LIBRARY BOOKBINDING

Library Bookbinding

by Arthur L. Bailey

Librarian Wilmington (Delaware) Institute Free Library

THE H. W. WILSON COMPANY
White Plains, N. Y., and New York City
1916

Published May, 1916

Copyright, 1916
By The H. W. Wilson Company

PREFACE

It has been the purpose of the writer in these chapters on library bookbinding to set forth as clearly as possible the best information relating to processes, materials, routine and various other lesser matters pertaining to bookbinding which must be taken into consideration by librarians, or by assistants in charge of binding departments. Although much of this information exists elsewhere in printed form, it is scattered through various books and articles. In some respects, therefore, this book is a gathering together of scattered material. It is hoped, however, that there is enough new material to make the book of interest to those who deal daily with binding problems, and that the book as a whole may help to solve some of the questions relating to binding in libraries both large and small.

Most books on binding and all books on library binding have devoted some space to paper, its composition, manufacture, finish and use. As the subject is so fully dealt with elsewhere it has not been included here. Those who are interested will find full information in the technical books on paper, in Mr. Dana's "Notes on book binding for libraries," and in Messrs. Coutts and Stephen's "Manual of library binding." There is also an excellent article on wood pulp paper in the Scientific American of October 4, 1913.

Nor has it seemed desirable to include chapters on commercial binding nor on historical bindings. Both of these subjects are treated adequately in Coutts and Stephen's "Manual." The present writer has limited his discussion to matters dealing directly with the binding of books for libraries.

In one or two cases the same subject has been treated in two different chapters because the subject matter belonged in both places, and in neither case would the discussion be complete without it.

A. L. B.

December 9, 1915.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIBRARY BOOKBINDING

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

An examination of the annual reports of libraries in the United States shows that from four to eight per cent of the total income is spent for binding; the amounts ranging from $2,000 to over $40,000 a year for this one item. It must be admitted that these are large sums and that a knowledge of binding materials and processes is necessary in order to spend this money wisely. In many libraries the appropriation for books includes binding and periodicals. It is evident, therefore, that every dollar saved on binding can be devoted to the purchase of books. And what librarian does not desire more money for new books?

In spite of the importance of the subject a great deal of ignorance has prevailed in years past, and far too many librarians of the present day fail to realize that here is one place where money can be easily wasted. Possibly one reason for the ignorance about binding is that, except in a minor degree, it does not directly affect the public, for librarians are quick to make changes which will increase the interest of the public in the library. Another reason is that experiments are necessary; and since it takes time to draw conclusions from experiments, definite rules have not been formulated.

In fact, experiments are still being tried. But while in the past they were along the line of making books stronger, the experiments of the present are rather along the line of adapting different methods to different books, according to the paper on which they are printed, or according to the kind of use they will receive. It is reasonably safe to say that present methods of the best library binders make a book as strong as it is possible to make it. Progress no longer lies along the line of strength.

In order to administer a binding department wisely, the librarian or assistant in charge of binding must know materials, processes, and books; and especially must he know how books should be bound to meet the use they are to receive. For example, fiction that is very popular should be bound differently from fiction which must be kept on the shelves, but which is not popular; it is easily apparent that McCutcheon's "Graustark" should be bound differently from Henry James' "Golden bowl." Heavy reference books constantly consulted should be bound differently from reference books used only occasionally, while it may be wise to bind magazines differently from either. A librarian of a reference library will adopt methods differing from those which are used in public libraries. A good working knowledge of materials and processes can be easily obtained. The saving of expense comes in applying them to use.

A recent advertisement of a binder stated that his books were rebound more times than the books of any other binder. This statement is a sad commentary on the serviceability of his books and calls to mind a practice of twenty years ago which is too prevalent even at the present time. At that time it was the recognized custom to bind as cheaply as possible books which circulated rapidly and wore out quickly. Those who favor this custom fail to realize that in the case of books which are constantly used the actual cost of binding does not depend on the initial cost per volume, but on the ratio of cost to circulation. This is a point first brought out by Mr. J. C. Dana in his "Notes on bookbinding for libraries," and one on which it is impossible to lay too much emphasis. A book which costs 35c. to bind and which circulates 35 times has cost one cent for each time it has been issued after rebinding; while a book which has cost 50c. to bind and has been issued 100 times (a fair average for a 50c. binding) costs one half cent for each time it has been issued. Obviously the 50c. binding is much cheaper. It is probable that the 35c. book must either be rebound at an additional expense of 35c. or else a new copy must be purchased at a cost of $1, while the 50c. binding may carry the book to a point where it can be discarded absolutely. Certainly it should never be rebound again. It is important, therefore, that the librarian who does not know what his binding is costing per issue should keep statistics of circulation for a sufficient length of time to obtain general averages which will be fairly accurate.

While a very strong binding is necessary for fiction and juvenile books in public libraries, it is probable that on many books of a serious character some of the strengthening processes which must be used on fiction and juveniles may be omitted. It should be noted that while this is true of public libraries, the reverse would probably be true in college and reference libraries where a much larger proportion of serious books should be bound as strongly as possible.

There are three general kinds of binding:

(a) Commercial, or edition binding.

(b) Artistic binding.

(c) Library binding.

Commercial binding is that in which practically all books come from the publishers. For the most part it is the product of machinery from beginning to end, and the material used is generally poor. Apparently the sole object in view of most publishers is to turn out a book that will attract the eye. Strength is not an element for which they strive. From their point of view they cannot be severely blamed for making strength a secondary consideration. By far the largest part of their product is sold to individuals, and the strength of the binding is adequate for the amount of use that these books will receive. From the library point of view, however, publishers' bindings are entirely inadequate. One cannot expect, of course, that the publisher will put a popular novel into a binding strong enough to meet the demands of library use. On the other hand, one cannot blame librarians for being exasperated when heavy books of travel, history, or biography part from their covers when they have been in the hands of less than ten readers.

The distinguishing characteristics of commercial binding, and at the same time its greatest weaknesses, are the machine sewing and the insecure way in which the book is fastened into the cover. Very little extra expense either in material, care, or workmanship, would make most books outside of fiction sufficiently strong to withstand all the wear that they will receive. Unfortunately the publishers fail to realize this, and books by the thousands come from the binderies covered on the back with the coarsest kind of super which does not even extend to the head or tail of the book. A stouter cloth, carefully applied, running the entire length of the back would cost very little more per volume, but would strengthen it materially.

While practically all commercial binding is lacking in strength, this is due almost wholly to trade conditions, for commercial binding can be made exceedingly strong. One has only to turn to the 1912 edition of the Century Dictionary or to the United States Catalog, which are practically machine bound throughout, to realize this fact. However, until librarians are united in their demands for stronger bindings, we can expect to see the present poor work turned out in as large quantities as ever.

There is another kind of binding which is, if possible, even more unsuitable for libraries. This is artistic binding which is done exclusively for individuals, beauty of appearance being the chief object in view. It differs from commercial binding in being all hand work instead of machine work. Since hand work is used and the main object in view is beauty, it follows, of course, that such books are much stronger than those bound by publishers. But the strength of these books is in many cases not proof against the wear that they would receive in libraries. No special methods of sewing or strengthening the first and last sections are used. Practically all artistic books are bound in leather and frequently in full leather. Whenever the leather used is anything other than good morocco, it is an element of weakness rather than strength. In addition to these objections, artistic bindings are usually so expensive as to be beyond the reach of any library.

In library binding the main consideration is strength. Not only is beauty a secondary consideration, it is scarcely taken into consideration at all. For it must be confessed that library bindings are seldom attractive. No library can afford to pay for ornamentation of backs and sides of books. Library binding is all hand work. Although machine binding can be made exceedingly strong, machines cannot be used on library binding, because the books vary so much in size and lettering. The main reason why commercial binding can be done by machinery is because a large number of books are bound exactly alike. In library binding it seldom happens that more than two volumes, the same in size and lettering, are bound at the same time. Library binding also differs from other bindings in that the use the book is to receive is made the basis of selection of materials and methods.

CHAPTER II

SELECTION OF A BINDER

Since library binding differs widely from other kinds of binding, it follows naturally that it is best to have this work done by men who understand its special requirements. Unfortunately, there are comparatively few binders who make a specialty of this kind of work. Librarians of most of the smaller libraries are forced by local prejudice to give their work to the local binder or to the nearest outside binder in order to save the expense of transportation. If the work is sent to the local binder, it must be sent to one who is doing other kinds of binding and to whom the library work is, in a way, a minor consideration. He would object if the work were sent out of town, but the total amount of the library work is small compared with his other work. Such binders usually have one way for binding all books (except those which come under the head of blank-book work) and the library books go through the regular process of being sewed on twine and put into covers with no special reinforcements. The materials used are not the best and the workmanship is generally poor. Local binders, realizing that the funds are usually inadequate for the needs of the library, frequently do this work at a price which at first sight seems cheap. When, however, the poor service which the bindings give is taken into consideration the price is really very high. Many of these binders have been in business for years; and although they may be good workmen and do honest work, they are very sure that they know more about binding than any librarian, and it is with difficulty that they can be prevailed upon to adopt suggestions.

It is only fair, of course, that a library which is supported either in whole or in part by public funds should, when possible, have its work done by residents of the town. For this reason, therefore, the librarian should learn in just what ways good library binding differs from other binding. All the good materials and processes, and all the various methods of strengthening a book should be studied carefully so that the binder can be told exactly how the work should be done. The binder will probably rebel, but perhaps he can be converted and the effort is worth while.

If the binder fails to grasp the ideas of the librarian, or refuses to carry them out, the work should be sent out of town to a good binder, for deference to local prejudice does not require that the efficiency of the library be impaired. When work is sent out of town the librarian is somewhat at a disadvantage, for no examination of the work can be made while the books are in process. That the binder chosen should do honest work goes without saying. The work of a dishonest or incompetent binder always shows in the poor service which the books give, but inasmuch as dishonest work is generally covered up, it takes time to discover it. Therefore, great care must be taken to select a good binder in the first place. Librarians who are in doubt should consult the librarians of large libraries, or apply to the Binding committee of the American Library Association for the names of reliable binders.

While librarians should be able to give suggestions to binders who are not accustomed to library binding, and failing that should exercise good judgment in selecting a binder at a distance, they should not expect the impossible. The writer has seen books sent to binders which were in such bad condition that no binder could bind them satisfactorily. Some librarians expect too much of a binder; others do not realize that they are not demanding all that they should receive.

Having selected a competent binder the librarian should not insist that unimportant details be done according to his own ideas. If the binder understands that he may have the work only so long as he follows the specifications faithfully, one may safely leave the details to him.

It should further be borne in mind that good binding is seldom obtained at low prices. A library book well bound requires good material, good workmanship and special reinforcements which take time. Since the largest part of the cost of a book is due to the labor spent on it, it follows that low prices can prevail only in those localities where the cost of labor is below the standard.

Since workmanship has as much to do with good binding as specifications it is not wise to submit specifications to different binders for bids. It is better to ask binders to submit samples of their work with specifications of the way in which the books are bound. If, however, it seems wise to ask for bids, it is far from wise to choose the lowest bidder unless absolutely assured that the workmanship and material will be satisfactory.

CHAPTER III

PROCESSES

The processes of bookbinding have been so fully covered in the books of Messrs. Cockerell, Zaehnsdorf, Crane, and others, that the need of further material of a similar character is not readily apparent. The only excuse the writer has to offer for discussing the matter of processes at any length is that there seems to exist nowhere any description of the processes that are used in the best library binderies. Mr. Dana in his "Notes on bookbinding for libraries" touches only certain points of the processes here and there. Mr. Stephen in Coutts and Stephen's "Manual of library binding" has a chapter on hand bookbinding, but confines himself closely to the general processes that have been in vogue for years; the modifications used in library binding are not touched upon. In other words the works of Cockerell, Zaehnsdorf, Crane and others are too full, while descriptions in books devoted to library binding are not full enough.

It is the purpose of this chapter to cover somewhat in detail the main processes as they are carried out in the best library binderies. Explanations of the technical terms used will be found in the list of technical terms at the end of the book.

Without discussing the composition of paper it is necessary to state that the paper of a book has a very important effect upon its binding. Its thickness, tensile strength, firmness, toughness, strength after being sawed or perforated for sewing, and strength after folding, all have an effect on its durability. Especial emphasis must be laid upon strength after folding, for it must be remembered that it is through the fold that the book is sewed. If a crease or a fold in a piece of paper weakens that piece of paper, it will be impossible to make a strong book by sewing in the ordinary way. If a fold has very little effect upon the strength of the paper ordinary sewing may be satisfactory. The folding of paper in 95 per cent of fiction and juvenile books weakens it at the fold over 50 per cent. In a good piece of paper the fold weakens it not over 5 per cent.

The problem of paper is a modern one, due to the use of wood pulp and other short-fibred materials in paper manufacture. All binders complain bitterly of the impossibility of binding it properly. The librarian, however, should know the way in which it can be bound to give the maximum amount of service and should not allow a binder to blame the paper for faults which are due to his ignorance or to poor workmanship.

While the customs of library binders vary somewhat according to the prejudices of the different men, the following description covers the binding processes carried out at most binderies.

1. Taking Apart

After the books have been checked with the statement of the librarian to see that the correct number has been received, each one is taken apart carefully and all old threads, glue, paste, etc., removed from the back. If the book is in a regular machine sewed publisher's cover it will be comparatively easy to remove old threads and glue from the back. If in an old hand sewed one, it may be a little more difficult.

The book is first removed from the cover. The first signature is then turned back and threads cut with a sharp knife. Generally this will loosen the signature so that it can be separated easily from the rest of the volume. If it is still held by glue and there is danger of injuring the back of the signature, a bone folder is used. If the book had a tight back and the leather, back-lining paper and glue form a very firm back not easily separated in the manner described, the glue may be softened with paste or warm water, with care necessary to prevent the dampness from penetrating the book.

2. Collation

The book should then be collated. The best library binders make themselves responsible for page collation but they do not bother to see that all plates, illustrations, maps, etc., which may be called for by the table of contents, are in proper place. In the case of periodicals they do not always discover the fact that certain parts, not included in the main paging, are missing. Their collation is that of main paging only. Periodicals must, therefore, have title page, table of contents and index in their proper places. Books with two or more main pagings or many unpaged illustrations must be collated at the library. (See Preparing for the bindery, [p. 125.])

3. Knocking Down

(a) Backs of signatures are then pounded down so that they may be as nearly as possible the same thickness as the front of the signatures. Care must be taken to have a clean hammer and to let it fall evenly on the paper. If the backs are not properly pounded down there is likely to be too much swell in the back of the book when it is finally sewed. In all the first processes of binding the question of undue swelling of the back must be taken into consideration.

(b) If the book must be overcast when it comes to be sewed, the back is not only pounded down at this stage, but it is also put under the knife and entirely cut off, leaving single leaves instead of folded sections. If it is not pounded it cannot be cut properly. The success of overcasting depends largely on the amount of margin at the back, so that care must be taken not to cut more than is absolutely necessary.

4. Mending

Leaves are mended with thin tough paper. The librarian should not, however, expect binders to mend books which have a large number of torn leaves without making an extra charge.

5. Gluing

Books which are to be overcast and which have had the backs cut off are slightly glued to hold the leaves together. A sufficient number can then be taken off and handled as a section without coming apart.

6. Fly Leaves Guarded

Fly-leaves, made of kraft or manila paper running about 60 pounds to the ream, which have previously been guarded with cloth are added to the book. In guarding, a strip of cloth is pasted around the back of the folded fly-leaf covering about one quarter of an inch on each side. When the book is sewed the needle passes through the cloth as well as the paper. Different binders use different materials for guarding fly-leaves, end papers and signatures. It must, however, be a cloth of close weave, strong, and light in weight. The English cloth called jaconet, used by some binders, is probably as satisfactory as any.

This is one part of library binding which differs radically from the custom in ordinary hand work. Old-fashioned binders, unless properly instructed, will simply fold a piece of paper, and tip it on to the first and last signatures with paste, thus forming an element of weakness instead of strength. When the fly-leaves are guarded and properly sewed they become an integral part of the book and no tipping is necessary.

7. Sections Guarded

At this point it is also necessary to guard the first and last signatures of books which are to be sewed in the regular way. Overcast books do not need such guards.

Guarding of first and last signatures is another of the distinctive features of library binding. In the case of books bound in the regular fashion the sewing invariably first gives way at the first and last signatures. Guarding with jaconet prevents the threads which lie in the middle of the signatures from pulling through the paper. This method is essential if it is supposed that the book will be much used. It is not essential for books which will be used only occasionally.

8. Illustrations Guarded

Illustrations are guarded with a thin, tough paper, not with cloth. The guard folds around an adjoining signature and is sewed through.

9. Sawing

If the book is not to be overcast, it is screwed tightly into the backing-press and sawed to make the grooves in which the bands or twines are laid when the book is sewed. Grooves for three bands must be made for books eight inches high, four for twelve-inch books and five for fifteen-inch books. For fiction two bands are used. There must also be two additional grooves, much shallower than the others, about one half inch from the head and tail of the book for the kettlestitch.

After the grooves for kettlestitch have been sawed the two grooves for bands will divide the rest of the back into three equal parts. For fine work it is necessary to measure the book carefully and mark with a pencil; but in most library work measurement by the eye alone is sufficient. In sawing, care must be taken not to saw too deeply, since too deep a cut allows the signature to play back and forth and is plainly visible inside.

There are some good library binders who overcast books in the modern way, and yet who sew on bands. Such binders will at this point saw all books. There are also some good library binders who use no bands when overcasting and who sew all other books on tapes. These binders omit sawing.

10. End Papers Added

At this point it is best to add end papers. These are always guarded on the outside of the fold and sometimes on the inside. They should be made of good, strong paper somewhat heavier than that used for fly-leaves. Some binders have special papers made to order with a design which serves as a trade mark. End papers, in the same way as fly-leaves, are prepared with guards in quantity and simply need to be trimmed to the size of the book. They are not added at the same time as fly-leaves because they must not be sawed. If this is done the holes show through after the end paper is pasted down.

11. Sewing

Regular or Bench Sewing. When the signatures are ready for sewing, twines (or "bands" as they are commonly called) are stretched taut on the sewing bench and adjusted so that they will fit into the saw-cuts in signatures. (Fig. 1.)

Figure 1.—Sewing bench showing bands adjusted.

Figure 2.—Sewing on sunken cords. Based on illustration in Report of the Committee on Bookbinding. Edited for Society of Arts, London, 1905.

The book is placed back of the sewing bench with the fore-edge toward the sewer and with the first section on top. The first section (i. e. the end paper) to be sewed is then turned over, opened in the middle by the left hand, and placed on the sewing bench. The sewer, as she faces toward the right, with the right hand passes the needle from the outside through the sawcut for the kettlestitch, where it is taken by the left hand along the inside of the section and passed out on the near side of the first band, then in again on the far side of the first band, along the inside of the section to the second band, where the process is repeated; and so on, bringing the needle out in the far kettlestitch. (Fig. 2.) The thread is pulled tight at each stitch and about two inches of thread is allowed to hang from the first kettlestitch. In some few cases it may be advisable to bring the needle out on the far side of the band and in again on the near side, thus entirely encircling the band with the thread. The next section (i. e. the fly-leaves) is then laid on and the process repeated, except that the sewing proceeds from the far end to the near end. When the thread is brought out of the kettle stitch of the second section the end of the thread left projecting from the first section is securely tied to it, and the sewer proceeds with the third section. This will be the first signature of the book. On reaching the last sawcut at the far end in the third section the needle is put between the second and first sections carrying the thread down in such a way as to form a buttonhole stitch. (Fig. 3.)

Figure 3.—Kettle stitch.

All other signatures are sewed in the same way, the last section sewed being securely fastened to the others. It is possible to sew a number of books one after another without removing them from the sewing-bench. If the back swells unduly the sections can be pounded down with a piece of wood, care being taken not to drive them inward. The sewing should be neither too loose nor too tight. If too loose a firm, compact book cannot be made; if too tight the threads may break in the process of backing. Bands are allowed to project about an inch on each side of the book.

Formerly it was the practice of some binders to sew in a way technically called "two-on." This simply means that the sewer when reaching the middle of the signature, passes the needle into the corresponding sawcut of the signature above and sews through to the other end. This always leaves an end of a signature unsewed. This way of sewing is permissible on books which have a large number of thin signatures, in order to prevent the thread from unduly swelling the back. It is never permissible on other books.

The foregoing account gives a very brief description of ordinary sewing. It is easily understood when once seen. Librarians who have charge of binding should keep the process thoroughly in mind for it is the most important single process in the making of a book. Such sewing will be used on a large number of books which have to be rebound, but a still larger number, practically all fiction and juvenile books, should be sewed in a different manner; that is, with some kind of an overcast stitch.

Overcasting. The modern overcasting stitch resembles in principle the old-fashioned whipstitching, but differs radically in actual performance. It is exceedingly strong, while the old-fashioned whipstitching is not. It has been objected that modern overcasting takes away much of the flexibility of a book and that books once sewed in this way can never be rebound. It is true that an oversewed book is not as flexible as one sewed through the signatures, yet most of them are more flexible than one might suppose. It is also true that the book can never be rebound, but if the overcasting is properly done, the sewing will last until the book is discarded. It is for this reason that it is used on practically all fiction and juvenile books.

According to the old-fashioned method of whipstitching it was the custom to cut off the backs of signatures, glue them slightly, take a few leaves and sew them over and over making five or six stitches to a section, as shown in Figure 4. The next section was then sewed in the same way, but it was not joined in any way to the section beneath except by the kettlestitch and occasionally by a little paste. When sewed in this way the leaves inside of each arbitrary section would open only as far back as the threads of the stitches, while between the sections the book would open to the back of the section. If paste had been used the strain of opening tended to pull the leaves apart. If the book was subjected to hard wear the thread cut into the paper.

Figure 4.—Old-fashioned whipstitching. Each section is sewed separately.

Today every progressive library binder has a special method of overcasting and each claims that his method is the best. Librarians, however, can see many points of resemblance between them, and few points of difference. In actual wearing qualities the sewing of one seems as good as that of another. When properly done the sewing prescribed by all of the methods is still in good condition when the books have to be withdrawn from circulation.

In overcasting, as in old-fashioned whipstitching, the sewer selects a certain number of sheets for sewing. Bands are placed on the sewing-bench as in regular sewing, though some binders claim that it is not necessary to sew either on bands or tapes. The sections are first perforated by a machine to facilitate the work of the sewer and to insure that all stitches shall be equidistant from the back of the book. So far as is known no machine for this purpose is on the market. It is certain, however, that the best binders have machines for this purpose. They have either designed their own machines or have adapted those made for other purposes. If the book is printed on thick, spongy paper it will increase flexibility if the paper is creased along the line of perforation.

Figure 5.—One kind of modern overcast stitch. There are others equally good. Note that each stitch extends through two sections.

It is difficult to give a description of modern overcasting which can be easily understood by one unfamiliar with sewing processes. The reader will be helped by looking closely at Figure 5 while reading the following description, but one can understand it best by seeing it done or by tearing a book apart and examining the sewing.

The first section of the book is sewed over and over in the same way as in the old-fashioned method of whipstitching, except that a great many more stitches are taken. The second section, when placed on the first, is also sewed over and over but a certain number of stitches are also made which connect the second section with the first. In the same way the third section is sewed to the second and so on through the book, so that when the book is finally sewed it is tight and compact; its weakness lies in the paper itself, not in the sewing. Some binders add three kettlestitches at the end of the book instead of one, believing that when all kettlestitches are placed in one sawcut the swell at the head and tail of the book is too great.

Figure 6.—From "About Public Library Books and Their Binding" by Cedric Chivers.

Figure 7.—Sewing on tapes. Sawcuts made only for kettle stitches. Based on illustration in Report of the Committee on Leather for Bookbinding. Edited for Society of Arts, London, 1905.

Overcasting is the most expensive way of sewing a book, so that it is advantageous to binders to place as large a number of leaves as possible in a section. The more careful binders, however, regulate the number of leaves in a section according to the kind of paper in the book. A larger number of leaves can be taken in books printed on thin paper than in those printed on thick, spongy or heavy papers.

Figure 8.—Stitching.

In deciding how a book ought to be sewed one must consider: (a) The use the book is to receive. If it will not receive hard usage sew through the signatures; otherwise overcast. (b) Paper on which the book is printed. Poor paper should be oversewed. (Fig. 6.)

Tapes. When it does not seem necessary to overcast it may be advantageous to sew on tapes instead of bands. This method eliminates saw-cuts since the narrow tapes are simply laid against the back of the book and the needle passed around them, as indicated in Figure 7. Sewing on tapes makes a book much more flexible than it can be made any other way except by sewing on raised bands. Music should always be sewed in this way. Until recently it was supposed that tapes added strength, but it is certain that they do not if the book is properly bound in other respects. If used at all, tapes should be narrow. Wide ones take up a great deal of surface and when glue is applied this surface remains untouched, unless the sewer has sewed through them instead of around them.

Stitching. Stitching is the process of sewing loose leaves lengthwise on a sewing machine, after which the stitched sections are sewed in the regular way on bands. (Fig. 8.) The objection made to old-fashioned whipstitching, that between the sections the book opens all the way to the back while inside the section it opens only as far as the threads, is equally applicable to a stitched book. Any one who has read a book sewed in this way will remember how difficult it was to hold in the hands. Stitching makes a stronger book than the old-fashioned whipstitching but cannot compare in strength with the modern overcasting. In some few cases it may be used advantageously on the first and last signatures of a book, but its use on the entire book cannot be too strongly condemned.

It may be inferred by what has been said about sewing that it is a comparatively simple matter to sew books properly. It is right at this point, however, that the librarian and the binder who does not understand the requirements of library work will come into conflict. The binder will insist that all books must be sewed on bands. When the backs of sections are very badly worn he will agree to whipstitch, but will use the old method. The librarian will insist not only that nine-tenths of fiction and juvenile books must be overcast, but that a special kind of overcasting must be used. The binders who make a specialty of library work do all this as a matter of course. At least one binder tests the thickness, tensile strength and other qualities of the paper and sews each book in the way that experience has shown to be the best.

FORWARDING

After the book is sewed it goes to the forwarder who has charge of the book during all processes which the book passes through between sewing and finishing. Forwarding includes trimming, gluing, rounding, backing, putting on back-lining, making the case (or lacing-in, see page 42), casing-in, pressing.

12. Fly Leaves Pasted

The end papers and fly-leaves which lie together are pasted together, making one thick fly-leaf. When it is remembered that both end papers and fly-leaves are guarded with cloth, it will be seen that pasting the two together adds materially to the strength of the book.

13. Bands Frayed

The bands which project about an inch and a half on each side of the book are frayed out at the end and pasted to the end papers. The fraying is done so that they will paste down flat, and the pasting so that they will be out of the way during succeeding processes.

14. Trimming

The book is squared up by tapping on a flat surface, and trimmed at the head, fore-edge and tail. As little as possible must be trimmed, but binders find that if less than an eighth of an inch is cut the cutting machine does not work well. Trimming makes the edges even and what is more important in rebound books, removes much dirt.

15. Sprinkling

At this point edges are sprinkled. This process is not essential either for strength or beauty, but it helps to keep the book from becoming soiled, or at least from showing dirt. It cannot be expected on cheap work. The process was formerly done by hand, using a brush and shaking the coloring matter on the book. It can now be done with a machine operated by hand which sprays the coloring matter on the book. Occasionally the top of the book is burnished with an agate or blood stone.

Occasionally also it may be desirable to gild the top of a book which is being rebound. When this occurs it is not a process to which the librarian need give much attention, except to be sure that good gold is used.

16. Gluing

The back of the book is then slightly glued. The glue must be very hot and quite thin, and must be thoroughly worked into the back. By placing books in a pile a number can be done at a time.

17. Rounding

As soon as the glue has stiffened but before it is hard the book is rounded. This must be done by experts and is a process which must be seen to be understood. The book is placed on the table with the fore edge toward the workman who then hammers the part of the back lying uppermost in such a way as to force the upper part of the book toward the workman. The book is then turned over and the process repeated. After a few operations like this the back of the book becomes rounded and the fore edge concave.

18. Backing

The book is then placed in a backing press allowing about an eighth of an inch to project, and screwed very tight. With a backing hammer the rounding process is continued and the sides of the book forced down over the edge of the press to form a projection against which the edge of the board for the side rests, forming the joint. In hammering, the workman begins at the proper distance from the center of the back so that he can force the backs of the other signatures over on each side toward the edge. (Fig. 9.)

Figure 9.—A book rounded and backed.

This process is the most important one in forwarding, calling for skilled labor. If the hammer is not used in exactly the right way the backs of the signatures may be crushed in, the stitches broken, or the paper or bands cut. In any case the book is materially weakened. A good workman will make a sharp joint and round the book perfectly without injuring its strength in any way.

19. Back Lining

All books have a lining of one kind or another on the back. Machine-bound books are generally lined with a coarse "super," as it is called in this country, or "mull" as it is called in England. Some library binders use a thin muslin, but the best material is canton flannel cut in strips wide enough to cover the back of the book and also to project about one inch on each side. The back of the book is glued, while the nap or fuzzy side of the canton flannel is pasted and then put on the back and well rubbed down. It is very important that both the glue and the paste be used. Experience has proved that when only one is used the canton flannel will come off, but when both are used, it becomes an integral part of the book.

The flannel which projects on the sides must be pasted to the end papers. When the paste and the glue have dried, the canton flannel shrinks tight to the back and adds materially to the strength of the book. After drying the flannel is trimmed at the head and tail close to the back.

If the book is a valuable one that will receive hard usage and therefore should be as strong as possible, the flesh side of a piece of split goat skin can be used for back-lining, covering the back from joint to joint. It will seldom be necessary, however, to employ this method.

Perhaps nothing better shows the difference between old methods of library binding and new than this one item of back-lining. In the old methods the binders depended for strength largely upon the bands. In the new the bands are practically immaterial when the book is fastened into the cover.

20. Rebacking

At this point some binders reback to make a sharp joint, and to make the book open more easily. When the canton flannel dries it may pull the back somewhat out of shape. It is doubtful, however, if rebacking is always necessary.

21. Boards Cut

The book is then measured for boards which are cut to the proper size. In measuring it must be remembered that the boards must project an eighth of an inch on all edges (except the back) forming what is called the "squares." It will also make a difference in measuring if the book is to have a French joint. (See page 46.)

22. Cloth Cut

If the book is to be bound in cloth, this is cut the proper size. If leather backs are to be used the covering material consists of two pieces of cloth and one of leather, all of which must be cut to the proper size.

23. Loose Back

If the book is to be made a loose back, a piece of coarse paper is cut the size of the book from joint to joint and the length of the back. This is placed in the book.

24. Making the Case

(a) The cloth for a full cloth book is now glued all over on the inside. The boards are adjusted on the book ("setting the square," as the binders call it) as they ought to be when the book is finally bound, and the book is placed on the right-hand side of the glued cloth, with the back toward the middle of the case, leaving enough cloth projecting on all sides to turn in. The other side of the case is then drawn up over the board on top and pressed down firmly enough so that when it is laid back again, the board which has been uppermost goes with it. The book itself is laid aside. The paper which is to prevent the glued cloth from sticking to the back of the book is then placed in the space between the two boards, and all edges of the cloth turned in on the boards. This forms the complete cover or case.

(b) If the book is to have a leather back, the boards are tipped lightly with paste to the end papers, allowing for the French joint. The leather is pasted and the book is then laid on the leather in the right position so that the rest of the leather can be pulled up over the back on the top board. The top cover is then laid back, the paper forming a loose back inserted, the leather turned in, and cloth sides put on and turned in.

25. Making of a French Joint

The book is now set back in the cover just described and the space between the boards and the back is creased with a bone folder while the cloth or leather is damp. This forms the French joint.

26. Pasting Down End Papers

End papers are then pasted down to the boards and the book, so far as strength is concerned, is finished. It will be remembered that the end papers were guarded with muslin, or jaconet, that the bands projected beyond the sides and were pasted to the end papers, and that the canton flannel also projected beyond the sides and was pasted to the end papers. Therefore, when the end paper is pasted to the board it carries with it first the canton flannel, then the bands and lastly the jaconet guard. This is as true of leather-backed books as of full cloth.

Strictly speaking, this makes what is technically known as a "cased" book, i. e., the case is made in one whole piece and the book fastened into it. Because leather bound books have always been considered stronger than others, and because they have always been laced-in to the boards (see page 42) before the leather has been put on, a prejudice against cased books has arisen. If the prejudice be directed against the usual commercial binding it is justified, but if directed against library books properly cased it is not justified.

27. Pressing

At this stage the book is put under heavy pressure in the standing press until dry. A number of books are placed in the press at one time, separated by backing boards having metal projections which fit into the French joints. They should be left twelve hours at least, longer if necessary. After pressing, the book goes through a general cleaning process. In applying the glue or paste there are many chances of soiling the book. The great pressure which is applied also squeezes out glue at the head and tail. This must all be cleaned off before the book goes to the finisher.

FINISHING

28. Gilding

The gilding of a library book is a simple matter compared with that of books bound for individuals. Such books are usually meant to be artistic and their covers bear elaborate designs in gold, generally limited only by the size of the owner's pocketbook or by his taste.[1] In library binding gilding is confined to the furnishing of necessary information. Tooling of all kinds, with the possible exception of that which divides the back into panels, is unnecessary. A description of finishing processes is unnecessary here since they add nothing to the strength of a book. A description of the method of gilding call numbers will be found on page 194.

There are three different ways of lettering books bound in light colored cloths on which gold cannot be used: (a) In gold on leather labels pasted to the back. (b) In gold on panels which have been stained black. (c) In black ink directly on the back. The first two methods make more attractive-looking books but the process adds to the expense, and in the first case the labels have a tendency to peel off. The last method is the one generally used.

In this description of processes numerous details have been omitted, because they would add little, if anything, to the librarian's ability to criticize properly the work being done by his binder.[2] In some respects the order here outlined may differ in different binderies, but the majority follow it closely.

The processes as outlined are those which should be used in library binding. There are, however, several additional points relating to binding processes with which it is well to be familiar.

[1] Finishing from the artistic point of view with an excellent description of tools, materials and processes will be found in Cockerell's "Binding and the care of books," Chapter 14.

[2] For instructions to the binder about type, space, lettering, etc., see under Lettering, page 141.

RAISED BANDS

In looking at many old books bound in the eighteenth or early part of the nineteenth century, or at books bound within recent years for individuals, one will find many that have the back divided by ridges. These are known as "raised bands." They are formed by sewing the book differently from either of the methods described up to this point.

According to this method the bands are not placed in grooves which sink them below the surface of the back, but are simply laid against the back. In sewing the thread may come out at the near side of the band and in at the far side, thus going around the band on the back of the book; or it may come out at the far side and in at the near side, thus entirely encircling the band. In either case the sewing is exceedingly strong. Since the bands are entirely on the surface, the leaves open all the way to the back of the signatures and greater flexibility can be obtained thereby. (Fig. 10.)

Figure 10.—Sewing on raised bands. No saw cuts except for kettle stitches. Based on illustration in Report of the Committee on Leather for Bookbinding. Edited for Society of Arts, London, 1905.

As it is much more difficult to sew and forward books with raised bands, they are not used in ordinary library work. It may be advisable, however, to use them occasionally on a few large reference books such as dictionaries, where great flexibility combined with strength is essential. In fact the merits of binding in this way are not recognized as generally as they should be.

Many books look as if they were sewed on raised bands when in reality they are sewed in the ordinary way, with false raised bands pasted on the back. They add nothing to strength and have no place in library binding.

LACING-IN

Lacing-in is a method of attaching the bands to the book, which is in general use for all leather books bound by hand. This method requires that the boards which have been cut to the proper size be laid against the grooves formed in backing and marks be made about half an inch in from the back, opposite each band. At these points holes are punched through the board which is then turned over and other holes are punched about half an inch from the first ones. It is generally desirable to cut a groove in the board from the first holes to the edge of the board, for the bands to lie in, so that there will not be an unsightly protuberance when the book is bound. The bands which have been frayed out are then threaded through the first holes from the outside of the board inward and again through the second holes. They are drawn up tightly enough so that the board will fit close to the joint, but not enough to prevent it from lying flat. The ends of the bands are spread out fan-wise, pasted, and hammered down smooth on the board. Before any back-lining has been put on, the boards are attached to the book simply by these bands. (Fig. 11.)

Figure 11.—Bands laced in, and ends frayed out. Based on illustration in Report of the Committee on Leather for Bookbinding. Edited for Society of Arts, London, 1905.

When bands are laced-in it is not customary to use anything stronger than paper for back lining; the strength of the book lies in the bands and the leather which covers the back. As long as the leather remains strong and the book does not receive hard usage this method is satisfactory. As soon, however, as the leather begins to disintegrate more strain is placed upon the bands. When the leather breaks completely the bands bear the entire burden at the joint, and eventually break. With the process as outlined in the preceding pages one need never fear that the book will come out of the cover, or that the sides will break at the joint. Even if the leather should break the canton flannel will hold. The best library binders do no lacing-in at the present time.

Figure 12.—Split boards. In actual work the back-lining would cover the entire back.

SPLIT BOARDS

While the old method of lacing-in is not desirable in library binding, the method of using split boards makes a very strong book. Instead of making a case of cloth, or cloth and leather, the back lining and the bands (or tapes) are inserted in boards which have been split, or between two thin boards glued together with a space left unglued for this purpose. The covering material is put on after the book is in boards and the book is made tight backed. This is probably the strongest method of attaching a book to the boards. In fact it is stronger than is necessary for any except very heavy books which receive hard wear. (Fig. 12.)

TIGHT AND LOOSE BACKS

For years there has been a certain mild controversy regarding the relative merits of tight and loose backs for leather bound books. Tight backs are those in which the material used for covering the book is pasted or glued to the back. Loose backs are those which, by means of folded paper or a piece of paper put in as described on page 37, are prevented from adhering to the back. When the book is opened the back springs out. (Fig. 13.)

The tight back book always forms a hinge at the place where the book is opened. Since the place of the hinge is constantly changing the back of the book after much use becomes concave instead of convex, and the appearance of the book is seriously marred. Also the constant creasing of the back tends to erase the gold lettering, so that it becomes indistinct. If labels are put on they speedily come off. It is customary to use tight backs on very heavy books, though there are cases where such books have been put in loose backs.

Figure 13.—Tight back and loose back.

The loose-back book always preserves its shape and good appearance, even when the paper on the inside may be so badly worn that the book should be withdrawn. The strain, however, always comes at the joint; therefore if poor leather is used it will quickly wear out at this point.

Each method has its advocates, but so far as the present writer can learn, there seems to be little to choose from the standpoint of strength. It might seem that the tight-back book would be the stronger, but as a matter of fact in actual wear loose-back books seem to hold their own with the others. In fact when the soft, spongy papers are used the loose backs are obviously stronger. It seems clear that there is little choice one way or the other, and the question must be decided by the personal preference of the librarian.

JOINTS

In library binding French joints are now used in place of regular joints. Figure 14 shows plainly the difference between the two. In the regular joint it will be noticed that when the book is opened there is a sharp crease in one line from head to tail. In the French joint the strain is distributed over a much greater area. In regular joints the leather is sometimes pared at the joints to permit of easier opening of the book. In French joints the full thickness of the leather can be used. French joints are made by setting the boards away from the back about one-eighth of an inch. When the cover is put on it is necessary to crease between the board and the back while the leather is still damp.

An excellent illustration showing the anatomy of a joint may be found on page 51 of Dana's "Notes on bookbinding for libraries," ed. 2.

A Section of an Ordinary Joint with the board open shows that the creasing of the leather is concentrated on one line.

A Section of a "French Joint" shows how this creasing is distributed over a great surface, and so enables sufficient flexibility to be obtained with much thicker leather than can be used with an ordinary joint.
Figure 14.—French joint. From Report of the Committee on Leathers for Bookbinding. Edited for Society of Arts, London, 1905.

CORNERS

Corners on library books should be rounded to prevent the board from breaking if the book falls and to prevent the cloth from wearing through at this point. Rounded corners are peculiar to library binding. As a rule they are not made by cutting off a corner of the board, but by turning in the cloth diagonally from the corner and then from the side and end. Sometimes both methods are adopted. If government specification cloth is used it is probable that "library corners" will not be necessary.

In some libraries pieces of leather or vellum are put on corners. Leather is put on in order to raise the bottom of the boards from the shelf, while vellum is used to make the corners hard and prevent them from breaking or showing signs of wear. While both serve the purpose for which they are intended, the process of putting them on adds materially to the expense, and in most cases this is not warranted by the increased use of the book.

TRIMMING

Binders should be instructed to trim as little as possible. This is important for all books, but most of all for periodicals. In fiction and juvenile books it is important to have wide margins, because the text will remain legible for a longer period of time if protected by a margin from the contact of hands. Non-fiction books which are likely to remain in use for a longer period of years may need to be rebound and trimmed again. Therefore wide margins are essential to good wear as well as to good appearance.

It is customary to bind front covers of periodicals. Sometimes it is desirable to bind advertising pages, and it is necessary to do so when the publishers follow the pernicious practice of continuing regular articles on advertising pages. Covers and advertising pages are generally printed with much narrower margins than the body of the magazine and unless great care is taken in trimming parts of the printed matter will be cut off.

HEADBANDS

Cotton headbands can be added during the forwarding but inasmuch as they are simply pasted on they add nothing to the strength and very little to the beauty of the book. When silk headbands are carefully sewed on they add both strength and beauty. An excellent description of the process of putting on headbands will be found in Cockerell's "Binding and the care of books," page 147.

HOW TO RECOGNIZE A WELL BOUND BOOK

The ability to recognize a well bound book is necessary when comparing the work of different binders. A book should be bound in material suitable for the use which the book is to receive and in such a way as to give the maximum amount of service. It should also be as attractive in appearance as is compatible with these two requirements. In deciding whether a book is suitably bound for library use the following points should be kept in mind:

1. A volume must show evidence of neat and careful workmanship.

2. If the book is to be used constantly leather is essential; if occasionally only, leather is an element of weakness.

3. All books that receive hard usage should have end papers and fly-leaves guarded with cloth. If sewed regularly the first and last signatures also should be guarded.

4. Saw cuts should not be deep.

5. The book should be flexible and stay flat wherever opened. (This is not always possible in the case of overcast books or books printed on stiff, brittle paper.)

6. When the book is lying flat the top should remain flat. When standing on end the sections should not separate slightly at the back.

7. The book should feel firm and compact to the hand.

8. When opened the volume should not make a crackling noise due to too much glue on the back.

9. The book should have a well rounded back and the cover should fit well at the joint. Flat backs are not desirable.

10. Margins should be wide and cut straight. Periodicals should not be trimmed so that printing on covers or advertisements is cut off.

11. The book should have French joints.

12. The cover should not separate easily from the book when pressure is applied.

13. Lettering on the back should be legible and put on straight.

14. On opening the book sections at the back should be perfectly smooth, showing that they have not been crushed in backing.

15. Guards for plates, maps, sections, etc., should be so applied as to leave the paper unwrinkled.

CHAPTER IV

MATERIALS

In a recent pamphlet issued by the Government Printing Office, containing a list of materials and articles used in the printing and binding of public documents, the number of items for binding alone reaches the surprising total of 171. Many of these are materials used in marbling, others indicate slight variations of color and weight in standard leathers and cloths. But exclusive of all these the number of materials called for is over forty.

It is not the writer's purpose to discuss all of these forty or more materials, but it seems necessary to mention that many materials other than those used in covering books (always some kind of cloth or leather) are used in binding. Furthermore, the strength of the book after it is bound will depend almost as much upon the materials used in its inner construction as upon those used in covering it. The inner materials, if not wisely selected as to quality or in reference to the kind of service which the book is to receive, may cause an otherwise excellently bound book to give poor service.

In general, however, a reference to binding materials means those which are used in covering books. It is the cover which renders a book attractive or unattractive, and which contributes more than any other one item, except possibly sewing, to the long life of the book. We should therefore know the initial cost of different covering materials and the length of service which each material will give under different conditions. When they are not imitations we should be able to recognize the best-known materials, either on or off the books. An unscrupulous binder can easily take advantage of ignorance of these matters.

So far as the librarian is concerned only two classes of materials need be considered for the covers of books—leathers and book cloths. This does not indicate a restriction of choice, for when we consider that leather comes from a large number of animals, that there are a great many different kinds of cloth, that cloths and leathers can be obtained in a great variety of colors, there seems to be an embarrassment of riches. As a matter of fact most librarians confine themselves to four kinds of leather and four or five kinds of cloth, each in three or four different shades.

LEATHER

The most expensive materials used in covering books and those which vary most in quality are leathers, the skins of animals which have been tanned and made flexible. The best bookbinding leathers are those which are flexible both in the skin and on books, and the surface of which is not easily damaged by friction. Owing to the many kinds of leathers and their variation in quality, it is difficult to learn to know them well.

The skins of all sorts of animals have been used for covering books. Certain ones, not suitable for library binding, are still used for the purpose in various parts of the country, so that librarians need to become expert in their knowledge of which leathers may be employed and which ought to be rejected.

Variations in the same kinds of leathers are caused by:

(a) Age. Skins of animals which have not reached full growth should not be used for binding library books. Since they are immature, the fibres have not become tough, and they have not reached their maximum thickness. If the skins which the binder is using are exceptionally small, it is probable that the animals from which they were obtained were too young. On the other hand, the skins of very old animals should not be used, since the fibres of the skins have lost something of their flexibility and strength. They cannot be readily detected, but they are sure to give poor service. As an illustration of the effect which age has upon leather it will be sufficient to note the well-known fact that calf skin is useless for library purposes, while cowhide within certain well-defined limits is exceedingly useful.

(b) The sex of the animal. It has been proved beyond question that the skin from the female of some animals, notably goats, does not wear as well as that from the male.

(c) Country from which they come. It is an interesting fact that the skin of a sheep which comes from Persia is not the same kind of a skin as that of a sheep which is raised in the United States. In general, it may be said that skins from animals inhabiting warm countries are more likely to be serviceable than those from the same kind of animals inhabiting cold countries. In the cold countries more of the strength goes into the fur or hair which protects it, while in warm countries a greater amount of strength goes into the skin itself.

In addition to variations due to these causes there is likely to be a certain amount of variation in different parts of the same skin. That part of the skin which comes from the back of the animal is tougher than that which comes from the abdomen. The difference is very noticeable in the skins of some animals, less so in others.

Decay of Leather. Of late years there has been much dissatisfaction expressed over the decay of modern leathers. In many cases leathers 100 years old or more are in a fair state of preservation, while many leathers—perhaps we should say most leathers—30, 20 or even 10 years old, show signs of decay, and some have rotted away almost entirely. In no way is the decay of modern leathers shown more conclusively than in a long file of the sheep-bound set of the United States Public Documents. The earlier volumes, covering the 15th Congress up to the 36th, will in general be found to be in a good state of preservation. About the year 1860, however, marked deterioration appears. In some cases it seems as if the backs had entirely disintegrated. While a sheep-bound set is the best example of the decay of modern leathers, many libraries have been greatly annoyed by the decay of other leathers which are supposed to be much stronger than sheepskin.

So great was the dissatisfaction with modern leathers that in the year 1900 the Society of Arts in London appointed a committee to investigate modern leathers and to ascertain the best methods for preparing leathers for binding. The report of this committee was published in 1905, and a general knowledge of its contents is necessary for those who wish to know why leathers decay and how they may be preserved. Another valuable work which should be carefully studied is entitled "Leathers for libraries," published by the Sound Leather Committee of the Library Association in England. In a chapter of this book J. Gordon Parker, Ph. D., Director of the London Leather Industries Research Laboratories, tells us that the chief causes of decay are as follows:

1. The introduction of tanning materials other than oak and sumac, stronger in tannin, and more rapid in their action. Many of these tanning materials are unstable, and the leather produced disintegrates on exposure to light and air.

Tanning is the process of changing hides, which are animal matter subject to decay, into material which is strong and flexible and which is not subject to decay. There are two groups of tanning materials. The one called the pyrogallol group, which includes sumac, gall nuts and oak bark, is commended by the Committee of the Society of Arts. The other is called the catechol group and is strongly condemned. Among the materials belonging to the catechol group are hemlock bark and larch, used chiefly in this country, and turwar bark used largely in tanning East Indian goat and sheep skins.

The United States Government Printing Office proposals call for leathers tanned with a pyrogallol tannin, since it has been proved that such leathers prove most resistant to the evil effects of light, heat and gas. If a skin has been tanned with sumac, or sumac in combination with oak bark, it has received the best possible preparation for its life as a bookbinding leather.

It is not possible, neither is it necessary, to have all leathers tanned with sumac. Those leathers which are intended to remain on the shelves for many decades, should be in this tannage. Those which will be discarded in a few years may be tanned in a less expensive manner. Even some of the quick, modern materials, which accomplish in a few hours what once would have taken weeks, are not too poor for leathers which are not to be kept indefinitely.

Even the expert cannot detect skins which have not been tanned and dyed properly, but leathers which last a short time may be suspected either of being improperly tanned or of having some kind of injurious acid in their composition.

2. The use of dried and cured skins of variable soundness imported from abroad. Goat, calf and sheep skins are imported into this country (England) from all over the world; some are simply dried in the sun, some salted, whilst others are cured with various ingredients.

3. The use of infusions of acids and other bleaching agents to produce bright and even shades of colour.

Skins tanned with sumac are light-colored and can be dyed any desired color. Most other tanning materials, however, make darker-colored skins, which can be dyed only with dark colors. It has been found possible to scour and bleach skins with sulphuric acid and to re-tan with sumac.

4. The use of sulphuric or other mineral acids for the purpose of developing the depth of colour during the process of dyeing.

Sulphuric acid is the cause of decay of over 90% of modern bookbinding leathers. Having once been used, it cannot be wholly removed without the use of other chemicals.

5. The shaving and splitting of skins for producing an even substance.

In splitting and shaving, the long, strongest fibres of the skin are torn or cut off, and the part which remains for binding purposes is the weakest part of the skin.

6. Printing and embossing grains upon leather, together with other methods of finishing now in common use.

There are various ways of bringing out the natural grain of leathers which are perfectly legitimate and which do no harm. The danger in graining comes when the grain is embossed by means of a plate, which is heated and pressed on the skin. No good leather should ever be embossed.

7. The stripping, scouring, souring and re-tanning of East India leathers (Persians).

Some imported skins are only partially tanned, and it is necessary to wash out the tannin with some kind of alkali, which also takes out much of the natural grease of the skin. They are then treated with sulphuric acid and re-tanned. They are always poor and are seldom sold as re-tanned skins.

8. The removal of the natural grease or nourishment of the skin.

The foregoing eight causes of decay are beyond our direct control. The leathers are manufactured and put on the market, and the binder has to use such as he is able to obtain. No matter how much the librarian may insist upon leathers free-from-acid, he is helpless if the binder cannot obtain them. All that he can do is to insist that leathers without acid must be used, if obtainable.

Although these causes of decay are beyond the librarian's control, there are several causes of decay quite within his power to avoid. They are the following, due to improper methods used in binding, or to physical conditions after the book is on the shelf:

1. Direct sunlight.

2. Gas fumes. This evil is hard to guard against if there are gas pipes in the building. There is sure to be more or less leakage, and even a small amount of gas in the air has a bad effect upon leather.

3. Tobacco smoke. This is not likely to be very detrimental in libraries, since the rules generally forbid smoking.

4. Excessive dampness, which encourages mildew.

5. Extreme dry heat. A temperature much in excess of 70° Fahrenheit is likely to dry up the oil which gives flexibility to leather.

6. Undue wetting or stretching the leather in covering. Some binders soak the leathers and stretch them in placing them on the books. When the leathers dry they shrink, the fibres are strained and the life of the leather shortened.

7. Use of poor paste in binding. This frequently sets up a fermentation that is very harmful to leathers.

8. Dust, especially in conjunction with dampness, is very injurious to leather.

Doubtless there are other things which have a deleterious effect upon leathers in libraries; but if a library is well ventilated, if leather-covered books are not kept in cellars or basements that are very damp, or where direct sunlight can fall upon them, and if the binder uses good paste and proper care in covering the books, we may reasonably place the responsibility of undue decay of leathers upon the manufacturers.

The various reports quoted so far have dealt with qualities of leathers due to tanning, manufacture, method of binding and time in use. Natural or mechanical qualities of leathers have not been touched upon. Those who are interested in this phase of the question should read the report of Mr. Cedric Chivers on "The relative value of leathers and other binding materials," made at the meeting of the American Library Association at Pasadena in 1911. Mr. Chivers employed Mr. Alfred Seymour Jones, in England, to make tests which would show the tearing and breaking strain of various leathers. These natural qualities of leathers are obviously important, but too much stress must not be laid upon them. It is possible that a leather naturally strong and tough when new would rapidly deteriorate with age. The records as presented in Mr. Chivers' report must be taken in conjunction with facts determined by the investigation of the Society of Arts. In the main, however, it will be found that leathers which best stood the tests of the Society of Arts also showed the greatest resistance to the tearing and breaking strains made by Mr. Chivers.

Preservation of Leather. Various attempts have been made both by librarians and others to discover some substance which would preserve leather effectually after the book is bound. Some of these attempts have been temporarily successful, but time alone will tell whether leathers are permanently preserved by the treatments used, or whether applications of the preservative must be frequently made. Owing to the fact that in law libraries practically all the books published previous to 1900 were bound in sheepskin, the lasting qualities of leathers is a question that affects law libraries more than any other. Dr. Wire, of the Worcester (Mass.) County Law Library, who has made a careful study of the problem, advises the use of vaseline or some other similar by-product of petroleum well rubbed into the leather with the bare hand and allowed to dry in the air until the leather has absorbed it. Better results were obtained by allowing the volumes to dry in the summer by natural heat instead of artificial heat in the winter. For some books Dr. Wire makes use of a bookbinder's varnish after the softening product has thoroughly penetrated the leather. A full description of the processes may be obtained from Dr. Wire's pamphlet, "Leather preservation," published in 1911.

Some of the disadvantages of Dr. Wire's method are:

1. The necessity of rubbing in the preservative from three to five times, according to the condition of the leather at the time of first treatment.

2. The care necessary to prevent the material used from smearing tables, trucks, floor, shelves and clothing at time of application; also when books are back on the shelves the care required to keep from rubbing against them and the necessity of wiping them off when they are handed to readers.

3. The tendency of books to swell at the back when first treated in this way, demanding extra care lest, in an effort to pull out one book, a whole shelf-full fall to the floor.

4. The repetition of the process after ten years.

It is possible that these drawbacks will be sufficient to dissuade all except the most stout-hearted from using this method of preserving leather. Rebinding in cloth seems to be much more simple and, on the whole, not much more expensive.

The question of a preservative is discussed in the Report of the Society of Arts, from which the following quotation is taken:

Enquiries have frequently been made as to the use of preservative pastes upon old bindings. It has been mentioned that the seasonings of white of egg or blood albumen usually employed in finishing leather have some preservative effect, and no harm can arise from the application of very thin coatings of white of egg. The use of ammonia to thin or preserve the solution must be avoided, but the whites, after thorough beating, may be rendered antiseptic by the addition of a small quantity of camphor, thymol, or some essential oil. Vaseline has been employed as a dressing, and, if otherwise suitable, will no doubt have a preservative effect upon the leather. A very moderate use of the wax, soap, and turpentine preparations made as shoe pastes, is also likely to be beneficial, and no doubt a special preparation might be made on these lines which would be still more suitable. Paraffin wax dissolved in benzine is also harmless, and the surface to which it has been applied takes a good polish with a flannel after drying. Professor Proctor has experimented with a finish introduced by the Berlin Aniline Company some years ago for coloured leathers, with apparently satisfactory results. The preparation is practically a very hard stearine soap with excess of stearic acid, and is made by boiling 8 parts of stearic acid with 1 part of caustic soda and 50 parts of water until thoroughly dissolved, and then adding 150 parts of cold water and stirring till the material sets to a jelly. It is applied very thinly with a sponge or rag, and after thorough drying is polished with a soft brush or flannel. The alkali present in the soap is useful in neutralising any mineral acids contained in the leather. In very acid leathers it has been noticed that the sodium sulphate so formed will sometimes appear upon the surface as a white film, but this is easily removed with a damp cloth, and the surface, after drying, repolished with flannel.

Old books which it is desirable to preserve as long as possible in their original bindings and books which will be used very little may be treated with some form of preservative. If the book is to be much used, it would better be rebound. Dr. Wire's experiments have been carried on exclusively with law books. Whether the same processes could be used on books bound in morocco or pigskin is something that has not yet been determined. Most leather-bound books break first at the joint. The sheep bindings in a law library would show signs of disintegration long before the leather reached the breaking point, whereas the librarian would first notice that morocco was decaying when the leather actually cracked. Once cracked, no amount of preservative would do any good.

KINDS OF LEATHER[3]

The leathers that have been used in binding books have come from all sorts of animals, but so far as the librarian is concerned the skins of four animals only need be taken into consideration—the sheep, the cow, the pig and the goat. In England some experiments have been made with sealskin, but it has not been used long enough to give any definite idea of its resistance to the encroachments of time.

[3] The prices of leathers given in the text are those which prevailed during the summer of 1915.

Sheepskin

Sheepskin is a soft, flexible leather with weak fibres, and with a surface easily abraded. It has been used for bindings practically ever since books were put into leathers; and, under the old methods of tanning and manufacturing, proved satisfactory. In many libraries it is possible to see leather books bound in sheep in the 17th century which are in a good state of preservation. Even the sheep of the beginning of the 19th century is frequently well preserved. Since 1860, however, the quality of sheep has greatly deteriorated. This is bad enough, but unfortunately sheep likes to masquerade under the name of morocco and other leathers of a better grade, so that its use is much more extensive than appears at first sight. In the process of imitation the grain of the leather imitated is stamped on the skin. When this is done it generally takes an expert to detect the fact that the leather is not what it pretends to be, and even experts are sometimes deceived after the leather is on a book.

The strongest sheepskins are made when tanned with oak bark. Sumac, which is such a valuable tanning material with other leathers, is here inferior to oak.

There are two kinds of sheepskin, the wool sheep which is known to all, and the hair sheep which is not found in the United States, and which in reality is a cross between a sheep and a goat. The hair sheep comes from India, China, South America and Africa, generally from mountainous districts. It has a much tougher fibre and is a better wearing skin than that of the wool sheep. Unfortunately most of these skins, which are all imported, are made into shoe leather. When properly tanned they are very suitable for library binding, and their use for that purpose is increasing.

The wool sheepskin in its natural color has been used for many years for binding law books. It is seldom used for anything except government documents and law books, and for this reason is known as "law-sheep."

Roan. Roans, the term used for sheepskins after they are dyed, can be used advantageously on books which will be handled a great deal, and which in any event will not stay on the shelves indefinitely. Properly tanned and dyed, they make a satisfactory leather for a time, but their life under the best of conditions seldom exceeds ten or twelve years. While this is true of good roans, it unfortunately remains true that in the United States, at least, it is difficult to get roans that are properly tanned and dyed. Therefore, unless one is sure that the quality of the skin is the best, he should use no sheep under any conditions.

Skiver. Skiver is the outside of a sheepskin which has been split, the inner side being known as the flesher. It is a leather much used for commercial binding, but since the splitting process takes away a great part of the strength of the skin, leaving it not much stronger than strong paper, skiver is wholly unfitted for library use.

Cowhide

Cowhide, sometimes known as American russia, is a leather which has increased enormously in use in the last twenty-five years. It is a thick, coarse leather, rather unattractive in appearance, strong when new, but with age rapidly deteriorating in quality, even when no deleterious substance has been used in tanning or dyeing. It is a harder leather to work than roan, but the quality is much more uniform and it can be used advantageously for binding fiction and other books which will be much used. In its natural state (undyed) it can be used in place of law-sheep for law books, but has a tendency to become dark. It can be obtained in many colors. Since it is too thick a leather to be used in full thickness, practically all skins are split, and the amount of flesh left with the grain determines the weight of the leather. A greater or less amount is taken off according to the purpose for which the leather is intended. Bookbinding cowhide costing 20c to 25c. a square foot is the lightest weight leather that has the right to be called cow.[4] The life of cowhide is from five to twelve years.

Buffing. Buffing is practically only the grain of cowskin from which almost all the flesh has been split. It is not suitable for library books, since it is very thin and begins to disintegrate in less than five years. After it is on the volume it is hard to detect, so that some library binders have been tempted to use it instead of cow. But as buffing is never sold as cow, the library binder has no excuse for keeping it in stock.

[4] This is the normal price of cow. The European war has had the disastrous effect of raising the price and lowering the quality. Until conditions become normal again all cowhide should be shunned.

Pigskin

Pigskin is one of the strongest leathers, having a hard, resisting surface and a good, tough fibre. In the grain, the holes which were left when bristles were removed are plainly visible, giving the leather a distinctive appearance, which can be imitated successfully, but which is much less often imitated than the grain of morocco. If there be doubt of the genuineness of pig, soak a piece of the leather until it has absorbed a quantity of water, and then stretch it. If the grain pulls out, it is imitation; if genuine, the bristle holes still show plainly. Oak bark tanning is the best for this leather, and, since it is more nearly gristle (less fibrous) than other leathers, dyes and chemicals should not be used which will interfere with its quality of resisting friction. It should be used in its natural color whenever possible.

Pigskin frequently comes in skins which are too thick for the binder to work easily, or which are very uneven in thickness. In such cases the paring down of the skin is likely to injure its strength. Because of its thickness pig is generally supposed to be more suitable for large than for small books, but inasmuch as several binders have used it successfully for years on small books, it may be taken for granted that it can be used with good results on all books, large or small, which are to receive hard usage. It needs constant handling, and the absorption of a certain amount of oil from the hands to keep it pliable. Otherwise it dries rapidly and cracks along the joint. This, however, is true of all leathers to a greater or less extent. Pig costs from 40c. to 45c. a square foot.

Goat

The leather which makes the strongest and most attractive binding comes from the skins of goats and is called morocco, because it originally came from that country. In the course of time goat skins from other countries were tanned with sumac (originally a distinguishing characteristic of a genuine morocco), but the same name was applied so that we now have the paradoxical terms, Turkey morocco, Levant morocco, etc. Moroccos have a beautiful grain, are flexible, soft and pliable to the hand, and resist hard wear; qualities which contribute to their great popularity.

Morocco varies greatly in quality as well as in appearance. Unfortunately the skins which are best in quality, considering the length of time they will wear, are not always those best in appearance. The skins of goats with long hair from the colder countries make beautiful bindings; but the skins of goats from the hot countries, such as the interior of Africa, having short hair, while not so attractive in appearance, are tougher and wear longer. In addition to the many grades of genuine morocco there are as many more imitations of it made from sheepskin, cowhide, etc. Only the expert can detect some of them in the skin, and even he may be deceived when the leather is on the back of the book.