rails. The deposit of sleet on trolleys and third rails hinders greatly the operation of cars. Often sleet wheels of the type shown in [Fig. 42] are used as a trolley wheel. These cut the sleet off instead of rolling over it.

On the third rail, scrapers and brushes in advance of the contact shoe are usually effective where trains are frequent. Several roads are now melting the sleet on the rails by the use of a solution of calcium chloride. The solution is stored in a tank on the car and is led through small pipes to the rail immediately in front of the collecting shoe. About one gallon of solution is used per mile, making the cost about 7½ cents per mile. The effects of one treatment last for two or three hours during the continuance of a storm.

Solutions of common salt have been used in the same manner, but it is claimed that the corroding action on the iron of the calcium chloride is not as great as that of a salt solution.

TRUCKS.

Electric railway cars are classified generally as double-truck and single-truck cars. Double-truck cars are those that have a truck that swivels at each end of the car. A single-truck car is one having four wheels.

Fig. 43. Brill 21-E Car Truck.

Single Trucks. A great many types of single trucks have been designed. It would be out of the question to discuss them all here. In general, however, it may be said that truck builders have aimed to make a truck frame in itself a complete unit independently of the car body, so that the car body will simply rest upon the trucks and there will be no strain on the car body in maintaining the alignment of the truck. Most single trucks, therefore, consist of a rectangular steel frame, either cast or forged, riveted or bolted together. This frame holds the journal boxes in rigid alignment. Usually a spring is placed between each journal box and the truck frame. This spring may be either spiral or elliptic. The principal springs, however, are between the truck frame and the car body. Most truck builders have used a combination of spiral and elliptic springs between the car body and truck frame, as this combination is considered to give better riding qualities and greater freedom from teetering or galloping than either spiral or elliptic springs alone. [Fig. 43] shows a Brill single truck, which illustrates all of the features enumerated.

Swivel Trucks. Swivel trucks, commonly called double trucks, are made in many forms, but the most common is that known as the M. C. B. type of truck. This truck is similar to the standard truck which is in universal use on steam railroad passenger cars in the United States. Different truck builders have introduced many variations in this general type of truck, in adapting it to electric service. Some modifications from the steam railroad standard truck were necessary to accommodate the electric motors and to permit in some cases a low-hung car body. Such trucks are made in a great variety of sizes.

Fig. 44. St. Louis Car Company Truck.

Fig. 44 shows one of these trucks built by the St. Louis Car Company. In this type of truck the car body is fastened to the truck only by the kingbolt on which the truck swivels. This kingbolt is placed in the center of the truck bolster. There are also side bearings between the car body and the ends of the bolster, to prevent tipping of the car body when it is unbalanced. The arrangement of this part of the truck is shown in [Fig. 45]. Under this bolster are elliptic springs which rest on what is called the spring plank. This spring plank is hung from the rectangular frame of the truck by links which allow a side motion. This side motion gives easier riding, especially upon entering and leaving curves. All trucks having this feature are known as swing bolster trucks. The weight, being transmitted to the transom and truck frame through the swinging links just referred to, is then taken by the equalizer springs that support the rectangular truck frame on equalizing bars, which equalizing bars rest on the journal box at either end and are bent down to accommodate the springs located between them and the truck frame. The truck frame holds the journal boxes in alignment by means of guides which permit an up-and-down movement without movement in any other direction, just as on all other types of truck. It is thus seen that there are two sets of springs between the car body and car journals; one set of spiral springs between the equalizing bar and truck frame; and one set of elliptic springs between the spring plank and the bolster. All shocks must be transmitted first through the spiral springs and then through the elliptic springs. The motors used on this type of truck usually have nose suspension, the nose of the motor resting either on the bolster of the truck or on the truck frame.

Fig. 45. Bolster, Links and Spring Plank.

Fig. 46. Steel Tire Wheel.

There are a number of swivel trucks made which have departed considerably from M. C. B. lines, but nearly all retain the features of a bolster mounted by springs on a spring plank, a spring plank hung from a transom, a transom rigidly fastened to the rectangular truck frame of which it forms a part; and a truck frame with one or more sets of spiral springs between it and the journal boxes. Maximum Traction Trucks. A type of swivel truck that once was very popular but has largely been superseded by the type just described is the “maximum traction truck.” This truck has two large wheels on an axle which carries 60 to 70 per cent of the weight on the truck, and two small wheels carrying the balance of the weight. The motors are on the large wheels.

Car Wheels. The car wheels most commonly used are of cast iron. In order to make a tread and flange upon which the wear comes, hard enough to give a good mileage, the tread and flange are chilled in the process of casting. Around the periphery of the mould in which the wheels are cast, is a ring of iron instead of the usual sand. When the molten cast iron comes in contact with this ring of iron, which is called a “chill,” the iron is cooled so suddenly that it becomes extremely hard. The balance of the wheel, cooling more slowly since it is surrounded by sand, has the hardness of ordinary cast iron. A steel tire wheel is shown in [Fig. 46].

Fig. 47. Elevated Car Axle.

Wheels with steel tires are coming into use for elevated and interurban cars because their flanges are not so brittle as those of cast-iron wheels. In wheels of cast metal there is always a liability that the flanges and tread will chip and crack. On high-speed cars the falling-out of pieces of flange may be a serious matter and result in a wreck. Steel-tired wheels have a hub and spokes either of cast or forged steel or iron. On to this wheel a steel tire is shrunk. The tire is heated in a furnace built for the purpose, and is then slipped over the wheel. It is made just such a size that it will slip over the wheel when hot, and when it is cool it will shrink enough to make a very tight fit. When the tire is to be removed after it is worn out, it is heated until it has expanded sufficiently to drop off.

An axle for elevated car is shown in [Fig. 47].

When cast-iron wheels are worn to an improper shape or have flat spots upon them, due to the sliding of the wheels with the brakes set, an emery wheel grinder must be used to grind them down, as nothing else is hard enough to have any effect on the iron.

Fig. 48. Standard M. C. B. Flange.

When steel-tired wheels are worn, they can be put in a lathe and the surface of the tire turned off, as this surface is of metal soft enough to be workable with ordinary tools.

Fig. 49. Brake Shoes and Levers.

The types of wheel tread and wheel flange in use vary greatly among different electric railways. There is a standard Master Car Builders’ wheel tread used on steam railroads, which is shown in [Fig. 48]. Electric railways, however, are usually obliged to use a smaller flange and narrower tread. Street railway special work, such as switches and crossings, usually has too shallow a flange way to permit a standard M. C. B. flange to pass through. Some street railways use flanges as shallow as ⅜-inch, although ¾-inch is most common on city work. The width of the tread on street railway cars, that is, the width of the wheel where it bears on the rail, is usually from 1¾ inches to 2¼ inches. There is a tendency, however, on electric railways, on account of the increasing number of interurban cars which must use city tracks, to build tracks that will accommodate wheels approaching the M. C. B. standard of steam roads. A few roads have adopted wheel treads and flanges very near to the M. C. B. standard.

AUTOMATIC AIR BRAKE CAB EQUIPMENT.
Westinghouse Air Brake Co.

Brake Rigging. The brake rigging on a single-truck car may be arranged in a variety of ways, but should be such that a nearly equal pressure will be brought to bear on the brake shoes on all four wheels. A typical arrangement of brake shoes and levers for single-truck cars is shown in [Fig. 49]. The rods R terminate in chains winding around the brake staff upon which the motorman’s handle or hand wheel is mounted.

Fig. 50. Brake Levers and Air Brake.

For double-truck cars the brake rigging is necessarily more complicated, as it must be arranged to give an equal pressure on all eight wheels of the car. Brake shoes are sometimes placed between the wheels of a truck and sometimes outside. The arrangement of brake shoes between wheels is apparently finding most favor, as when the shoes are applied in this position there is less tendency to tilt the truck frame when the brakes are applied, and this adds to the comfort of passengers in riding. [Fig. 50] shows one form of arrangement of brake levers common on a double-truck car equipped with air brakes, with inside-hung brake shoes.

Brake Leverages and Shoe Pressure. The levers between the air cylinder and the brake shoes are usually so proportioned that with an air pressure of 70 lbs. per sq. in. in the brake cylinders the total of the brake shoe pressures on the wheels will be equal to about 90 per cent of the weight of the car. The diagram [Fig. 51] has shoe pressures and strains in the several rods marked on shoes and rods.

The following example, based on the diagram, will explain the lever proportioning. Only round numbers are given on the diagram.

Assume a four-motor car weighing 40,000 pounds. A brake cylinder 7 inches in diameter is used. This gives 38.5 square inches and at 70 pounds air pressure a total force on the piston rod of 2,695 pounds. The weight of the car is 40,000 pounds. Taking 90 per cent of this gives a total of 36,000 pounds to be exerted by the brake shoe when an emergency stop is made. Each of the eight shoes will press against the wheels with a force of 4,500 pounds.

The dimensions of the truck are such that the “dead levers,” those fixed at one end and which carry shoes, cannot be over 13 inches long. The shoe will be hung three inches from one end, making the proportions 10 to 3, and the pressure on the strut rod between shoes will be 4,500 × ¹⁰⁄₁₃ or 3,461 pounds. To clear the truck frame the live lever extends 14 inches above the point of application of the brake shoe. To obtain 4,500 pounds pressure on the shoe, the distance between the brake shoe and the strut rod, which we will call “x,” will be found by regarding the upper end of the lever as fixed and the power applied at the lower end.

4500 = 3461 × ^{14 + x}₁₄ or
x = 4.2 inches.

Now to obtain the force required in the rod to the truck quadrant, the bottom end of the live lever must be regarded as the fulcrum. The equation is

x = 4500 × ^4.2_18.2 = 1038 pounds.

As the pull rods from each side of the truck are attached to the truck quadrant, the stresses in the brake rods are double this, or 2,076 pounds.

Fig. 51. Diagram of Brake Shoe Pressures and Strains.

The position of the brake cylinder under the car restricts the length of the “live” and “dead” cylinder levers to 16 inches. To obtain 2,076 pounds pull on one end of the levers with the previously computed 2,695 pounds on the other, the proportions must be ²⁰⁷⁶₄₇₇₁ = ^x₁₆, since 2076 + 2695 = 4771. Then x = 7 inches, the distance from the brake piston to the pivotal point.

Since 2,695 pounds pressure is exerted and 36,000 pounds results the proportion of the whole system of levers is 36,000 to 2,695 or 13.3 to 1. In other words the travel of the piston in the cylinder will be 13.3 times that of the shoes if there were no lost motion to be taken up. The piston travel should be from 4 to 5½ inches. This gives about ⅜-inch travel of the brake shoes. Increased travel of the brake shoes necessary to set them as they wear away causes increased travel of the piston of the air cylinder. Not only is more air used at each application of the brakes but the brakes are slower in acting. It is therefore necessary to adjust the brakes frequently. This is done in the system shown in the diagram by the use of a turnbuckle in the connecting rod between the live and dead levers of the truck.

When two motors are on one truck and none on the other, allowance must be made in the levers for the increased weight of the motor truck and the inertia of the armature. The leverage on the motor truck must be greater than on the other.

Air Brakes. Air brakes used on electric railway cars are usually of what is called the straight air brake type in distinction to the Westinghouse automatic air brake. A straight air brake is one in which the air is stored in a reservoir; and, when the brakes are to be applied, air from this reservoir is turned directly into the brake cylinder, in which works a piston operating the brake levers. Air admitted behind the piston forces it out with a pressure which applies the brakes. When the air is let out of the brake cylinder, a spiral spring forces the piston back to its original position and the brakes are released. The motorman’s valve by which he applies the brakes, therefore, provides, first, for turning air from the storage reservoir to the brake cylinder to apply the brakes, and, second, for closing the opening to the storage reservoir and opening an exhaust passage from the brake cylinder so that the air can escape from the brake cylinder to release the brakes.

Straight air brakes of this kind would not be suited to the operation of long trains, because, if the air-brake hose connection between cars should be broken, the brakes would be useless; but for trains of one or two cars, such as are common in electric railway practice, the simplicity of the straight air brake outweighs its disadvantages and this is the type of brake usually employed. (See [Fig. 52].)

The Westinghouse and other forms of automatic air brake are used on electric railways where cars are operated in long trains; but it is out of the province of this paper to describe these brake systems fully, as they are rather complicated. It may be said in general, however, that the Westinghouse automatic air brake is so arranged that, should the hose connection between cars be broken, should the train pull in two, or should anything happen to reduce the pressure which is maintained in the train pipe that runs the length of the train, the brakes would immediately be applied on the entire train.