Please see the [Transcriber’s Notes] at the end of this text.

THE YOUNG TAXIDERMIST.—See [page 298].

THE BOY’S OWN BOOK
OF
INDOOR GAMES AND RECREATIONS

A Popular Encyclopædia for Boys

BY

Dr. GORDON STABLES, R.N., C. STANSFELD HICKS, J. N. MASKELYNE,
Rev. HARRY JONES, M.A., Dr. STRADLING, Captain CRAWLEY,
Rev. A. N. MALAN, M.A., F.G.S., AND MANY OTHERS

Edited by G. A. HUTCHISON

WITH OVER SEVEN HUNDRED ILLUSTRATIONS

PHILADELPHIA:
J. B. LIPPINCOTT COMPANY.
1890.

PREFATORY NOTE.

In presenting to American youth this carefully-edited volume of home amusements, the publishers are happy in their belief that in the selection and treatment of the subjects chosen the Editor and the accomplished experts who have contributed to its pages have successfully combined, to a degree not commonly found in books prepared for the young, much sound scientific instruction and a large amount of that recreative amusement that seldom fails to awaken an interest both in the youthful mind and in the minds of “children of a larger growth.” In the language of the accomplished Editor, as expressed in his prefatory note to the English edition, the volume is “a veritable recreative text-book, prepared by experts in their several subjects, and treated with sufficient amplitude of detail and thoroughness of exposition to render their respective contributions of very real and permanent educational value. Mere ‘rule of thumb’ is scrupulously avoided, and underlying principles are clearly and intelligently explained. The tyro is led on pleasantly step by step, and almost unconsciously learns many lessons that should stand him in good stead in the battle of life. The wealth of graphic illustrations—of clever pictures that really illustrate—is another and not, we think, the least noteworthy feature of the book.

“In the numerous and greatly diversified sections, it will be seen, the work is carefully graduated in the natural order—from the simpler to the more complex and difficult tasks. We have also endeavoured wherever practicable—as in the model-making chapters—to afford, by means of alternative plans, instructions likely to cause little or no tax upon the pocket, as well as some that necessarily involve more or less expenditure for tools and material. Thus, boys of all ages and conditions—at home or at school; with leisure and ample opportunities, or already closely engaged in the sterner duties of bread-winning; boys to whom a considerable preliminary outlay may be of trifling moment, and others who rarely have a shilling to spare,—may alike turn to the different chapters with the certainty of finding something for each, calculated to afford both pleasure and profit in those spare hours that are the gold-dust of time.

“It will be pretty generally admitted, we presume, that a pronounced characteristic of the age is the daily increasing attention given to Athletics and Technical Training.... This book seeks to give that class of instruction in the most attractive guise. The subjects in which boys naturally feel peculiar interest are skilfully treated by writers of proved capacity and aptitude for the task; and hence considerable space is devoted to those essentially boys’ topics that are not only of recreative value in themselves, but incidentally afford invaluable training to eye and hand.... Nor is the moral and spiritual side of boy-nature overlooked. Games dominated by elements of ‘chance’ or ‘luck,’ as well as those of questionable or evil associations, are of course scrupulously ignored. But this negative claim to confidence is also supplemented by the positive influence exerted towards the building up of a true, robust Christian manhood. It were indeed a grievous thing if, while learning from this book how to use wisely many of the ingenious tools and contrivances described, any boy should neglect to learn how to control and direct to the most useful work in the service of God and of man the marvellous and complex machinery of his own moral and spiritual nature. To every reader, therefore, we make bold to speak that direct, manly word, that no true-hearted boy will resent. It is Dr. Cuyler, if we mistake not, who remarks that Samson builded better than he knew when he uttered his famous riddle, ‘Out of the eater came forth meat, and out of the strong came forth sweetness;’ for the pathway of life has many a lion in it, and our success and happiness depend not a little on the way we meet the foe. Thus Hedley Vicars encountered quite a shower of scoffs from his brother officers in the Crimean army when he was first converted. But he put his Bible on his table in his tent, and stood by his colours. Henceforth the lion was not only slain, but there was rich honey in the carcase when his religious influence became a power in his regiment. In the carcase of a slain temptation, also, millions besides Joseph have found delicious honey. ‘There is not a peril, or a trouble, or a spiritual foe of any kind but may be vanquished by the help of Samson’s God. Life’s sweetest enjoyments are gathered from the victories of faith. Out of slain lions come forth meat; out of conquered foes to the soul come its sweetest honeycombs. One of the joys of heaven will be the remembrance of victories won during our earthly conflicts.’ In Christ’s name and power, try it, boys!”

This volume will be followed by another, prepared on similar principles, devoted to outdoor sports and recreations; and the two, it is believed, will form a very complete encyclopædia of amusements adapted to the youth of all ages and circumstances.

J. B. Lippincott Company.

CONTENTS

SECTION I.
GYMNASTICS, INDIAN CLUBS, DUMBBELLS, AND JUGGLING WITH BALLS.

THE BOY’S OWN BOOK
OF
INDOOR GAMES AND RECREATIONS.

CHAPTER I.—GYMNASTICS.
By a Member of the London Athletic Club.

I.—Preliminary Hints as to Dress, Diet, and Exercises without Apparatus.

That fine old Latin motto, ‘Mens sana in corpore sano’ (‘A vigorous mind in a sound body’), has stood the test of years, and happily its truth is day by day more forcibly asserting itself. The feeling is becoming general that body and mind ought to be developed to the utmost, for they are both gifts to us, divinely bestowed, and for the proper use of them we are responsible.

The benefits of judicious exercise to the human frame cannot be over-estimated. In these days of sedentary occupations, it becomes an absolute necessity, an antidote, in fact, to the labours of the brain. By its use the balance between mind and body is preserved.

Irrespective of the increased health that gymnastics impart, and the spring which they give to the mind, they possess one great advantage, namely, that they endow the gymnast with presence of mind in difficulties. In positions of danger how much better chance of escape those who have trained themselves to use their limbs will have over those who have not!

Foremost as we stand among nations, it is surprising that such indifference should have hitherto prevailed with regard to the development of the body. In many continental countries (Germany and Switzerland more especially) gymnastics form part of a boy’s education; here, at any rate until quite recently, they were indulged in only as an accessory, and often without the aid and direction of an experienced teacher. Boys are allowed to enter the gymnasium, make their own choice of apparatus (and they generally select that which requires the greatest skill), and, in imitation of some expert gymnast whose performances they have witnessed, attempt feats far beyond their strength, which can only be successfully accomplished after a systematic course of practice. The result is often positive injury, and always discouragement.

As in other things, there is no royal road to gymnastics. The learner must begin with simple and gentle exercises if he wishes to acquire a graceful and easy style, increasing them in difficulty in regular degree, according to his strength and progress. The extra time and trouble devoted to the simple exercises, in which lies the groundwork of the most ‘taking’ feats, will be acknowledged to have been well expended, and the acquirement of a cool, easy, and elegant style will prove sufficient recompense for having assiduously practised them.

The best material for dress is undoubtedly white flannel. A pair of trousers made to fit the legs tolerably closely, with plenty of room in the seat (not ‘baggy,’ of course), a close-fitting ordinary under jersey, minus the sleeves (to give freedom to the arms), and a pair of canvas shoes without heels, are all that are necessary for wear during actual practice. Add to these a loose jacket of medium thickness to slip on during intervals of rest, and you have your costume complete.

Upon the question of wearing a belt opinions are divided. Many gymnasts approve of it, and assert that it affords them support; but our view, in which we are confirmed by medical authority, is that artificial support should be avoided. All that is necessary is that the trousers should be made to fit well over the hips, with a waistband about 2¹⁄₂ in. in width, and a strap and buckle behind. Be sure that the flannel is well shrunk (by immersion in water for about thirty-six hours) previous to making up.

Before proceeding to describe the exercises, we have a word to say with regard to the time at which they can be most beneficially practised. Let it be a golden rule never to attempt work directly after a meal. The digestive organs require time to fulfil their functions, and exercise upon a full stomach only impairs and weakens them. Food should not be taken immediately after practice; a short time—say half an hour—should elapse before eating.

It is of importance that these directions should be observed, for with impaired digestion the muscles, instead of being strengthened and developed by exercise, are really weakened and reduced, in consequence of not having received the nourishment which digestion alone can extract from food.

Light practice before breakfast may be taken with advantage, but a dry biscuit or crust of bread should be eaten on rising.

II.—Exercises without Apparatus.

No. 1. Place the heels together, toes pointing outwards, stand perfectly upright, as at attention, chest expanded. Raise the arms, and stretch them out in front, hands open, palms touching. Keeping the hands at the same level, throw them as far behind the back as you can. Do not bend the body. Continue this exercise until you feel you have had enough.

No. 2. Stand as before. Clench the hands and throw them out in front. Bring them back sharply to the sides, throw them out again, and continue.

No. 3. Again same position. Raise the fists to the shoulders, knuckles turned outwards, strike upwards. Bring the fists down again to the shoulders.

No. 4. Extend the arms at full length on each side, hands open, palms upwards. Bend from the elbow, bringing the tips of the fingers to the shoulders, then straighten out again. This is fine exercise for the biceps.

Now combine these four exercises, doing them in succession.

No. 5. Stand with the legs a little apart, toes pointing outwards. Arms straight, and hanging in front. Describe a circle in front of you with each hand, alternately keeping the fist shut and arms perfectly straight. First one way, the hands going outwards, then the other coming inwards. Keep up this ‘windmill’ action for some time.

These extension exercises will give ease and pliancy to the arms and their joints.

Leg Movements.

No. 1. Place the hands on the hips, and stand upright, heels together. Raise each leg alternatively, as high as possible, straight out in front of you, toes pointed, leg perfectly still.

This should not be done too slowly, but with a slight swing, as in the act of kicking.

No. 2. In addition to the forward movement, swing the leg behind you, do not bend the body over, and mind your balance. Keep up this pendulum movement, first with one leg, then with the other, counting 1, 2, 3, 4. 1, leg out in front; 2, swing behind; 3, in front again; 4, foot to ground to first position; then do the same with the other leg.

No. 3. Stand as in No. 1, and throw each knee up alternately, endeavouring to strike the chest. Do not stoop forward. This exercise loosens the knee joints.

No. 4. When in the position described last, with the knee raised, throw the leg out in front, and straighten it before bringing the foot to the ground. This is part of No. 1.

No. 5. Stand as before. Now sink down slowly, as low as possible, raising the heels from the ground, knees bent at an angle, then rise again. Do this at least twenty times in succession. It will give it to you in the calves and thighs, but it is splendid exercise.

If you practise these exercises for about half an hour every day for a week you will be ready for the more advanced practice which we shall next describe.

III.—Exercises with Apparatus.

The exercises described in the last section do not by any means exhaust the list of extension movements that can be practised. They are sufficient, however, to form a groundwork upon which the reader may begin. Many other exercises will readily suggest themselves to him during practice.

If he has a few friends who will join him in them, it will prove mutually advantageous, the exercises becoming much less monotonous by being performed in company. One should act as director, standing facing the others, and setting the exercises, counting aloud 1, 2, 3, 4, and so on.

This system is practised at all the large gymnasiums, the ‘Mass Exercise,’ as it is called, commencing the evening’s work, and forming a very pretty spectacle. This is notably the case at the German Gymnasium, King’s Cross, where frequently as many as 200 gymnasts, standing at arm’s length from each other and obedient to the word of command from the leader, who occupies a raised platform in front of them, go through the extensions in unison and perfect time. The effect is unique, and must be seen to be appreciated.

After having become accustomed to these movements, they may be practised with light dumb-bells.

The pupil having passed through the preliminaries, and moulded himself a little into shape, we now proceed to describe the exercises with apparatus. Those on the ‘horizontal bar’ being among the most strengthening of gymnastic performances, and perhaps also the most varied and attractive, we shall treat of them first.

The Horizontal Bar.

Almost every boy is familiar with this apparatus, but for the benefit of the few who may be in ignorance, we give a drawing of it ([Fig. 1]).

Fig. 1.

The bar or pole should be of ash, diameter 2 inches, length 6 feet. The more expensive bars have a steel core running through the middle, in which case the diameter can be reduced to 1¹⁄₂ inches, and the length increased to 7 feet. This size is decidedly more pleasant for use, as a firmer grip can be obtained than on the thicker bars. The height of the bar from the ground of course varies according to that of the gymnast, who should be able to touch the lower side with both hands (the tips of the fingers) when standing raised on his toes. When hanging by the hands, the toes will then just clear the ground.

Fig. 2.

Having adjusted the apparatus to the proper height, begin by

Hanging on the Bar and the Walk.

Jump up and seize the bar with both hands, knuckles upwards, the thumbs on the same side as the fingers. Remember (with the exceptions mentioned later on) never to grasp the bar as you would a broomstick, but hook the hand over it. Let the legs hang perfectly straight and together, toes pointed.

Now ‘walk’ with the hands from one end of the bar to the other, and back again. Keep the body steady and avoid swaying ([Fig. 2]).

Breasting the Bar.

Hang on the bar as before, and slowly draw yourself up, keeping the shoulders square, until the chest is level with the bar ([Fig. 3]).

Fig. 3.

Then lower the body until the arms are quite straight again, draw up again, and continue to practise until you can accomplish it from eight to a dozen times in succession. When breasting the bar, repeat the walk in that position.

Fig. 4.

Now try swinging forward and backward, arms straight, increasing the height with each swing until the body assumes an almost horizontal position. When at the extent of the backward swing, the hands should be shifted slightly round the bar to recover the grip which the forward swing has lessened ([Fig. 4]).

Fig. 4A.

Now in the backward swing release your hold of the bar and launch yourself away from it with a slight push and alight on your feet. This will accustom you to leaving the bar neatly and effectively ([Fig. 4A]).

The Short Circle.

Draw the chest up to the bar, throw the head well back, raising the legs at the same time (keep them straight), and get the toes over the front of the bar, pulling hard with the arms ([Fig. 5]). This will cause you to revolve half round the bar, and will bring you into position as in [Fig. 6].

Fig. 5.

Fig. 6.

This is rather difficult to perform, and requires a deal of practice, but it is an indispensable exercise.

When in this position ([Fig. 6]) endeavour to revolve completely round the bar like a wheel on its axis. To do this you must throw the upper part of the body forward with a good swing, at the same time keeping the arms rigid, and giving yourself sufficient impetus to go round, coming up into the original position.

Getting on to the Bar.

Get into position as in [Fig. 3], then drop the right side of the body, simultaneously throwing the left leg over the bar as in [Fig. 7], and swing the other leg which will have the effect of bringing you up over the bar. Endeavour to come up with the body upright, as in [Fig. 8].

Fig. 7

Fig. 8

You will experience some difficulty in doing this, and your first attempt will no doubt result in a mere scramble up, but persevere until success rewards your efforts.

There is another method you may try—viz., to bring the leg up through the hands, and, with a good swing, bring yourself up, as in [Fig. 8].

One method is perhaps as good as the other, but neither can be neatly performed without continual practice.

The Leg Swing (Backwards).

When in position, as in [Fig. 8], swing the right leg out behind, at the same time shifting the left leg backward until the bend of the knee catches the bar ([Fig. 9]).

Fig. 9

Keep the arms straight, and throw the head back with a good swing, just enough to bring you round the bar into the original position. You must be careful in judging the swing, otherwise you will find that you cannot stop yourself, and will make a half turn too much. After a little practice you will be able to judge the first swing to a nicety, and come up with a good balance. Now do several turns without stopping, always remembering to finish above the bar.

Fig. 10

For the forward leg swing, turn the hands the other way, leaning the weight of the body on the arms; throw the head forward, and, with one bold plunge, keeping the body erect, and holding tightly on to the bar, make the revolution ([Fig. 10]).

Do not be content with accomplishing this with one leg only, but practise with right and left alternately.

The forward swing will tax your confidence more than the backward, but it is really not more difficult. You will, after a little practice, be able to make several revolutions in succession. This has a very dashing appearance.

To Sit on the Bar.

This will prove rather difficult at first. Get on to the bar, as in [Fig. 8], and preserving your balance, bring the hanging leg with a rapid movement over the bar into a sitting position. To effect this you must leave go of the bar with the right hand, resuming your grasp directly the leg has passed under your hand. You will now be in position as in [Fig. 11].

Fig. 11

Fig. 12

This exercise really consists of balancing, and in your first attempts you will find a tendency to roll over backwards directly the leg reaches the level of the bar. Should you do so, however, you can quickly recover your position by the method described in ‘[getting on to the bar].’

Fig. 13

Fig. 14

There is another way of getting into the sitting position. Hang on as in [Fig. 2], and doubling up, pass the legs through the arms ([Fig. 14]), straighten the body, as in [Fig. 15], and draw yourself up until the posterior is a little above the bar. You will then, with a slight bend of the body, roll over into position. You must keep the head well back, and pull hard with the arms.

Fig. 15

Fig. 16

A good exercise for the muscles of the back is to drop through when in position as in [Fig. 14], to position as in [Fig. 16], and back again to [Fig. 2]. Be careful to keep the legs straight while doing it. It is easy enough to effect with legs bent.

Having accomplished ‘sitting,’ accustom yourself to remaining in that position without holding the bar with the hands, balancing yourself with the bar under different parts of the leg.

This will prepare you for the

Sit Swing (Backward),

which is not unlike the leg swing, but very much more difficult, as greater strength is required, in consequence of the whole weight being thrown upon the arms.

Sitting on the bar as in [Fig. 11], stiffen the arms, and launch yourself backwards with a good swing, holding the bar firmly with both hands, and go right round the bar with the impetus you have given yourself, resuming the position from which you started. As in the leg swing, you must judge the swing correctly, or else you will go round half a turn too much, or fail to give sufficient swing to come up at all. This will very likely be the case in your first few attempts, for you can hardly expect to accomplish the feat at once.

In attempting this exercise it is as well to have some one standing in front of the bar ready to catch you in the event of your not having given swing enough to balance yourself, in which case you will fall forward.

In the sit swing forward, starting is the important part. Raise the body as far from the bar as possible, the whole weight supported on the arms ([Fig. 12]), legs straight, chest thrown out. Now with a bold plunge forward you will go right round (that is after a time). The arms must be kept perfectly straight, as in [Fig. 13], and the hands of course reversed as in the leg swing forward.

This feat requires more nerve than any we have yet described, and, as a natural accompaniment, more practice, but it will well repay any amount of perseverance.

Hanging by the Legs.

Sit on the bar, then suddenly slide backwards and drop, catching yourself by your bent knees ([Fig. 17]).

Fig. 17

Fig. 18

You must be very careful not to communicate any swing to the body, but to drop quite straight, or off you will come. Having successfully acquired this exercise, you may now practise swinging by the legs, when as in [Fig. 18], let go with your legs, and let them drop and come on your feet on the ground. This exercise had better be first practised on a bar sufficiently low to allow of your just touching with the tips of your fingers when hanging, in case you hold on too long, and so come on your hands and feet instead of on your feet only. A very little practice, however, will suffice to give you the knack of leaving go at the exact moment, and as this method of leaving the bar is often called into requisition at the end of a series of combined movements, it should be acquired perfectly.

We cannot too strongly advise our young friends who wish to become gymnasts to pay particular attention to the style in which they perform the exercises. Many a difficult feat is spoiled in appearance by the clumsy manner in which it is executed, and fails to elicit the admiration afforded to a much simpler movement gracefully performed.

The Clear Circle.

This exercise is very difficult, and will necessitate a lot of practice. It differs from the ‘[Short Circle]’ already described in this important particular, viz., that the circle is performed without any part of the body touching the bar. You must commence by drawing the chest up to the bar from the hanging position, then throw the head back, and, raising the legs, and pulling hard with the arms, endeavour to bring the feet over the bar, describing, as it were, part of a circle. While the legs are passing round, straighten the arms, and you will come into position as in [Fig. 19].

Fig. 19

Now revolve round the bar, keeping the arms rigid, and the body away from the bar. The whole weight of the body (which must be kept quite straight) will thus be thrown on the arms. Our readers must not be discouraged at the nonsuccess that will attend their first efforts to accomplish this exercise, which, as we have before remarked, is a very difficult one, and requires a deal of practice before the knack can be acquired.

The Muscle Grind.

This, although not difficult to perform, is very showy, and frequently elicits greater applause from an audience than much more difficult feats. Get on to the bar in sitting position, as in [Fig. 11], then slide down in front, at the same time putting the arms straight down behind you until the bar comes across the biceps; then communicate a swing to the body until you have acquired sufficient momentum to carry you completely round the bar. The ordinary way in which this feat is performed is with the head going forwards ([Fig. 20]). The other way (backwards) is more difficult.

Fig. 20

Fig. 21

It can be done in a third way, with the arms straight along the bar ([Fig. 21]).

Hanging by the Toes.

This is easier than most people imagine. Whatever difficulty may be found will consist not so much in the actual sustaining of the weight of the body by the toes as in the task of getting the feet into position on the bar. We will suppose, however, that by this time the pupil will have mastered the [short circle] described on [page 23], in which case he will find it easy enough to hitch the toes on the bar instead of bringing them over to complete the circle. This having been accomplished, nothing remains but to leave go with the hands and let the body drop slowly until hanging quite perpendicularly ([Fig. 22]).

Fig. 22

In first attempting this, it is advisable to stretch out your arms, so as to be prepared in case you find your feet slipping off. To drop on to the hands is the easier way of leaving the bar from this position, but it is not the correct one, which is to draw the body up and resume your hold of the bar by the hands.

The Hock Swing.

This is like the sit ‘swing backward,’ except that it is performed without holding the bar by the hands, which of course renders it very much more difficult.

Sit on the bar as far back as possible, and then launch yourself backwards with arms extended, holding tight with the legs, and, with a good swing, come right round the bar into sitting position from which you started ([Fig. 23]).

Fig. 23

Great demand will be made upon your store of confidence in the performance of this feat, but it well repays the practice involved, as it has a very dashing appearance, especially when several turns are done in succession, which you will be able to accomplish after a time.

The Upstart.

This is an indispensable exercise, and one that will be frequently called into requisition by the gymnast as he becomes more advanced. It consists of getting on to the bar by a swing and a jerk, the peculiar nature of which it is rather difficult to describe. First hang by the hands, then bring the feet up to the bar and shoot them out sharply as far as possible ([Fig. 24]), at the same time pulling hard with the arms.

You will find, after a time, that this will have the effect of bringing you right up on to the bar as in [Fig. 6].

Fig. 24

Fig. 25

The upstart can be performed without the swing, but the arms in this case must be kept perfectly straight. Raise the legs as before, then drop them suddenly and pull the body above the bar. To see the upstart once performed will do more towards teaching its acquirement than pages of explanation. It is purely a knack, which will come to you all at once, after, perhaps, numberless fruitless attempts ([Fig. 25]).

The Slow Pull-up

is another method of getting on to the bar, and is a feat of strength rather than of agility, great muscular power being necessary for its successful accomplishment.

Fig. 26

It is performed by drawing the body up while hanging from the bar. The hands must be well over the bar—in fact, the wrists must rest there. In this exercise it is better to have the thumbs underneath (this is one of the exceptions referred to in [page 22]), as otherwise, when you come up, your hands may slip off. [Fig. 26] shows the position midway.

This is the critical point, and all your strength will be required to get the rest of the way. By raising the elbows a little you will find you will get a greater purchase, and the raising of the legs will counterbalance the weight of the body and bring it up. This exercise always meets with great applause, especially when done several times in succession, a feat that will task your powers to their utmost.

Another strength movement is the

Horizontal (Back and Front).

It consists of supporting the body by the strength of the arms, as shown in [Figs. 27], [28].

Fig. 27

Fig. 28

The Splits.

This must first be practised on a bar reaching not higher than the waist. The feat is to clear the bar as shown in [Fig. 29]. Some amount of confidence will be required for the performance of this exercise, and there must be no hesitation in the matter, or over you will come on your nose. First practise jumping on to the bar, so as to touch with both feet inside the hands; then try outside, and, when you have become accustomed to this movement, you may make your attempt to go clean over. You must be careful to let go with the hands at the proper moment when in position shown in [Fig. 29].

Fig. 29

The exercise is usually first acquired on the ‘[horse]’ (an apparatus which we shall describe in due course), and is much more difficult on the horizontal bar, but as it is a very pretty finish to a series of combined movements, we have introduced it here.

We should recommend your having some one standing in front of the bar when you commence to practise this movement, to catch you in case your feet do not quite clear.

The Long Swing.

This is perhaps the most difficult of all the exercises on the bar, and requires great strength and nerve for its accomplishment. There are very few gymnasts who can do it properly, which is not to be wondered at, considering the amount of practice that it involves. Only the advanced gymnasts, those who have completely mastered all the foregoing exercises (especially the clear circle, which is the preliminary to the long swing), should attempt it.

Fig. 30

Start from position as in [Fig. 6], and raise the body up ([Fig. 30]), then descend with a dashing swing ([Fig. 31]), bending the body backward, and just as you are underneath the bar throw the legs forward and the head back. This will have the effect of bringing you up above the bar. You must now bend the arms slightly, to bring you nearer the bar, over which you should come with the chest thrown out. This position is the most awkward part of the whole swing, for the hands will be found too far over the bar. To rectify this you must make what is known as the shift, which consists of making a rapid turn with the hands, bringing the palms on to the top of the bar, when you can straighten the arms ([Fig. 32]), ready for another circle.

Fig. 31

Fig. 32

The long swing can also be performed forward, but it is even more difficult than the one just described.

Combinations.

We have now shown most of the principal movements on the horizontal bar, a great many of which, when properly acquired singly, can be performed in combination. For instance—

Start with the short circle, throw the legs over the bar into sitting position, then sit swing backwards, leave go with the hands, two hock swing backwards, and off the bar on to your feet as in [Fig. 18].

Again. Upstart, clear circle (three or four times) into sitting position, sit swing forward, change hands, and hock swing off.

A very dashing-looking feat is the upstart and splits in one movement. Care must be taken not to allow the body to touch the bar, or your impetus will be stopped just when it is required for clearing the bar.

This concludes the Horizontal Bar. We will now proceed to describe the exercises on the Parallel Bars.

The Parallel Bars.

The Parallel Bars are very simple in their structure. They consist of two bars, running side by side, supported by uprights at a sufficient height from the ground to allow the feet to swing clear. The width should not be more than eighteen inches; length about seven feet.

The exercises that can be performed upon this apparatus are various and attractive; some of them comparatively easy, the more advanced very difficult, and requiring great strength and skill in their execution.

Exercises.

Rise into position as in [Fig. 33], and walk with the hands to the end of the bars, keeping the arms stiff, legs straight, and toes pointed. Now walk back again. Now proceed along the bars by a succession of jumps with the hands and back again.

Fig. 33

Fig. 34

Let the body sink down, as in [Fig. 34], and hop along in that position forwards and backwards. Be careful to keep the body steady and legs straight.

Fig. 35

Fig. 36

Position as in [Fig. 33]. Now commence swinging the legs backwards and forwards. When accustomed to this movement, throw the legs over the bars in front of you ([Fig. 35]), then bring the hands to the front ([Fig. 36]), and bring the legs over again between the bars into original position. Do this several times in succession, and vary the exercise by commencing with throwing the legs behind.

Fig. 37

Fig. 38.

Fig. 39

Fig. 40

The pumping movement is a splendid exercise for bringing out the muscles of the chest, and is performed as follows. Swing the body into a horizontal position, as in [Fig. 37]; then bend the arms and drop into [Fig. 38]. Swing the legs forward, and with the impulse this will give you come up into [Fig. 39], and finish with a swing back into position from which the movement was commenced. In the backward ‘pump,’ commence from the position as shown in last figure, and drop with the backward swing. It is a pretty movement to combine the two—first forwards, then backwards, in alternate swings, and then to leave the bars by a side movement on to your feet, as in [Fig. 40]. This last movement is one of the neatest and easiest ways of leaving the bars, and can be done either forwards or backwards, and on right or left side.

Fig. 41

Fig. 42

After having fairly mastered the pumping movement, you will now be ready for attempting the hand-balance—an exceedingly effective exercise, and not very difficult to accomplish. Commence as for the backward pump, and, with an increased momentum, bring yourself up into a hand-balance ([Fig. 41]). This movement should be first practised at the end of the bars, as in the event of your overbalancing—a not unlikely contingency—you can save yourself by bending the arms, as in [Fig. 42]. We should also recommend your having two friends to stand by you, one on each side of the bars, ready to catch you in case of a tumble. Having become proficient in the stationary balance, try to walk along the whole length of bars with the hands, still preserving the balance. This will be found none too easy, as directly one hand is moved forward the balance is altered, and there is a tendency to fall over. The correct method of leaving the bars after balancing is by means of the hand-spring, which is performed by bending the arms as in [Fig. 42], and when in that position dropping the legs and pushing away from the bars with the arms; the result will be that you will alight on your feet after having turned a half-somersault. In practising this also you should have two friends ready to catch you, as your first few attempts are nearly certain to be unsuccessful.

Fig. 43

Fig. 44

The [slow pull-up] was described in our remarks on the Horizontal Bar, but upon the parallels it is much more difficult of execution. The movement is shown in [Figs. 43] and [44]. In starting, the hands should be placed well over the ends of the bars—the wrists, in fact, being over—then by sheer strength raise the body up to [Fig. 44]. This is the awkward point, and all your exertion and power will be called upon to get right up with straight arms.

Fig. 45

Fig. 46

The following exercise is also very similar to one described for the horizontal bar, but it is more difficult on the parallels. Stand between the bars, catch hold of them with the hands, and stoop down until the shoulders are level with the bars; then raise the legs—keeping them straight—until the body is in position, as in [Fig. 45], when drop right over to [Fig. 46]; then back again, and continue the movement several times. This is splendid exercise for opening the chest and strengthening the muscles of the back.

Fig. 47

Fig. 48

Vaulting movements, when neatly performed, are very pretty, and should be commenced from the centre of and between the bars. [Figs. 47] and [48] will convey the idea to our readers. A great many movements may be gone through while in this position, the necessary impetus being obtained by swinging the legs over the bars.

Fig. 49

[Fig. 49] shows the most difficult of all the exercises upon the parallels. It is to make the head and shoulders counterbalance the legs, and to hold the body parallel with the bars by the arms. This is known by the name of ‘La Planche.’

We will now proceed to a description of the exercises on the

Vaulting Horse.

Fig. 50

The above sketch shows the apparatus ([Fig. 50]). The dimensions most convenient for use are 5 feet 10 inches to 6 feet in length, and about 16 inches across the back; the height can be arranged as required. It will be seen from the illustration that the legs are telescopic, and can be lengthened or reduced at pleasure.

The two pommels in the centre are about 18 inches apart, and can be removed for certain exercises hereafter described. In that case, pommels level with the back of the horse are inserted to fill up the grooves. In performing a great many of the exercises it is necessary to have a wooden board about 3 feet square, rising in thickness from a feather edge to 3 inches, to be placed on the ground at the side or end of the horse, as the case may be, for the ‘take-off.’ This is not used as a spring-board. It should be solid, and made of deal.

The trunk of the horse is made of a solid piece of wood, and covered all over with cowhide. One end, as will be seen from the [engraving], is raised, with a slight bend corresponding to the neck of the animal, which gives it its name.

Many of the exercises upon the horse are similar to those upon the parallels. Our readers can themselves recognise which they are; we shall therefore avoid recapitulation, and only describe those peculiar to the horse.

Fig. 51

Fig. 52

Start by springing on to the horse with the hands one on each of the pommels, legs hanging straight ([Fig. 51]). Now swing the right leg over the horse in between the pommels (as in [Fig. 52]), momentarily relinquishing the hold of the right hand, and immediately the leg has passed resuming your hold; then the same with the left leg. This must be done without touching the horse with the foot, and the body must be supported by the arms the whole time. Then bring each leg back again into original position.

Now try the two movements at once—that is, while the one leg is being brought back the other is to be passed through forward. You will thus always have one leg on each side of the horse.

The next exercise is the—

Leg Spring.

Stand in front of the horse, hands on pommels, then spring up into the saddle into a kneeling position (as in [Fig. 53]). Then, throwing the arms up, give a good spring forward, alighting on your feet the other side ([Fig. 54]). You will feel rather awkward at first in attempting the spring, as the legs seem to be glued to the saddle, but it is very easy after having once been accomplished.

Fig. 53

Fig. 54

Horse Jumping.

Jumping exercises on the horse, when neatly performed, are very effective.

Fig. 55

Take a short run up to the board (described [above]), and jump—off both feet at once—over the back, passing the legs through the arms, and assisting yourself by the hands one on each pommel ([Fig. 55]).

Fig. 56

When in this position shoot out the legs in front of you, and, leaving go of the pommels, come down neatly on the other side. Be careful to gather up the legs well when passing through, or you may catch your feet against the back of the horse, and come down on your nose. There are several forms of this exercise. [Fig. 56] shows one of them.

It is rather more difficult than the last, from the legs passing outside the hands. A much greater spring is required to raise you high enough to pass over, and you must be careful to let go with the hands at the proper time, otherwise you will lose command of yourself and pitch forward on to the ground. In practising this movement we recommend your having a friend to stand in front of the horse, to catch you in case of such an emergency.

Saddle Vaulting.

Get on to the horse as in [Fig. 57], sitting across, outside the pommels, then catch hold of the pommels as shown, and, throwing the whole weight of the body upon the arms, throw the legs right up, and, with a kind of twist, bring yourself round on to the horse the opposite side of the pommels, retaining your hold all the time. You will then face the opposite direction to the position from which you started. Practise the exercise from right to left, and vice versa.

Fig. 57

There are many other forms of saddle-vaulting possible of practice, some of them very difficult, but it is not needful to describe them.

Fig. 58

The hand-balance was described in the chapter on the parallel bars. It is a little more difficult of execution on the horse. It is shown in [Fig. 58].

The assistance of two friends in attempting this feat is desirable.

Flying over the Horse.

For these exercises the pommels must be removed, and the spaces filled up with the flush ones, as [described] already. The movement is not unlike leap-frog, as the spring is taken off the board, and you pitch on to your hands in the same manner. But there the similarity ends, for it is a very different matter clearing a boy’s back, from getting over the whole length of the horse.

Fig. 59

Commence by placing the jumping-board about 3 feet from the largest end of the horse, then with a run and a spring pitch on to your hands, as in [Fig. 59].

After practising this, move the board farther away and repeat; continue the exercise, each time measuring the distance, until you can pitch on to the ends from about 5 or 6 feet.

Fig. 60

Now jump up on to the end of the horse, as in [Fig. 60], then plunge forwards on to the other end, pitching on to the hands, and clearing the horse, as in leap-frog, coming down safely on the ground in front.

This exercise must be done with dash and vigour. If you are half-hearted about it you will come to grief.

The Hand-rings or Stirrups.

This simple apparatus consists of iron rings attached to two ropes suspended from a cross bar or from a ceiling, about seventeen or eighteen feet in length, and at a sufficient height from the ground to allow the feet to swing just clear. The rings or stirrups (the latter shape is the more convenient) should be covered with leather, and of a thickness affording a good grasp. The exercises that can be performed upon them are neither attractive nor various, but they are useful, and as no section on gymnastics would be complete without their introduction, we will proceed to describe them.

Fig. 61

Begin by drawing yourself up, as in [Fig. 61], holding one ring close to the shoulder and the other extended at arm’s length. Now draw in the extended arm, at the same time straightening the other, and repeat the movement as long as you are able, first one arm straight, then the other. Keep the head erect, looking straight before you, not at either of the rings. Legs hanging close together, toes pointed.

Fig. 62

Now try the slow pull up; this is not so difficult upon the rings as upon the horizontal bar. The wrist should be placed well over the rings, so as to get a good purchase. Then proceed as directed in the horizontal bar directions, and when you have drawn yourself quite up, straighten the arms and press them close to your sides. Now for a stiff one. When in this position gradually extend the arms apart, allowing the body to sink until the shoulders are nearly level with the rings ([Fig. 62]). Endeavour to keep in this position, supporting the body as long as possible, then lower yourself gradually, until you hang straight down again.

The back and forward ‘horizontals’ (also described in the horizontal bar) are very good exercises to practise on the rings.

Fig. 63

Fig. 64

Now for some swinging exercises. Take hold of the rings and with a few quick steps forward communicate a swing to the body, which increase by drawing yourself up in the forward swing, and when at its extent lowering yourself with a drop. This will cause you to swing higher each time until your arms and legs are straight and nearly in a horizontal position, as in [Fig. 63]. When accustomed to this exercise, which should be practised until perfect confidence is attained, you may proceed to the following. Commence as before, and when at the end of the forward swing, draw up the legs over the head, as in [Fig. 64], and immediately before commencing the backward swing shoot the legs out straight, and come back to position as in [Fig. 63]. Continue the movement half a dozen times.

Fig. 65

Fig. 66

Commence as before, and when at the end of the backward swing, suddenly contract the arms and raise yourself up into the rings, as in [Fig. 65], and continue swinging in that position. In order to preserve your equilibrium you must bring the legs forward when beginning to descend, as in [Fig. 66].

Fig. 67

Another variety of the swing is to support yourself on the rings, ‘grasshopper fashion’ ([Fig. 67]). A very pretty effect is produced by a combination of the different swings we have described. The order in which they are performed is immaterial, and may be left to the pleasure of the gymnast.

We will conclude our directions for the rings with a description of what is known as ‘dislocation.’

Hang from the rings and draw up the legs over the head, and drop over, as in [Fig. 46] (Parallel Bars). Now instead of going back again, push the rings out and away from you on each side. The body, by its own weight, will drop through and cause the arms to twist until you will find yourself hanging with straight arms in the position from which you started. The sensation you will experience when first the exercise is performed is (of course momentarily only) not unlike ‘dislocation,’ hence the name the exercise bears, but after a few successful attempts it is comparatively easy, and is a splendid means of opening the chest.

Climbing.

Although not generally looked upon as a gymnastic exercise, climbing the rope, pole, etc., is so essentially useful, and so likely to prove of service in an emergency, that we devote a few lines to describe the best and most effective method. Those who have never attempted to climb a rope can have but little idea of the severe nature of the exercise. Although unfortunately neglected, in favour of more showy feats by the majority of gymnasts, yet there are a few who make a speciality of it, and climb heights really marvellous. A few years ago, on the occasion of the German Gymnastic Society’s annual display at the Crystal Palace, one of the members ascended a rope from the floor to the extreme height of the centre transept. The arduous nature of the feat may be imagined when our readers are informed that a quarter of an hour was occupied in the ascent. The way of taking hold of the rope is shown in [Fig. 68]. The legs should now be drawn up and the knees and feet pressed against the rope, and the hands then shifted higher ([Fig. 69]).

Fig. 68

Fig. 69

Climbing by the hands only, ‘hand over hand,’ as it is called, is much more difficult, and can only be performed to a limited height. Climbing the pole is more difficult, from the fact that it is unbending and thicker to grasp. [Fig. 70] shows the position.

Fig. 70

The Ladder.

In nearly every well-appointed gymnasium there are ladders, placed in horizontal or slanting positions, upon which a variety of easy but useful exercises may be performed. ‘Walking’ by the hands is shown on the horizontal ladder in [Fig. 71]. By moving the hands forward alternately, holding by the outside, you progress from one end to the other, and back again by reversing the movement.

Fig. 71

Fig. 72

In [Fig. 72] another movement is shown, in which progression is made by a succession of ‘steps’ from round to round, first from one round to the next, and afterwards increasing the length of the step by missing four, five, or six rounds, as the length of reach will permit.

IV.—How to make Gymnastic Apparatus.
By Charles Spencer, Author of The Modern Gymnast, &c.

Comparatively few years ago bodily exercises were mostly confined to walking, running, and rowing; now, happily, it is an exception not to find some sort of gymnastic exercise desired by boys where apparatus is necessary. My object in this article is to tell as briefly and succinctly as possible, how any one, with a slight knowledge of carpentry, can make at home all that is requisite for a gymnasium, and that too at a comparatively small expense.

As you will, of course, require some tools, I will begin by supposing that you have the ordinary commonplace ones, but may mention that, as you will find the truth of the adage, ‘A bad workman finds fault with his tools,’ you must not attempt to cross-cut a piece of timber with a rip saw, or split your wood by using a gimlet instead of a bradawl, blaming the tools, spoiling the wood and also your own temper.

Let us begin with the construction of the horizontal bar, as it is the simplest apparatus to make, and affords the greatest variety of exercises. There are several ways of forming the supports. We will take the two most suitable, one as a fixture and the other portable, to be used in a room or anywhere else desired.

Horizontal Bar.

With wooden uprights to fix in the ground (See next page, [Fig. 1]):

Tools.

Hand-saw (cross-cut).
Jack plane.
Spike gimlet (three-eighths of an inch).

Inch chisel.
Hammer.
Rule and Pencil.

The first thing to be done is to order your wood of the nearest timber-merchant. There are various kinds of fir-timber, and those mostly used are pine, spruce, and yellow deal. The latter is the best for our present purpose, as it is easy to work and will best stand the inclemency of the weather. I need scarcely tell you where to get the other materials, as most ironmongers and colourmen keep everything you may require in this way.

Fig. 1

Having all your materials and tools ready, saw 4 feet off your battens (A A), which will leave 10 feet for the uprights, and as 2 feet 6 inches have to be let into the ground, you will then have 7 feet 6 inches for the height of the bar, which is sufficient for all exercises. You will next fit the 4 feet-pieces (B B) into one end of the uprights by halving them in; this will form the sole-piece to which the struts (C C C C) are nailed. All this part, which goes underground, is left in its rough state; the 7 feet 6 inches above the ground will have to be planed over and the edges rounded off. The uprights can be either left plain or an ornamental turned top may be added. This is a matter of fancy.

Our bar is made of the best straight-grained ash, 6 feet long and 1⁷⁄₈ in. in diameter.

Before fixing, cover the knots with a little patent knotting, then paint the uprights all over with a coat of priming, another coat of lead colour and one of any finishing colour you prefer. Green will soon fade, blue will stand for years.

Portable Horizontal Bar.

Tools.

Saw.
Jack plane.

Inch chisel.
Three-eighths-of-an-inch spike gimlet.

Fig. 2

This bar ([Fig. 2]), for its simplicity, portability, and strength, has a reputation for being one of the most useful kinds of apparatus made. Not only is it used for a bar, but children’s swings, hand-rings, and trapeze can be attached to it, as the supports can be spread out to allow the bar to stand at various heights by shifting the stretcher irons (A A) up and down. These irons, three-eighths of a inch in diameter, are cranked at each end—i.e., bent at right-angles—and fit into holes in the uprights about 3 inches apart.

There will be very little for you to make in this, viz., the four uprights. After you have planed these over and rounded the edges, mortice 1¹⁄₄-in. square holes through two of the uprights (D), six inches from the top, and bore ³⁄₄-in. round holes through the other two. This is to take the end of the bar (B). The square part is to prevent the bar turning round when you swing on it. You will have to purchase the bar with iron core, as it would be impossible to make it without proper machinery.

Size and varnish the uprights with one coat of size and two of hard oak varnish. In fixing, you merely turn the screw-eye into the floor or stakes, and attach the stays (C C) to them.

Lawn Gymnasium ([Fig. 3])

with wooden uprights to fix in the ground.

Fig. 3

Tools.—Same as for Horizontal Bar, [Fig. 1].

[Fig. 3] represents the Lawn Gymnasium with some of its appendages. My object now is to show you how to construct the frame, and, of course, when that is done you can add whatever you like, as, for instance, climbing-rope or pole, hand-rings (H H), trapeze bar, foot or sitting swing (G), vaulting and horizontal bar (F), etc.

On referring to the quantities you will find there are two yellow battens 15 ft. long; these form the uprights (A A); 3 feet has to go into the ground, leaving 12 feet for the height of the swing. The top (B), 7 feet in length, is cut off the 14-ft. length, the remaining 7 ft. is again cut in the centre to form the two sole-pieces (D D), 3 ft. 6 in. each; these are then halved into the bottom of the uprights in centre, and the struts (E E E E) nailed on as shown. The top can be either morticed on to the uprights or secured by strong iron brackets. The inch facia board (C) is nailed on the top for ornament, as are also the cornice pole-ends.

The 2-inch square runners are secured on the uprights with the 3-inch screws (four to each runner), 3 feet from the ground and 2 inches apart, leaving a groove or space between them for the ends of the bar to slide up and down. For vaulting purposes these runners have to be bored through with a ³⁄₈-in. nose or spoon-bit (a gimlet would split the wood); the holes must be about three inches apart from the top to bottom, and are intended to take the ³⁄₈-in. pin which is to support the bar.

The whole of the wood-work above ground must be planed, and the edges neatly rounded off. It is the custom to burn or char the surface of that part of the timber which has to be let into the ground, to prevent it from rotting, but a good coat of gas tar answers the purpose very well.

Portable Frame for Trapeze, Rings, or Swing.

Fig. 4

[Fig. 4] represents a very simple way of forming the uprights for a swing. It consists of two scaffold poles, or more correctly speaking, Norway spars (the same as used for ladder-making when they have been sawn down the centre). They may be procured at any ladder-makers, with the bark taken off and properly trimmed. The top should be 2 in. in diameter, and the bottom 3¹⁄₂ to 4 inches. The cross-piece (B) to which the ropes are fastened is formed of 2-in. gas barrel, i.e. iron tubing, and is measured by the calibre or inside diameter, therefore 2-inch gas tubes will measure about 2¹⁄₂ inches outside diameter. The elbows, which are bought already screwed, would have to be fitted with iron staples riveted to them, to fasten the wire rope to, and two hooks also riveted through the tube, made of ¹⁄₂-in. diameter iron, 18 inches apart, for attaching the swing.

Cut the iron rope into four lengths of 25 ft. to form the stays (C C C C). One of these stays must be fitted with a coupling screw, for tightening the whole, when fixed. Most telegraph-posts are stayed in this manner; they would, therefore, be a good guide for you to see how the wire ropes are fastened.

The two uprights are not let into the ground; it is best to let them stand on some hard substance, such as a stone or a block of wood, to prevent their sinking when the stays are strained.

Fig. 5

The next illustration ([Fig. 5]) represents another method of constructing a portable frame. This has the advantage of the uprights being readily removed, as the whole consists of tube-iron. The Norway spars are here represented by two 14-feet lengths of 2-inch gas tube. If, however, the length be a difficulty, then get four 7-feet lengths of 2-inch gas tube, two of which may be screwed together to form one upright. The screwed sockets, by means of which the tubes are joined, are supplied with them. A horizontal bar (D) may be added by introducing the T pieces (A A), which should be 2¹⁄₂ inches, to slide up and down the iron tube, and a hole drilled through the T piece and into the tube will enable it to be fixed at the requisite height.

The four stays (F F F F) and stakes (G G G G) just the same as described in [Fig. 4].

Any gas-fitter would supply these tubes, but on the score of economy it is best to go to a wholesale house.

Jumping Stands.

Fig. 6

Jumping stands are very simple in their construction, consisting of two pieces of square timber (A A) about 4 inches square, bolted to cross-piece (B B) ([Fig. 6]). In many instances they are merely sunk into the ground without any sole-pieces or struts.

For foot-jumping the stands average 6 feet in height, with three-eighths of an inch holes bored from top to 1 foot from bottom. They are painted and marked feet and inches. A line and sandbags (D D) rest on two pins inserted in the three-eighths-of-an-inch holes, so that should the foot catch in the act of jumping the line immediately falls off.

For pole-jumping the stands must be 12 feet high and strong in proportion, while in other respects they are the same as for foot-jumping.

The Pan-Gymnasticon.

Fig. 7

This combination ([Fig. 7]) consists of a ladder-plank (A), two standing-planks (D D), and standing-ladder (B), all fourteen feet in length, which form the four supports to carry the cross-beam (E), ten feet long, to which may be suspended any apparatus you may wish. This is very similar to the Portable Horizontal Bar ([Fig. 2]), only carried out upon a large and more elaborate scale. If I were to describe its general construction, I should be merely recapitulating what has already been explained. This apparatus may be made any size, of course proportionately strong, G, G, H, H, and I, represent a bar with triangular ends stayed off to the bottom of the four uprights, which, when made tight, the bar becomes perfectly rigid, so that a trapeze bar may be converted into a horizontal bar if required.

Other useful Apparatus.

Fig. 8

[Fig. 8] shows a safe and convenient form of swing.

Fig. 9

[Fig. 9], No. 1, represents a hand-ladder, used in pairs, in place of hand-rings. They are generally adopted in the German Gymnasia.

No. 3. Hand-stirrup, with spring or dog-stools. This shape is preferred to rings, as they command a much firmer grip to the hands.

No. 2. Indian Clubs. This illustration represents the best shape, and is the pattern now generally used.

[Figs. 10] and [11] represent Dumb-bells and Bar-bells, with wrought-iron handles. They do not break so easily as if they were cast in one piece. It may be useful to know, when making patterns for dumb-bells, in order to ascertain the weight in metal when cast, that one pound of fir, say pine, is equivalent to about fourteen pounds of cast iron.

Fig. 10.

Fig. 11.

CHAPTER II.—INDIAN CLUBS, AND HOW TO USE THEM.
By a Member of the London Athletic Club.

It is our object in this chapter to present to our readers full instructions for the use of the Indian clubs—instructions that, for completeness and thoroughness of illustration, have not before been approached in any work with which we are acquainted.

The origin of their introduction into Europe is not known with certainty, but it is said that we are indebted for them to a military officer who had seen them in use by the Persians. The movements that can be performed with the clubs are almost unlimited in their variety, and are amongst the most useful and beneficial of any gymnastic exercises, having the effect of increasing the muscular power of the shoulders and arms, strengthening the hands and wrists, opening the chest, and also possessing the advantage of rendering the user ambidextrous, or two-handed—that is, of making the left arm, shoulder, etc., as vigorous and able as the right, and developing equally both sides of the body.

If practised properly, the exercises are exceedingly pretty and graceful, and cause the performer to acquire a good carriage and deportment. Although in almost every gymnasium Indian clubs are now to be found, it is surprising how seldom they are used, the pupils generally preferring to acquire proficiency in the more showy feats that other instruments—such as the horizontal and parallel bars—permit of their practising. But we would impress upon our readers that if they will only exercise a little patience and perseverance in acquiring the use of the clubs, they will find that no other gymnastic exercises can surpass them in grace and utility, and give such pleasure both to the performer and his audience.

The advantages of the clubs are many; amongst others—(1) they are inexpensive; (2) there is no danger attached to their use; (3) being portable, there is no fixing required—they can be used either in the open air or in a room; (4) their weight can be adapted to the age and strength of the user.

With regard to the price, they can be obtained of any wood-turner at about 4d. per pound (unpolished). We should certainly recommend the learner to purchase unpolished clubs, for in the course of practice he is sure to bruise them by knocking them together, and the damage shows more plainly upon a polished than an unpolished surface. But when he has become accustomed to the manipulation of the clubs, then he may obtain the more showy article, the cost of which is about 6d. per lb.

Of course, every boy will know that the clubs are made of wood. American elm is the best kind and mostly in use. Sometimes they are turned out of a lighter wood—such as deal—and are weighed to the required extent by molten lead being poured into a hole at the bottom of the club; but we must caution the would-be ‘clubbist’ against buying such an article, for the weight should not be concentrated at the bottom, but should be contained in the wood itself, which allows of the club being properly balanced, without which true grace and elegance can never be acquired.

Weight of the Clubs.

We now come to a most important consideration—viz., the weight to be used, which should be in proportion to the strength and weight of the performer. It is almost impossible to lay down any law upon the subject, but the following scale may be taken as a guide:—

These figures refer only to the light clubs or dual exercises—that is, when a club is used in each hand. For the single or ‘heavy club’ exercises, of course, the weight can be increased, but of that we will treat later on.

Many of our readers may consider these weights ‘a mere nothing,’ and quite unworthy of their muscular powers. But it is a great mistake to suppose that the benefit to be obtained from Indian clubs is in proportion to their weight, and in the exertion required in manipulating them. On the contrary, the easier the exercise (within reasonable limits, of course), the better, for practice being then a pleasure, it can be sustained for a longer period, and by this means the muscles become gradually developed and subsequent fatigue is avoided.

We have said that the weight of the club should be in proportion to the weight of the user. We will justify this advice by an explanation. We will suppose that a boy twelve years of age weighs six stone, and another boy of the same age weighs six stone and seven pounds; the latter (presuming both boys’ muscular development to be about equal) could use a heavier pair of clubs than the former, because he would have greater weight in his body to counterbalance the weight of the clubs.

In order to impress our readers with the correctness of this principle we would point out to them that, in performing exercises upon a fixed gymnastic apparatus (such as the horizontal bar), the gymnast has only to use muscular exertion proportionate to his bodily weight. If, however, he were to carry about him any weighty articles, or even wear a pair of heavy boots, he would experience a greater difficulty in performing the exercises, and perhaps fail altogether, and his exertions would soon produce fatigue. Therefore, do not be too ambitious in selecting your clubs, but be contented with the weights we have recommended, which, although they may appear small on paper, will be found quite heavy enough in practice. The writer, who has used the Indian clubs constantly for the last ten years, never has a pair of greater weight than eight pounds each.

The length of the clubs must be varied to the height of the performer. With the clubs standing on the ground and the hands hanging down, as in [Fig. 1], there should be a space of about two inches between the handles and the tips of the fingers, so that it becomes necessary to stoop slightly in order to grasp the clubs. When swung round they should clear the tops of the toes by about two inches.

Hints as to Dress, etc.

With regard to dress, the ordinary gymnastic suit is the most suitable. ‘The best material is undoubtedly white flannel. A pair of flannel trousers made to fit the legs tolerably closely, with plenty of room in the seat (not baggy, of course), a close-fitting ordinary under-jersey minus the sleeves (to give freedom to the arms), and a pair of canvas shoes without heels, are all that are necessary for wear during actual practice. Add to these a loose jacket of medium thickness to slip on during intervals of rest, and you have your costume complete.’

But for Indian club exercise a special costume is not indispensable—and here, again, their economy is manifested—and all that need be done is to divest oneself of coat, vest, and over-shirt, and practise in ordinary trousers, boots, and undershirt.

Before proceeding to describe the different exercises, we would impress upon the reader most emphatically that, in endeavouring to perfect himself in them, he should bear in mind that, performed gracefully, and with an easy, swinging motion, there is nothing prettier. On the other hand, a jerky and strained action spoils entirely not only the effect from a spectator’s point of view, but also neutralises the benefit that should accrue to the performer.

Exercises for Light Clubs.

First Position ([Fig. 1]). Place the clubs upon the ground, one upon the right and one upon the left side, slightly in front—about level with the toes. Stand at attention, head erect, shoulders square. Then bend down, grasp the clubs, one in each hand, and raise them up until the hands are level with the shoulders, at the same time separating the legs and placing the feet apart, toes pointing outwards (as in [Fig. 2]).

Fig. 1

Fig. 2

Fig. 3

You will then be in position to commence Exercise 1 ([Fig. 3]). Throw out the clubs to the right, and describe a complete circle with them in front of the body from the right to the left, keeping the arms perfectly straight and in a line with the clubs. As they describe the circle the body should be turned slightly in the same direction, and the head and eyes also should follow the course of the clubs from right to left. Continue this exercise at least a dozen times. Should you find any difficulty in accomplishing this with both clubs at once, try one at a time, first with the right hand and then with the left, or vice versâ.

Here we will take the opportunity of informing the learner that he should endeavour to identify himself, so to speak, with the clubs, and consider that they are parts of himself—continuations, in fact, of his own arms. The base of the club should always be kept in a straight line with the shoulder. By this means an equal distance is preserved between the two clubs; otherwise, should they be swung at an angle, they must surely come into collision in the next exercise (and in many others to follow), in which one club travels in an opposite direction to the other.

Fig. 4

Exercise 2 ([Fig. 4]).—Commence as before, and when both clubs are raised above the head, reverse the direction of the left one, and, instead of describing the circle from right to left, swing it from left to right, the right club at the same time continuing its original course. A glance at [Fig. 4] will show the exercise; the dotted lines and arrows indicate the direction in which each club travels. In this exercise (and in many others to follow) the clubs cross twice in each circle; care must therefore be taken not to allow them to come into collision (which catastrophe can be easily avoided by following the directions just given—viz., to keep the base of each club in a straight line with each shoulder).

Exercise 3 ([Fig. 5]).—This is the same as [No. 2] with an additional movement—viz., that when each club is raised in its turn above the head to its highest point, the circle is checked and the club dropped behind the head and made to describe a smaller circle in the rear of the shoulder, after completing which the larger circle is resumed. The dotted line in the illustration shows the course of the left club only, but the right club does the same thing in the opposite direction.

Fig. 5

Fig. 6

Exercise 4 ([Fig. 6]).—Commence with [Exercise 1], and when the clubs are raised above the head allow them to drop and make them describe a small circle behind the shoulders, then resume the larger circle on front of the body.

Exercise 5 ([Fig. 7]).—This is the first of the wrist ‘twists,’ and is a movement that will tax the power of the fore-arm rather severely. Start from the position shown in [Fig. 2], and describe a circle with each club from the wrist in the direction shown by the dotted lines and arrows. In practising this exercise, you will experience a tendency to drop the arms with the clubs, but you must endeavour to keep them in the position shown, making each wrist the centre of each circle.

Fig. 7

Fig. 8

Exercise 6 ([Fig. 8]).—Now for a twist in which each club describes a circle in an opposite direction. Again be careful to avoid a collision, and keep the wrists level and opposite each other.

Fig. 9

Exercise 7 ([Fig. 9]).—This is rather difficult, but with a little perseverance you will be able to accomplish the movement, and as it is very pretty it is well worth the trouble. Carefully study the illustration and follow the course of the dotted lines (which show the direction of the right club only; the left club takes a corresponding course in the opposite direction). Keep the hand close up to the chest, almost touching it, in fact. You will observe that the club describes a small circle from the centre of the chest, and is then swung completely round at arm’s length to make the great circle.

Fig. 10

Exercise 8 ([Fig. 10]).—This is a simple swing backwards and forwards, each club being swung alternately in front of the body and behind the head. When the right club is extended at arm’s length almost straight from the shoulder, the left club is passing behind the head and vice versâ.

Fig. 11

Exercise 9 ([Fig. 11]).—This is exactly the reverse of [Fig. 5]. The illustration will show the movement.

Fig. 12

Exercise 10 ([Fig. 12]).—This is very effective, and if performed rapidly and neatly is sure to elicit applause from an audience. It consists of circles behind the head with each club, in the direction shown by the arrows, one club passing in a downward direction while the other is swinging up.

Fig. 13

Exercise 11 ([Fig. 13]).—This is not very difficult to perform. Keep the arms straight, and beware of a collision. The clubs are swung in a circle across and in front of the body, passing one another twice in their course—once when above the head (as in the [figure]) and again in front of the legs.

Fig. 14

Exercise 12 ([Fig. 14]).—Now this is difficult, and will take a long time to learn. It is a complication of [Exercise 3]. Commence with that, and, having got the clubs into a good swing, check the course of the right arm, slightly decrease the pace of the left arm, and throw the right club sharply behind the body, until the base rises a little above the left shoulder (see [Fig.]), then swing it back to A and B, and continue the original circle, all this time keeping the other club (the left) travelling in a circle, until it becomes its turn to effect the movement that the right one has just completed, and so on, first with the right club behind the body, and then with the left in front, and vice versâ. This is one of the best and prettiest exercises yet described, and will entail long and patient practice; but when thoroughly acquired it will well repay the perseverance expended upon it.

Fig. 15

Exercise 13 ([Fig. 15]).—Another difficult one. The clubs are swung downwards, parallel to each other, and then raised up behind the back (as shown by the dotted arms), then swung to the front again, and in a circle completely round at arms’ length. The left club executes exactly the same movement as the right in the last exercise ([12]), but with the right club in this the movement is different. The wrist should be twisted sharply downwards, and the club tucked under the right arm; its own weight will then carry it down behind the back, and up to a level and in a line with the right shoulder, reaching that position exactly at the same time as the other club, and both will thus again be parallel, but on the opposite side of the body to that from which they started.

Fig. 16

Exercise 14 ([Fig. 16]).—This is purely wrist-work. The arms are extended straight out on each side, and the clubs passed alternately from the wrists in the front and rear of each arm, describing circles on either side. At the same time that one club is swinging round behind the right arm, the other is swinging in front of the left, and vice versâ. This exercise causes the wrists to become very pliable.

We have now completed our instructions for the ‘light clubs.’ The learner must, of course, acquire the different exercises separately, one by one, but when mastered they can be continued from one to another, making, when so combined, a very effective performance. The movements capable of performance with Indian clubs are almost without limit, but we need not here give further descriptions or illustrations. The performer will find, as he becomes accustomed to the use of the clubs, and attains proficiency in their manipulation, that other movements will suggest themselves, and he will be able perhaps to invent some new and intricate exercise.

Single or ‘Heavy’ Club Exercise.

Roughly speaking, the weight of a club to be used singly should be about the same as that of the pair the performer is accustomed to—i.e., a boy using two clubs weighing 6 lb. each should use one weighing just double. This will be found quite sufficient for sustained movements; if a heavier weight is adopted there is danger of over-exertion, and the exercise cannot be performed in a graceful and easy manner. We think the best shape for a heavy club is that shown in [Fig. 17], which, our readers will observe, differs from the light clubs in having a ‘shoulder’ instead of a gradual slope from handle to base.

Fig. 17

All the exercises described above, with a few exceptions, can be performed with a heavy club, but, of course, with only one hand at a time—the other hanging loosely down by the side (as in [Fig. 1]). When one arm becomes tired the club should be changed to the other (see [Fig. 17]), but without the movement of the club being stopped. The exceptions referred to are the wrist twists, which should not be attempted with a heavy club, the strain upon that part of the arm being too severe.

It was with considerable diffidence that the writer undertook the task of penning this chapter, feeling strongly the difficulty of explaining the numerous and intricate movements in words; but, with the aid of the artist’s graphic illustrations, he trusts that the directions will prove sufficiently clear to enable all readers who desire to become experts in the use of the Indian clubs to succeed fully in their endeavours.

CHAPTER III.—DUMBBELLS, AND HOW TO USE THEM.
By W. J. Gordon.

In the [previous chapter] are given comprehensive instructions on Indian Clubs. The editor thus gave the clubs the preference, as they are in growing favour amongst gymnasts, and in regular gymnasia are fast driving out the ancient dumbbell, owing to their wonderful power of quickly opening the chest and squaring the shoulders. We say ‘ancient dumbbell’ advisedly, for it is at least two thousand years old. It was first introduced amongst us after being noticed on the Greek vases. The shape there given differed somewhat from that now in use, but there is no break in the chain. The oldest form was that of a pointed capital D, the curved line being the handle; afterwards, as shown on the vases, the athletes adopted the form ([Fig. A]) from which our present bells are derived. Curiously enough, these bells were used in springing and leaping, the power given by the weights being well known to the ancient as well as the modern records. Lawton’s standing wide jump of 12ft. 6¹⁄₂in. in 1876 was done with dumbbells in his hand, and Howard’s flying jump on Chester Racecourse in 1854, when he cleared 29ft. 7in., was done from a block of wood, with a five-pound dumbbell in each of his hands, quite in the old Greek style. However, it is not with the ancient, but the modern, practice that we have here to do. And we have no space to devote to archæology.

FIG. A.

In the first place, then, two pounds is quite heavy enough for any dumbbell, and under any circumstances no bell, even for a full-sized man, should exceed five pounds. Heavy bells of fifty or even a hundred pounds have been used, but they are now obsolete. For merely lifting purposes weight was all very well, but as soon as it was shown that health owed more to suppleness than rigidity, and exercises were designed in accordance with the new theory, heavy bells became simply impossible. When they were used by the very strong they were found to give one-sidedness, and by the weak they could not be worked with at all. Four pounds the pair is heavy enough for any boy, and most boys when they come to try the exercises will often wish that the bells were lighter. A word should be said as to price. Plain bells of cast iron cost from twopence to fourpence per pound; if covered with leather, and thereby made considerably more comfortable to the hand, the price is from fourpence to sixpence per pound. For two shillings a lad can get a pair of bells that will suit him in every way and last him a lifetime. The shape of the bells does not matter; the heads may be round or octagonal, according to fancy, but the handle should be thick enough to give a good grip, and it should be half an inch longer than the hand is wide.

Next, let it be clearly understood that dumbbell practice performed in a slovenly way does more harm than good. It is essential that the exercises be done in strict time, not jerkily, but quickly and accurately, as if to the word of command. When the bells are required to be raised together, they should go up together, not one after the other. When they are required to go up alternately, they should go up alternately, at equal speed, the left as fast as the right; when they are to be held out in front together, they should be held out together, and change to the recovery as soon as the weaker arm begins to yield.

This brings us to our third caution. Never overtire yourself. Ten minutes is quite long enough to practise at a time. Take the exercises in the order in which they are given, advancing gradually from the easy to the difficult, succeeding as you go. Do not practise after much head-work, and do not attempt any of the exercises before or after a heavy meal, no matter how light the bells may be. The best time to practise is immediately after the morning bath, and the best costume to wear is that of the mermaid, or as near an approach to nothing as is consistent with decency. Of course in gymnasia special dresses are worn; but, as absolute freedom is required, the model dress of the gymnast should be easily stowable in a glove-box.

FIG. 1.

And now for the first exercise ([Fig. 1]). Stand at attention, holding a bell in each hand. Let the arms and legs be quite straight, the body upright, the heels close together, the toes well apart. Hold the bells so that a line through your hips would pass through the centre of each handle. Move the bells an inch from your legs, and twist them round, keeping your arms straight and working your wrists. Do this backwards and forwards with both bells ten times. Then twist the left bell ten times. Then twist the right ten times; then twist them both together five times; thirty-five twists altogether, counting each reversal of the hand as one, beginning with knuckles backwards, and ending with knuckles forwards.

For the second exercise, stand at attention and bend up your forearms only from the elbow, holding the bells out from your chest with the handles vertical and parallel. Now twist them ten times simultaneously, and then ten times with the left hand, ten times with the right, and five times together. Let your elbows be well back, pressing your sides all through this exercise.

FIG. 2.

For the third exercise, begin at attention, raise your arms from your sides till they are level with your shoulders, forming one straight line with them ([Fig. 2]). Let your knuckles be on the top, and do the thirty-five twists as in the former exercises. The arms must be quite straight, and there must be no giving at the knees or bending at the waist.

These three exercises are quite enough for the first morning, even though the bells may be under two pounds apiece. Next time we can run through these three exercises quickly, and then try something rather more complicated.

FIG. 3.

For the fourth exercise begin at attention, and keeping the elbows against the sides, double up your arms so as to bring the bells against your shoulders. Open your chest as far as you can, throw your shoulders well back, and while in this position take a long deep breath ([Fig. 8]). In fact, in every exercise take long free breaths as often as possible, so as to expand your chest from within as well as from without. Bring the bells up and down ten times both together. You are now ready for the fifth exercise, which consists in bringing the bells from attention up to the shoulders, as in the fourth exercise, and then thrusting them up straight overhead ([Fig. 3]). Hold them up as high as you can, keeping your feet on the ground and body erect. Then do the twists ten times together, ten times with the left, ten with the right, five together; then with ‘one’ to the shoulder, and ‘two’ to the hang, you recover your starting position.

FIG. 4.

In the sixth exercise you bring the bells to the shoulder, and keeping your chest well open, thrust your arms, not overhead, but straight in front of you ([Fig. 4]), and again do the thirty-five twists. In the seventh ([Fig. 12]) you bring the bells to the shoulder and open your arms right and left, holding them out high and well back at full length, then recovering to the shoulder, and then down. Then ‘up,’ ‘out,’ ‘in,’ ‘down’ again, and so on for ten times. Keep your shoulders well back during this exercise, and do not lose your uprightness! It is a most important and obviously good practice, should be done with care and regularity, and forms a fitting end to lesson number two.

FIG. 5.

In our third batch we have said good-bye to the twists. For the eighth exercise stand at attention, bells to side as before, and always start from attention. Let this be understood, and it will save repetition. Bring the bells up under the armpits as far as you can get them ([Fig. 5]). Bring them up together ten times, then ten times with the left hand, ten times with the right, and five times together.

In the ninth exercise bring the bells up to the armpit, and then extend the arms right and left, starting with the bells brought up in front of the shoulder and reaching the same position as in exercise seven. Then bring the bells back to the armpits and recover. Do this ten times; that will be quite enough for the first trial.

FIG. 6.

FIG. 7.

For number ten bring the bells to the armpits, and then take them up overhead as in exercise five. Up together ten times, then with the left and right alternately stroke for stroke ten times each ([Fig. 7]). Then try number eleven, in which the bells are brought to the armpits, then thrust up, brought down to the chest, and down to the hang—‘one,’ ‘two,’ ‘three,’ ‘four’—ten times together, ten times alternately. Then try number twelve ([Fig. 6]), in which the bells go to the armpits, then aloft, then down well back on to the tops of the shoulders, then extended with a sweep as in number seven, back to chest, and down—‘one,’ ‘two’ aloft, ‘three’ to shoulder, ‘four’ to the limit, ‘five’ to chest, ‘six’ down to hang.

For our fourth lesson we start as before, upright at attention, ready for the thirteenth exercise. Bring the bells to the armpits, and then aloft together, and then keeping them together, bring them down in front, with the arms and legs as straight as you can until you deposit them at your toes. Then lift them again to armpits, aloft, and down with a sweep to your toes, ten times in all, three motions in each.

Now for number fourteen. Lay the bells at the toes from aloft as in [thirteen]. Then make a full step to the rear with the left foot, the right foot following. Make a half turn to the right. Step to the front with the left foot, the left hand grasping the thighs just above the knee as the foot comes to the ground, the right arm extended in the line of the right leg. Next seize the bell with the right hand, keeping the lower limbs in position. Now lift the bell above the shoulder to the full extension of the arm, leaning strongly on the left knee and pressing the breast to the front during the ascent of the bell, the lower limbs to the knee, and the left arm forming a continuous line from foot to shoulder. Lower the bell, replace it, and recover. Then upright again, step to the rear, right half turn, step to the front with the right foot, and go through the same motions exactly, only with the other hand. Complete this exercise ten times with each hand.

FIG. 8.

FIG. 9.

FIG. 10.

In number fifteen lay the bells at the toes, then stoop and recover them to the hang, then charge out, as it were, with the right foot, taking a good long step, and throwing out your arm to its full length as you do so ([Fig. 9]). Keep your left leg straight and your shoulders back, and double up your extended arm so as to bring the bell to the top of your shoulder. Move the bell backwards and forwards ten times, and at each return sink towards the ground, bending as you straighten your arm. Then move as in [Fig. 17]. Then recover, strike out with the left leg and arm, and repeat all the motions ([Fig. 18]). In sixteen go through the same preliminaries, but instead of striking the hands straight out strike them aloft, sinking as the arm is extended ([Fig. 10]).

In the next group of exercises the bells are swung.

FIG. 11.

FIG. 12.

For number seventeen ([Fig. 12]) swing the bells up from the hang to the horizontal, and then round till they meet in front, ten times together, letting them fall each time to the side—one, ‘up,’ two ‘round,’ three ‘down.’ For number eighteen bring them to the front first, and then swing them round to the back and down. Keep the finger in front of the handle all through this exercise; do not twist the bells as they pass to the rear. In number nineteen ([Fig. 11]) swing to the front, then to the back at extension, then from extension swing overhead till the bells meet, then bring them down to the chest and so to the hang, five motions in all. Then step forward with the left foot and go through the same five motions. Then with the right foot advanced go through the same five motions. The object of all these exercises is, of course, to bring into play as many muscles as possible, giving each a turn in time. Whenever possible an exercise should always be done from the three positions—heels together, left foot forward, right foot forward.

Fig. 13.

Fig. 14.

Now for our last group. Ready for number twenty ([Fig. 13]). Stand erect with bells at the side, bring them up to armpits and aloft, and holding them high in the air together twist your body round to the left as far as it will go, but do not move your legs. Then bring the bells to the chest and lift them simultaneously and alternately thirty times as before, then turn your body to the right and do likewise. In twenty-one bring the bells to the chest, twist the body and strike out straight with them together and separately, first twisting to the left, then right. In twenty-two ([Fig. 14]) raise the bells overhead and sink to the floor, and with knees bent go through the ten first strokes. Then rise and down again and do the ten strokes with the left; then up and down again for the ten with the right.

Fig. 15.

Fig. 16.

In twenty-three, as the body sinks the bells are brought to the chest and the arms are extended, moving round to the front horizontally, and brought to the chest again, much as in the act of rowing. This is a very tiring exercise, and at first makes itself felt in every joint in the body: ten times together is quite enough for the first day’s work. Twenty-four ([Fig. 16]) is an easy exercise, but a valuable one. Swing the bells aloft, and then bend backwards, letting the arms slowly open and extend backwards towards the ground; then bring them back aloft from behind without bending them, then bend in front, and lay the bells at your toes.

FIG. 17.

FIG. 18.

There are other exercises, but they are all, like many we have given, mere combinations easily invented by the proficient. The examples herein are quite enough to bring out the full powers of the dumbbell as a gymnastic appliance, and a steady practice of them for ten minutes a day after the morning tub, will not only set the student well up and shape him properly, but add an inch or so to his girth if not to his stature.

CHAPTER IV.—JUGGLING WITH BALLS.
By a Practical Gymnast.

Juggling with balls, a pastime as pretty as it is entertaining, has also certain special advantages. In the first place, it is really an art, well worthy of the name, which may be easily acquired by members of either sex at any age, and it affords a gentle exercise which is extremely beneficial to the health.

In illustration of this, I may mention a fact which, some years ago, came under my personal notice. An artist friend of mine, finding that his health was giving way under the toil and the strain it was necessary for him to devote to his profession, asked me if I could recommend him some not too laborious exercise to which he might betake himself in the brief intervals of his work. Clubs and dumb-bells were too heavy, he said, and their use moreover rendered his hand unsteady, and so prevented his putting into his picture those delicate touches so necessary for success.

I suggested juggling with balls, as being an exercise less violent and equally healthy. He sprang at the idea, and after giving him some instructions I left him, and soon forgot all about the circumstance.

Several months afterwards I called on my friend at his studio, and, to my surprise and amusement, found him busy—not with his pencil, but with three juggling balls. ‘I’ve done it,’ he cried with great glee, as soon as he saw me; ‘I can shower three! Look!’ And thereupon he recommenced his operations, and soon convinced me that he had become an adept at his new pursuit; and he really seemed to be more pleased to have succeeded with the ‘shower’ than with his picture, which was shortly afterwards exhibited ‘on the line’ at the Royal Academy. That he was in good spirits you will have gathered from what I have just said, and you will readily believe that he could hardly have been so happy unless his health had been re-established.

Nor is the juggling with balls simply a healthy exercise. It must lead to useful, and it may (and often does) lead to very important results. The quickness of hand and eye acquired by the practice is not only valuable in cricket, football, and other sports, but also can hardly fail to prove serviceable in the sterner duties and emergencies of life. If space permitted I could relate many stories of articles, and even life, being saved by the dexterous catch of one who had practised juggling. I am generally called upon, when in a gymnasium, to stand close to any one who is about to try a new exercise, or one attended with risk, either on the horizontal or trapeze bar, in case of a slip; and I entirely attribute my quickness in catching to my proficiency in juggling, the hand being taught instantly to follow any movement the eye may detect.

This subject, useful as I have shown it to be, has, so far as I am aware, never been treated on in any English publication, although in France and in many other parts of the Continent juggling forms an important branch of physical education, and is much practised in the gymnasia.

You may very naturally suppose that it is almost impossible to teach anything of this kind on paper, but it must not be forgotten that in this, as in everything else in life, to ensure success it is necessary to make a good beginning. There is no royal road to learning, and unless a proper foundation be laid the castle will prove to be but visionary. So even on paper I can give you many valuable hints and much practical advice, without attention to which you will never become adepts in the art. You must not suppose, however, that I can make practised jugglers of you in a few lessons, nor must you be too anxious to play two or three balls before you have a perfect command over number one.

The first object to be aimed at is to procure the best sort of balls for your purpose. Of course, anything in the shape of a ball will do—oranges, for instance, tennis or raquet-balls, etc.—but the best are made of hollow brass, two inches in diameter, and these may be obtained at from ten to twelve shillings per set of four. They are made specially for the purpose, their hollowness giving them a lightness which a solid substance obviously cannot possess. It is indispensable that the balls should all be exactly the same weight, otherwise in the rapid passes—such as the ‘[shower]’ or ‘[fountain],’ about to be described—the lighter would be thrown farther than the heavier, and the most skilful performer would fail to accomplish the feat.

Being satisfied with regard to the balls, we will now proceed to the First Practice, viz.,

The Vertical Fall ([Fig. 1]),

that is, to throw a ball into the air so that it will descend to the exact point from which it was projected. You will find, at first, that when you have thrown the ball up into the air it will not drop back again into your hand, but you will have to follow its course in order to catch it. The first point to be gained, then, is to throw the ball so that it will drop into the hand which is ready to receive it, and this must be practised with both hands, as the left will have quite as much to do as the right. When you have thoroughly mastered this art, and can catch a ball with decision when thrown from three to four feet in height, you may proceed to the Second Practice, which is called—

Fig. 1

Fig. 2

The Inside and Outside Falls ([Fig. 2]).

What is required now is to throw the ball with the right hand so that it will describe a curve in the air and drop towards the left hand, as shown in [Fig. 2]; but, instead of catching it with the left, it must be caught with the right. This is the Inside Fall. Now throw the ball back in a similar way from left to right. This is called the Outside Fall. This, of course, sounds easy enough, as it is merely playing at catch-ball, but you will find it very difficult at first to throw the ball several times in succession without deviating from the same course, and this course is of the utmost importance, as, when you are playing two or three balls, unless they follow one another in the same course, the whole play will immediately become inextricable confusion, and they will all fall to the ground. Do not attempt at first to throw the ball higher than three feet, which, indeed, is the height generally required. When you are perfect with the right hand, practise the same play-motion with the left. Let me again impress upon you the necessity, if you would attain proficiency in the art, of using the left hand as much as the right in all these exercises. Without this success is impossible. We now come to the Third Practice, or—

The Parallel Fall ([Fig. 3]).

This will be found rather more difficult than either of the former, because in this the arm, as well as the hand, will be constantly in motion. Throw the ball with the right hand, as in the Vertical Fall, keeping the hand in a line with the right shoulder. The moment it is caught, bring the right hand in a line with the left shoulder, throw the ball from that position and catch it, and vice versâ. Afterwards do the same with the left hand. [Fig. 3] will show you the practice, the dotted lines representing the movements the ball should take. All these necessary, if somewhat tedious, rudiments of the science having been mastered, we will proceed to the Fourth Practice.

Fig. 3

Fig. 4

The Outside and Inside Fall from Right Hand to Left.

In this exercise both hands are brought into play. The motion of the ball is precisely the same as in [Fig. 2], but, instead of catching it with the same hand, you must now pass it from one hand to the other. Practise this at first with the hands a very little distance apart, and do not throw the ball too high. As you improve, gradually increase the height, and move your hands away until they are about three feet distant from each other. Up to this time the ball has been forming a kind of hyperbole or arch in its course. Now, without altering the position of the hands, cause the ball gradually to lower its course until it is thrown in the Fifth Practice, which is called—

The Horizontal Pass.

Fig. 5

Fig. 6

This you will find quick work alike for eyes and hands, for, of course, the ball cannot be made to pass in a straight line from one hand to the other without giving it increased impetus and a considerable accession of speed. Gradually move your hands, at first closer to one another, and then farther apart. In fact, continue this exercise until your hands are as distant from each other as you can reach. This will be found excellent practice for the ‘[shower]’ at which we shall soon arrive. The Sixth Practice is

The Double Vertical Fall

(as shown in [Fig. 6]). You will now take a ball in each hand, and commence by throwing that in the right hand vertically (as in [Fig. 1]), then that in the left in the same manner, alternately. Before the first ball has descended into the right hand, throw the second into the air with the left, so that the two balls shall be constantly in motion. You will now find the advantage of being proficient in the single vertical fall, as otherwise, your attention being distracted from the one ball to the other, you would probably not be able to catch either. Now practise throwing both balls up together, keeping your hands about two feet apart, and taking care that neither ball goes higher than the other. As the last practice was good for the ‘shower’ so you will see that the present will prepare you for the ‘[fountain],’ the description of which will follow in due course. The Seventh Practice is termed

The Double Inside Fall.

This is a repetition of the Outside and Inside Fall, but is performed with two balls at the same time and with both hands. In this exercise great care must be taken to avoid a collision of the balls when they are in the act of passing. To ensure against such a calamity it is necessary that one ball—generally that from the right hand—should be projected slightly higher than the other (as in [Fig. 7]). This should be practised at various heights until something like perfect accuracy is arrived at, as all the following practices are founded, more or less, upon this very important exercise.

Fig. 7

Fig. 8

Fig. 9

Fig. 10

The Eighth Practice is entitled

The Triple Pass,

which must not be attempted until you have made perfect the last [exercise]. On referring to [Fig. 8], you will see that this practice is nothing more than a repetition of the last, with the addition of a third ball. This third ball, however, will seem to you at first to be quite an interloper, and the greatest care must be taken in throwing all the balls regularly, otherwise they will go into a ‘confusion worse confounded.’ The eyes and the hands, however, being by this time pretty well trained, increased vigilance in the former and increased agility in the latter are all that is required to enable you to master the increased difficulty of the performance. The dotted lines indicate the proper direction in which the balls should be thrown, showing how each ball should cross the course of the others without any of them coming into collision. We proceed at once to the Ninth Practice, which is called

The Triple Over and Under Pass.

This play is almost similar to the last, differing only in this—that, instead of the balls following each the course of the other, they are returned from the left to the right by the course indicated in the dotted lines in [Fig. 8], forming an inner fall while the others are passing over them. The effect of the change is very pretty, and though it will perhaps be found somewhat more difficult, you are now becoming so skilful that difficulties will no doubt serve only to stimulate you to fresh exertion. The Tenth Practice is

The Single Over and Double Under Pass.

This is another variation of the same play, in which the over ball is kept outside, whilst the under two are performing a double pass. In this practice you must keep the outside single ball well above the two that are passing underneath, as shown in the dotted lines in [Fig. 10]. Care must be taken, in this as in every other practice, to avoid collision between the balls. Practice, we know, makes perfect, and nothing but patient perseverance can be recommended to ensure success.

The Eleventh Practice brings us to one of the neatest, prettiest, and most effective feats in ball juggling. It is called

The Shower.

This, undoubtedly one of the most fascinating of all juggling feats, is an art easily acquired by so practised a juggler as you have now become. Take two balls, one in each hand, throw the one in the right hand into the air towards the left, as in [Fig. 4], and while it is in the air, ‘pass’ the left-hand ball to the right hand, as in [Fig. 5], and immediately throw it to follow the course of the first, continuing this play as quickly as possible, so that there may be one ball always in the air. You will find very little difficulty in showering two balls in this manner with one hand, as it is really nothing more than a Double Inside Fall ([Fig. 2]); in fact, some expert jugglers can shower three balls with one hand, but this is a very difficult feat, and the balls have to be thrown very high. You can make the attempt if you please, but I do not wish to enter upon matters which may confuse and possibly dishearten you, and will ask you therefore to perfect yourselves in this feat before proceeding to the Twelfth Practice, viz.,

The Triple Shower,

which is accomplished in the following manner. Take two balls in the right hand and one in the left. Throw one after the other in very quick succession in the direction of the Inside Fall ([Fig. 2]) with the right hand, and as each reaches the left hand, ‘pass’ it from the left to the right, as shown in [Figs. 11] and [12], and continue the Shower as long as you please. From the swiftness of their motion, the balls appear to multiply, and your audience will almost be inclined to believe that you are playing with fifty balls, instead of with only three. When you are very expert in this you can proceed to the Thirteenth Practice,

The Quadruple Shower,

or Grand Shower, as it is sometimes called. This is the same play as the last but with four balls, three of which must be held in the right and one in the left hand. It is hardly necessary to say that the difficulty is greatly increased, as the balls must be thrown much higher, so that there may be more space between them in order to allow time for the rapid passes. In all the Showers, but in this especially, it is advisable to keep the right hand a little higher than the left, as shown in [Fig. 13]. The Fourteenth Practice, which is the last of the present series, is

The Fountain.

Fig. 11

Fig. 12

Fig. 13

Fig. 14

This is the most difficult feat of all, as so much depends upon the precision with which the balls are delivered. Commence practising with two balls, and perform a Double Outside Fall with both hands ([Fig. 14]). You will find this sharp work for the eyes, as you will have to be looking at two places simultaneously as the balls descend. When you can play two balls well in this manner, you will find that

The Double Fountain,

as described in [Fig. 15], will not be difficult, as it is done in a ‘swing,’ as it is called, a motion of the body and arms which it is not possible to describe, but which will come naturally to you as you acquire the art of juggling. The Fountain may be varied by a motion which is known as

The Double Fountain Change.

Instead of throwing up the balls together, present them alternately, as shown in [Fig. 16]. This has a very pretty effect, and exactly represents the name given it.

Fig. 15

Fig. 16

Having now given you all the instruction in my power, it only remains for me to make one or two suggestions which I think will commend themselves to your intelligence. In the first place, I would advise you to practise over some soft material, on the lawn if possible, where the dropping of the balls can annoy no one; but if a lawn be not available, then over a sofa, or a bed, or a very soft rug or mat. You are certain to have many a mishap at starting, and I can conceive nothing in a small way more irritating than for a person seated in a room to be perpetually startled by the noise of balls falling overhead. Finally, let me impress upon you the fact that your success depends entirely upon yourselves. The teacher may show how the thing is to be done, but it is for the pupil to do it. Remember that ‘whatever is worth doing is worth doing well,’ and if you think it worth your while to learn the art of juggling, you must devote to it patience, perseverance, and practice. Without these you will never succeed. With them success is certain.

A Picturesque Model.—See [p. 97].

SECTION II.
MODEL-MAKING—MOVING AND OTHERWISE.

CHAPTER V.—SOME SIMPLE MODELS FOR BEGINNERS.

I. How to make a Boat with a Screw Propeller.
By F. Chasemore.

To make a model steamboat that will go is the ambition of most boys, but the high price of engine and boiler deters many from doing so. In this chapter instructions are given for making a model screw steamboat, the machinery for which every boy can make for himself, by the exercise of a little ingenuity, at a very trifling cost—which machinery, too, may be fitted into any boat, the rigging of which may have gone by the board off the dangerous coast of the duck-pond.

Fig. 1

First you must procure your boat; but if you should wish to make the boat yourself you will need no instructions from me, as several capital chapters on [boat-building] appear in another part of this volume. The only directions I need give are, that your craft shall be very light, and hollowed out as thin as possible, be twenty-four inches long, four inches wide at midships, and three and a half inches deep; the sternpost to be about an inch and a half within the stern, to be raking, and two and a half inches high, as marked in [Fig. 1]; a strip of lead one-eighth of an inch thick to be fastened along the bottom of the keel; the bows to be sharp, and the boat to have a clean run aft. When the boat is finished paint it, and when dry put it into water, and mark on the sternpost the height the water comes. Now you must bore a hole in the sternpost right through into the boat, in the direction of the top of the stem. This must be done with a red-hot wire; the hole is to be three-eighths of an inch across.

Fig. 2

The next thing to do is to get a brass tube from the gasfitter’s, or get a tinman to make you one of tin three-eighths of an inch inside measurement. This tube must be long enough to reach from the sternpost to three and a half inches beyond the top of the stem. Four inches from one end of this tube solder a strip half an inch wide and one and three-quarter inches along, bending the middle of it half round the tube, and bending the ends outwards; punch a hole in each end of this strip; in this end of the tube cut four teeth like saw-teeth, one-eighth of an inch deep, like [Fig. 2]. Put this tube in the boat thus. Push the end, without the tin strip, through the hole in the sternpost from the inside of the boat, so that the tube is flush with the wood, and fasten the other end by driving tacks through the holes in the tin strip into the boat. Put some putty round the tube where it goes through the wood, to keep the water out. Now make the deck of board one-eighth of an inch thick, plane it, and fix it in its place by pins, leaving a gunwale of half an inch all round. Stop up with putty, and mark with a pencil the boards on the deck. Bore a hole near the stern one-sixteenth of an inch wide right through the deck and boat, coming out under the counter one inch from the sternpost. This is the rudder-hole. To make the rudder get a piece of brass wire one-sixteenth of an inch in diameter, and six inches long; cut your rudder out of tin, and solder it on to the wire, so that the heel of the rudder is flush with one end of the wire. Now push the other end up through the hole in the counter, and bend it down on to the deck; this will form the tiller, and, by pressing tightly on to the deck, will keep the rudder firm and in its place for steering.

Two inches abaft the middle of the deck cut a hole three-quarters of an inch in diameter for the chimney, which is a tube of tin three-quarters of an inch in diameter and four inches long. Bore two more holes in the deck three-eighths of an inch in diameter, one halfway between the stem and chimney, the other halfway between the rudder and chimney; these are for the masts, which are made of wood, and should stand about nine inches above deck; put a pin into the end of each mast, and cut the head off, leaving about half an inch of the pin projecting; put the masts in their places, and the pins will keep them firm by being pushed into the bottom of the boat.

Fig. 3

Fig. 4

Fig. 5

Make the propeller out of a circular piece of stout tin two inches in diameter, cut as in [Fig. 3]. The dark parts are to be cut away. The projections are to be three-quarters of an inch long. Punch a hole one-sixteenth of an inch in the centre, and fix a piece of brass wire one-sixteenth of an inch, two inches long, in the hole, to form an axle for the propeller. Twist each of the fans of the screw out of the plane of the circle about a quarter of an inch, in the manner of the sails of a windmill, as in [Fig. 4]. Now make two little wooden plugs three-quarters of an inch long, and half an inch wide at one end, tapering to a quarter of an inch at the other. Bore a hole through each from end to end one-sixteenth of an inch wide. Take the propeller, and put a glass bead, that will fit easily, on the wire, and push the wire through one of the wooden plugs from the large end; bend the wire into a loop at the small end. Next take another piece of wire, two and a half inches long, and make a similar loop at one end, and put the other end through the other little plug, from the small end, and bend the wire into a handle ([Fig. 5]). Now the only thing we want is the power. This is a strip of strong elastic about three and a half feet long and a quarter of an inch wide; tie the ends together to make a band—a large stout elastic ring will do, or two smaller rings looped together. Fasten a string to the elastic, and pass the string through the tube in the boat, from the stern end; hook the loop on the propeller-wire into the elastic, and push the wooden plug into the tube so that the screw is clear of the rudder; draw the elastic, by the string, through the other end of the tube, and hook the wire in the other plug into it; take off the string and push the plug into its place. You must cut the plug away so that the handle can catch in the teeth cut in the tube. Now the boat is ready for use.

To use it wind up the elastic by the handle at the end of the tube, holding the screw firmly with the other hand. As soon as wound up enough set the rudder and put the boat into the water; release the screw, and the boat will go till the elastic is quite unwound. The distance it will travel will be regulated by the extent to which the elastic is wound up.

II. How to make a small Marine Engine for a Boat four or five ft. long.
By Frank Chasemore.

I have already described the method of making a small boat move through the water by means of an elastic band, which is simply twisted up and then released, but I have no doubt that many readers would like to possess a simple model boat to work by steam.

Such models can now be purchased at all shops where mechanical toys are sold, at prices varying from one shilling, the smallest, eight inches in length, to about twenty pounds, the largest, five feet in length. Although all these boats really go by steam, the application of the power is different in the different sizes.

The small boats are of course the simplest. In these the steam from the boiler is conducted through a short pipe to the sternpost of the boat, where by its pressure on the water in escaping it forces the boat along.

The next class have a further development of the application of steam-power. In the centre of the boat, close behind the boiler, is a fan-wheel, turning on an axle, which in the case of a paddle-boat carries the paddles, and in the case of a screw carries the propeller. The steam is conducted from the boiler through a short pipe to the front of the fan-wheel, which it blows round as it escapes.

The third class are the steamboats proper, varying in price from five shillings upwards. In these the steam-power is applied as in ordinary engines. The cheapest have one single-action oscillating cylinder, and the better sorts two double-action cylinders.

As the two first-mentioned classes are, after all, only imitations, I do not think it worth while to describe them; and of the third class I have chosen the largest to describe, as I think that if it is worth while making a model at all, it is worth while to make a good one, and the small engines take almost as much time to make, and quite as much care to fit, as the large ones, and unless they are well fitted the loss of power by friction and waste of steam is very great.

The engine here described is a model of a real screw-engine, with a pair of double-action oscillating cylinders, having reversing gear and boiler complete, ready to be put into the boat. It will be capable of driving a boat from four to five feet long, provided it is well hollowed out and that the engine is made and fitted with care, to reduce friction and waste of steam as much as possible.

In this section the exact dimensions of the several parts are given when possible, but, owing to small differences in the size of the cylinders, I am only able to approximate in some cases—in which cases, however, I have used the word ‘about,’ at the same time explaining how to obtain the exact measurements.

In all engines the most important parts are the cylinders, which must be well fitted. Boys who have a turning-lathe and the requisite practice in metal-turning can buy rough castings of all the parts of the engine for a few shillings and finish them up themselves. But as only a few of my readers may be so favoured, I will suppose that the cylinders are purchased ready for use. For these cylinders there is a great range in the prices quoted by different firms, the prices varying for the No. 4 cylinder from eight shillings at one firm to twelve shillings and sixpence at another. Messrs. Theobald and Co., of 20, Church Street, Kensington, quote the lowest prices to me, and have further consented to supply the No. 4 double-action oscillating cylinders for this engine at seven shillings each to any one mentioning this section.

The dimensions of these cylinders are three quarters of an inch in the diameter of the bore, and an inch and a half in the length of stroke—i.e., an inch and a half difference in the length the piston-rod projects from the top of the cylinder when in and out to its fullest.

Get a pair of these cylinders which have the steam-blocks, pivot-pillars, and screw-crossheads complete. Ask for the No. 4 double-action oscillating cylinders. When buying them see that the piston-rods work true, and not to one side; see also that the small indentations on the opposite sides to the steam ports are correctly drilled, so that when the cylinders are swung between the blocks and pivots they work true. To test this, place the block on its back on the table, and put the cylinder on it, with the pivot in the proper hole for it. Now turn the cylinder round on the block and place a pin in the indentation, and if it is truly drilled the pin will not move; but if not, the point of the pin will describe a small circle. You can find out by this pin the exact spot where the pivot-hole ought to be drilled.

Fig. 1

We will now set to work at the construction of the engine, and the first thing to be done is to make the top plate ([Fig. 1]). For this get a small brass plate four inches long and three inches wide, and an eighth of an inch thick, with a projecting piece an inch and a quarter square at one end of it, as in the [figure]. Get two of these plates, as the second will be required for the bed-plate, but will not have the square projecting piece. Take the first of these plates and square it up, so that each corner is a right angle. Now proceed to mark it as in [Fig. 1]. Divide the large part lengthwise into two equal parts by the line C D, and crosswise, also into two equal parts by the line A B, these two lines intersecting in the point O. From this point mark off, each way along the lines O C and O D, the following distances. O to x a quarter of an inch, and x to y an inch and a quarter; and through these four points draw the lines e-g, f-h, k-m, and l-n, making them two inches long each, and projecting one inch on each side of the line C D. Join the points e-f, g-h, k-l, and m-n.

Cut out the two rectangles so formed carefully, so as not to injure the lines. This can be done easily by first drilling a small hole, about an eighth of an inch in diameter, near one corner, and then putting a fretwork saw through it and fixing it in the frame, and sawing the metal away just inside the lines. The saw must be kept well moistened with water. The corners can be left circular, which will add to the finish of the plate, and make the cutting with the saw easier.

After the holes are cut they must be finished quite up to the lines, but without injuring them, with a fine-cut flat file. Through each corner of the plate a hole must be drilled an eighth of an inch in diameter, and about an eighth of an inch from the edges, as in [Fig. 1]. The top plate is now ready for mounting the cylinders on, which we will set about doing.

Fig. 2

Take the two steam-blocks ([Fig. 2]) and draw a pencil mark on each from the centre hole to the bottom, and at right angles to it ([Fig. 2]). Next place the two blocks back to back on the middle of the top plate, between the two large holes, so that the pencil marks coincide with the line C D, and so that the bottom edges of the faces coincide with the lines f-h and k-m. Be very careful in setting these blocks right. When in their places mark the top plate through the screw-holes in the projecting bases of each, and drill four holes straight down through the plate, making them a little smaller than the holes in the bases of the blocks. Now replace the blocks and fasten them there with two small screws each. These screws correspond with the size of the cylinders, and can be purchased by the dozen, together with taps, for each size, to make the thread in the holes with.

Next take the pivot-blocks and mark them with pencil, as the steam-blocks were marked, and put them on the line C D on the outer sides of the large holes, using the same care to get them properly centred along the line C D, and at right angles to it, and about an eighth of an inch from the lines e-g and l-n. Mark the screw-holes and drill them as before, and fasten the pillars in their places.

Now the cylinders can be hung. Unscrew the pivots about a quarter of an inch and place the cylinders in their places, with the spindles in the proper holes for them in the blocks. Now screw in the wire pivots till they catch in the indentations drilled for them in the sides of the cylinders. They will now swing freely between the blocks and pivots.

Fig. 3

Now to cut the bed-plate ([Fig. 3]). Take your second brass plate and divide it by the lines A B and C D as before. From the point O mark off each way along the line C D the distances five-eighths of an inch from O to x, and three-quarters of an inch from x to y. Through these points draw four lines two inches long, and projecting one inch on each side of the line C D, and parallel to the line A B. Join the lines in pairs as before, and cut out the rectangles so formed. Finish up the edges, and bore a hole in each corner, as in the top plate. On the line A B, and half an inch from each end, bore two holes an eighth of an inch in diameter, and countersink them at the top, as in the [figure].

Fig. 4

Fig. 5

Fig. 6

Now the bearings for the crank-shaft must be made. [Fig. 4] is a perspective view of one of these. Get two pieces of brass one inch long, half an inch wide, and a quarter of an inch thick, as [Fig. 5]. Along the face of each block draw a line, dividing it lengthwise into two equal parts, and in the centre of these lines drill a hole right through the brass one-eighth of an inch in diameter. Cut the brass away at the ends (as in [Figs. 4] and [5]), leaving the projecting pieces a quarter of an inch long and a little more than one-sixteenth of an inch thick. Through each of these flanges drill a hole, to screw the bearings to the bed-plate by. Drill two holes down through the top of the block, passing one on each side of the bearing-hole (as in [Fig. 5], the dotted lines showing the positions of the holes). Drill a small hole through the top of the cap into the bearing-hole, for oiling purposes. Cut the block in two along the line passing through the middle of the bearing-hole with a stiff-backed saw. This will make the block as in [Fig. 6], having a movable cap which can be fastened in its place with two screws. Screw these bearing-blocks in their places, one at each end of the bed-plate, using the same care to get them properly centred along the line C D and at right angles to it.

Fig. 7

Fig. 8

We must now make the crank-shaft. This can be made with bent wire one-eighth of an inch thick. But when made in this way it very seldom works steadily and true. The best way is to build it up. You must get a piece of iron wire a quarter of an inch in diameter and about two feet long. Part of this will be required for the screw-shaft; straighten and smooth the wire and polish it up. Cut from the end three pieces, one an inch long, the second two inches long, and the third one and seven-eighths of an inch long. Next get four pieces of flat iron plate one-eighth of an inch thick, one inch long, and half an inch wide. Cut them into the shape shown in [Fig. 7]. The distance between the centres of the holes is to be a little less than three-quarters of an inch. The largest hole is one-eighth of an inch square, and the smallest hole a little less. The metal is to be left one-eighth of an inch wide round the holes. Take the shortest piece of iron wire and cut one end of it away, leaving a square pin and shoulder; the pin is to be three-sixteenths of an inch long, and one-eighth of an inch square ([Fig. 8]). Cut both ends of the two-inch piece and one end of the remaining piece in the same way. Counter-sink the largest holes in the plates ([Fig. 7]) and rivet them on the pins of the portions of the shaft, being careful that they are at right angles to the rods. The plates on the two-inch piece must be at right angles to each other. The pins should fit very tightly in the holes, to make them firm when riveted.

Fig. 9

Cut two pieces of iron wire one-eighth of an inch in diameter and five-eighths of an inch long, and at each end of each piece make a pin and shoulder to fit the small holes in the plates, leaving a full quarter of an inch of the wire between the pins untouched. Join the cranks together in pairs by riveting in these wires, being careful to keep the cranks at right angles to the shaft, and also to keep the several pieces of the shaft in the same straight line. Place the shaft on the bearing-blocks in the position it will occupy, with the cranks over the holes in the bed-plate and with the longest end to the after end of it. Mark on the shaft the position and thickness of the bearing-blocks, and cut the metal of the rods away in these places till it is reduced to one-eighth of an inch in thickness, so that it will work freely in the bearing-holes. The crank will now look like [Fig. 9].

Fig. 10

The next step is to connect the top and bed-plates by four pillars. The length of these will depend on the length of the piston-rod. They must be made of four pieces of brass wire a quarter of an inch thick. Take one of the cylinders and a sheet of paper; on this paper draw a line about six inches long, and at one end mark the point A ([Fig. 10]). Push the piston-rod in as far as it will go, and push the pivot of the cylinder through the point A, and mark on the line the point B, exactly under the hole in the crosshead of the piston-rod. Now draw out the piston-rod as far as it will go, and mark the point C exactly under the hole as before. Bisect the portion of the line between B C in the point D, and measure the distance between A and D. Reduce this length by the distance the centre hole in the steam-blocks is from the lower edge, and add to it a quarter of an inch for the height of the centre of the bearing-block from the upper surface of the bed-plates, one-eighth of an inch for the thickness of the bed-plate, and a quarter of an inch for riveting.

Fig. 11

This will give you the length of the pillars including the pins. File a pin and shoulder at each end, as in [Fig. 11], making the pins one-eighth of an inch in diameter and a quarter of an inch long. Rivet a pillar firmly in each corner hole of the bed-plate, and put the top plate on the top ends of the pillars, and rivet them firmly in. Be careful that the pillars are upright. Rehang the cylinders and unscrew the caps of the crossheads. Fit the cranks into the holes in them and screw on the caps.

If the cylinders are made without screw-crossheads the pin of the cranks must be placed through the hole in the heads before riveting the cranks together. Unscrew the caps of the bearing-blocks, and put the crank-shaft into the bearing-holes, and screw on the caps again. Oil all bearings and parts that work together. Now you must get a heavy brass fly-wheel three inches in diameter, which can be purchased with the other things, and costs about two shillings. This wheel has a screw-bolt through one side of the centre block to fix it to the shaft by. Fix this wheel on the long end of the shaft by tightening the screw. It would be better to make a small hole in the shaft for the point of the screw to enter. The wheel must have two iron pins, about one inch long, in the face of it.

Now if all the fittings are well made and oiled, the engine ought to work easily and smoothly without noise if the fly-wheel is spun round.

[Fig. 26] at the end of this section represents the engine as finished.

Fig. 12

We must now turn our attention to the boiler. For this you must obtain some sheet copper; get the size known as 12-lb. copper—that is, the sheet two feet by eight feet weighs 12 lb. You must also procure some copper tubing one-third of an inch in diameter. Get also the following articles; two brass gauge-taps, 1s. 3d. each; one steam-tap with union, 1s. 6d.; man-hole or water-filler, 1s. 6d.; spring safety-valve set to 30 lb. the inch, 1s. 4d. If these are not already fitted with screw-blocks get them so fitted when buying them. [Fig. 12] represents the safety-valve with the screw-block.

Fig. 13

Fig. 14

Fig. 15

Fig. 16

Fig. 17

Cut out of your copper a piece ([Fig. 13]) eighteen inches and three-quarters long and nine inches wide. Draw a line A B at right angles to the two long sides, and bisecting them. From A and B mark off the distances shown in the figure. Bore the holes, C, D, E, and F, the sizes marked, and in the places indicated. Bend the plate so that the middle eight inches form a semicircle with a radius of two and a half inches, and the five-inch parts are straight and five inches apart. Turn in the remaining half inch at each side to form a foot for the boiler to stand on. The copper will now be like [Fig. 14], and will form the body of the boiler. Take two small sheets of copper eight inches long by six inches wide, and mark one as in [Fig. 15] and the other as in [Fig. 16]. Cut them out carefully, and in [Fig. 15] bore two holes one-eighth of an inch in diameter in the places marked. Turn up the edge all round the sides and circular portions of both plates, a quarter of an inch wide, till it is at right angles to the other part of the plate, as in [Fig. 17]. Fit one of these pieces on each end of the boiler body, so that the turned-up edges of the ends fit outside the boiler body. The [Fig. 16] is to fit over the end of the boiler that has the two holes in the top. Solder or braze the ends to the boiler body.

I should strongly recommend all the joints of the boiler being brazed, as in the event of the vessel steaming far from shore, the water running short, and the lamp still burning, it would melt the solder, and the boiler would fall to pieces, but if brazed it would not be injured if made red-hot. If you solder the parts together you can do it yourself from directions given in the section on the [magic-lantern], but in soldering copper or brass together both surfaces of the joint must be first tinned over.

Fig. 18

Fig. 19

If you decide to have the joints brazed you can get it done at the ironmonger’s, if you first cut out and fit the parts together and explain what you require. The floor of the boiler is made out of a piece of sheet copper nine inches long and seven and a half inches wide. Mark it as in [Fig. 18]. Bend it along the lines into the shape shown in [Fig. 19]. In the middle of the top make a hole one-third of an inch in diameter. Bore seven holes one-third of an inch in diameter along each of the sides and half way up. Cut a piece of the brass tube six and a half inches long, and braze one end of it into the hole in the top, as in [Fig. 19]. Cut seven pieces of the tube four and a half inches long each, and connect the holes on opposite sides by brazing the tubes across into the holes, as in the [figure]. Take the screw-block off the safety-valve and solder it over the hole marked D in [Fig. 13] on the inside of the boiler. Solder the screw-block of the steam-tap inside over the hole marked F, and solder on the inside the two blocks of the gauge-taps over the holes in the end of the boiler. The block of the man-hole must be brazed on the outside over the hole C, [Fig. 13].

Fig. 20

Now fit the floor of the boiler in its place, passing the end of the tube, fastened to the top of it, through the hole marked E in the top of the boiler, and projecting about half an inch, and braze it in. [Fig. 20] will show the position of the boiler floor. The top of it is to be two inches from the bottom of the sides. Braze it in firmly, being very careful to make all the joints steam-tight. Screw in the man-hole cover, safety-valve, steam-tap, and gauge-taps. On the top of the boiler and over the projecting pipe solder a piece of brass tube seven inches long and an inch and a quarter in diameter, raking aft a little, for the funnel. Now the boiler is finished and ready to be connected with the engine. But before this can be done we must make the reversing-gear.

Procure a block of brass, three-quarters of an inch wide, one inch long, and half an inch high. Square this up true, and bore a hole right through it from top to bottom, three-sixteenths of an inch in diameter. With the end of a rat-tailed file taper the hole to a little more than a quarter of an inch at the top. Get a piece of brass rod a little more than a quarter of an inch thick, and file one end of it taper to fit the hole, and square off the bottom end of it, making the taper portion half an inch long. Smoothen this with fine glasspaper, and then oil it and dust over it some fine emery-powder, and put it in the hole in the block and grind the two together till they fit perfectly. Cut the taper portion off exactly the length of the depth of the block.

Fig. 21

Cut the brass away at the ends of the block, leaving a flange at the bottom, at each end, a quarter of an inch long and one-sixteenth of an inch thick, as in [Fig. 21]. In each flange bore two small holes, to screw it to the top plate by. Drill four holes, one through each side of the block one-eighth of an inch in diameter, right into the centre hole and at right angles to each other, as in [Fig. 21]. Wipe the plug and hole quite clean from the oil and emery, and replace the plug. Put a needle-point into one of the side holes, and lying on the bottom of it and pressing against the plug. Turn the plug round in the socket. Now move the needle-point to the top of the hole and turn the plug round again.

Fig. 22

Take out the plug, and there will be two lines one-eighth of an inch apart scratched all round it, as in [Fig. 22]. With a small round file cut two grooves opposite each other in the plug, by filing between the scratched lines, leaving the brass between them one-sixteenth of an inch or less thick, as seen in [Fig. 22]. Drill a hole one-eighth of an inch in diameter and a quarter of an inch deep down the top end of the plug, and another up the lower end, to fit one of your small screws. Be careful that neither of these holes enters the grooves.

Cut a small circular plate of copper seven-sixteenths of an inch in diameter, and drill a small hole in the middle of it. Give this plate two or three taps with a small hammer in the middle to hollow it a little. Put the plug in its place in the block, and turn it over and place the circular plate on the bottom, with the concave side to the plug, and fix it there with a screw. This will keep the plug from coming out of the block. Solder an iron wire one-eighth of an inch thick and six inches long into the hole in the top of the plug. Fasten the block on to the square projecting piece of the top plate, first cutting out of it a circular hole half an inch in diameter, to let the circular plate at the bottom of the plug drop into. The valve must now be connected with the steam-blocks. Take two pieces of steam-pipe three-sixteenths of an inch in diameter and an inch and a quarter long, and bend them the shape of [Fig. 23], so that the distance apart of the ends is the same as from one hole in the top of one block to the corresponding hole in the other.

Fig. 23

Cut a hole in one side of the bent piece, as in [Fig. 23], large enough for the end of another piece of the pipe to fit into when tapered a little. This piece is to be about three and a quarter inches long, and bent so as to pass from the steam-blocks round the cylinder to the hole in that side of the reversing-valve block. Fit the end of this pipe into the hole in the bent tube and braze it in the following way. Rub a small lump of borax on a moistened tile and rub the joint to be brazed with the mixture of borax and water. Cut a small piece of silver off a threepenny-piece about the size of a large pin-head, and put it on the joint. Now hold the end of the tube in the left hand, covered with a cloth, and with a blow-pipe direct the flame of a spirit-lamp or gas-jet on to the joint till it is red-hot, when the silver will melt and flow round the joint and fix it. If you cannot do this yourself a jeweller or watchmaker will do it for you. Make two of these bent tubes with double ends, and solder them in their places, connecting the steam-blocks with the reversing-valve. You must enlarge the holes, to let the ends of the pipe in before soldering.

Bend a piece of steam-pipe, a quarter of an inch in diameter and eight inches long, so that about two inches of one end stands at right angles to the other part. The bend must be circular, or it will compress the pipe. Solder this end firmly into the front hole in the reversing-valve. Bend another piece of the pipe about the same length so as to go into the after hole of the valve and be parallel with the other pipe. On the top of the boiler solder a piece of pipe about six inches long; one end is to be bent up about one inch and inserted through a hole in the bottom of the funnel, and directed upwards inside, the other end is to project about one inch from the end of the boiler.

In the end of the steam-pipe solder the union of the steam-tap. Next make the stand for the engine and boiler. Make it out of a piece of deal eighteen inches long, five inches wide, and half an inch thick. Screw the bed-plate of the engine on one end of it, so that the after end of the plate is flush with the stand. The wood must be cut away under the square holes, to let the cranks work in. Screw two strips of copper at the other end, for the turned-in feet of the boiler to slide under. Put them so that the end of the boiler will be about three and a half inches from the fore end of the bed-plate. Put the boiler in its place, and bend the steam-pipe so that the union can be screwed to the steam-tap and the exhaust-pipe so that the end of it is opposite the projecting pipe from the boiler, and connect these two ends with a piece of indiarubber tubing.

Fig. 24

The spirit-lamp must be in the shape of a closed box, made of sheet copper, four inches wide, eight inches long, and three quarters of an inch deep. In the top cut five holes, as in [Fig. 24], a quarter of an inch in diameter. In these holes solder five tubes half an inch long, and projecting from the top a quarter of an inch. These are for the wicks. At the front end of the top solder a screw filling-tap. At this end solder also a piece of small pipe four inches long. This is to be bent so that it will stand upright outside the end of the boiler, and is to act as a vent, to prevent the spirit being forced too freely up the wicks. Fill the wick-holes tightly with cotton. Now fill the lamp half full of spirit. Pour hot water into the boiler till it just flows out of the top gauge-tap. See that all the taps are turned off. Light the lamp and put it under the boiler, and while steam is getting up oil the engine well with sewing-machine oil. In a short time the steam ought to be up and the engine at work. Try the reversing-gear and see if it acts properly. The engine ought to work smoothly and without noise, and the frame ought not to jar.

We must now make the screw propeller. The boat, which I suppose already made, is to be five feet long, ten inches wide, and eight inches deep, without the keel, and hollowed out to about a quarter of an inch thick at the gunwales and three-quarters of an inch thick at the bottom, and must be rather flat-bottomed, as steamships are, so that the inside at the bottom is five inches wide.

Fig. 25

Put the engine and boiler in the boat so that the boiler is a little abaft the middle. Cut away the dead wood of the stern to make a hole four inches high and two inches wide, as in [Fig. 25]. Bore a hole from the hole in the dead wood right through into the interior of the boat, as shown by the dotted lines in [Fig. 25]. This hole is to be directed to the centre of the fly-wheel of the engine. The shaft is made out of the quarter-inch wire. Cut a square pin and shoulder three-eighths of an inch long and an eighth of an inch square at one end of the shaft. Cut a piece of the same wire three and a half inches long and drill a square hole in the middle, and rivet it on the end of the shaft crosswise. In the hole in the stern of the boat you must fix a tube and stuffing-box, which may be got—together with the screw, which is to be a three-fanned one, measuring three inches across the fans—with the other things, of Messrs. Theobald and Co., and similar houses.

Put the shaft in its place inside the boat, with the cross-piece resting across the pins in the fly-wheel, about half way. Mark the end of the shaft so that it will project an inch and three-quarters, and cut it off there. The bearing must now be made out of a strip of brass one-sixteenth of an inch thick, three quarters of an inch wide, and two inches longer than the width of the inside of the boat. In the middle of this bore a hole a quarter of an inch in diameter, and bend one inch of each end at right angles to the other part. In each bent piece drill two small holes, to screw them to the sides of the boat by. Slip a piece of tubing, one inch long and of a size to fit tightly on the shaft, close up against the cross-piece. Put the shaft through the bearing and stuffing-box tube, and put the cross-piece on the pins in the fly-wheel, and screw the bearing to the boat, so that it is close against the tube on the shaft. The screw has a screw-bolt like the fly-wheel to fix it to the shaft by. Drill a small hole in the shaft for it, and put the screw on the end of the shaft and fix it by tightening the screw.

The deck of the boat must be cut the shape of the inside of the gunwales, out of quarter-inch board, and is to be fixed so that the gunwales are one inch high. It must have a hole cut in the middle to go over the boiler and pipes. A hole must also be cut over the engine, and one also in the front part of the deck large enough to admit your hand, to allow of your removing and lighting the lamp. These two holes ought to be covered by movable skylights. A hole must be bored in the deck just in front of the after-skylight for the wire from the reversing-valve to project about half an inch. A wire handle must be fixed by riveting to the end of this, and two pegs driven into the deck, one on each side, in front, to prevent the handle being turned too far to either side. It should only turn one quarter of the way round.

If you have followed these directions your boat ought to steam for two hours and a half without refilling the boiler; though the lamp would not burn all that time. But if you solder a short piece of tube a quarter of an inch in diameter into the front end of the lamp and quite at the bottom edge of it, and have a closed tin tank with a like tube to it in the front part of the boat, and this tank is filled with spirits, and connected to the lamp by a piece of india-rubber tubing joining the two tubes, the lamp will supply itself from the tank as it gets low. The spirit from the tank will not fill the lamp, but will just cover the hole of the tube and keep at that height so long as there is any spirit in the tank. Such an engine as here described would cost to purchase about £7 10s., and the boat with engine complete, quite double that sum.

Fig. 26

CHAPTER VI.—THE AMERICAN DANCING ‘NIGGER.’
By C. Stansfeld-Hicks.

Fig. 1.

It is now some years since one evening at Christmas time I made one of a large family party assembled at the house of a relative. The evening had passed very pleasantly, and we were chatting together, and watching an arrangement which was being made in a recess behind a pair of curtains, before which was a small table. After some little time waiting in expectation, there suddenly appeared from between the curtains the agile gentleman who is [portrayed] at the head of this chapter. The operator, concealed (all but a portion of his arm) behind the curtains, placing the stand on the table, and cleverly manipulating the wire, caused the figure to dance in the most amusing and ridiculous manner, creating the greatest merriment. Afterwards, some lively jigs and reels being played on the piano, the figure footed it away, cleverly keeping time to the music.

Coming across the stand of the figure brought the memory of it to my mind, and I thought that making and working such a figure would be an amusing occupation for boys in the long winter evenings.

The nigger, when he first came out, was rather an expensive toy, and I have not latterly seen anything quite like it, but it is within the capabilities of any ingenious lad to make one for himself at a very small expense. The one I have described was about eight inches high, and had a proportionately-sized stand; but of course it can be made of any size, though a smaller one would be quite as troublesome to make, and not so funny. We will take the figure as being about the height described.

Fig. 2.

Fig. 3.

Fig. 4.—A Screw. B B Button. C Wire spring. D Spring-board. E E Stand.

The stand (A) is a piece of common deal about 13 in. long (for the figure eight inches high; if the figure is made larger or smaller all details will of course also be proportionately more or less). The width of the stand is 2³⁄₄ in., and it is shaped as in the [sketch]. On top of the stand is a spring-board; this board is shaped as [Fig. 2], rather less than ¹⁄₈ in. thick. From A to the shoulder at B is 6 in., and from B to the centre of the hole at D is 9 in., the whole length being therefore 15 in., and the spring-board in consequence projecting 4 in. beyond the end of the stand. At D on the stand is a button screwed to the stand, the screw passing through the hole in the spring-broad, and by tightening up the screw the spring-board can be made more or less rigid as required. The spring marked C C (which can be put in either way; the dotted line is perhaps the least effective way, as the greater the spring—within limits—the better) is made of steel or iron wire, one end being stuck into the back of the figure and the other being bent as in [Fig. 3], and put under the button, the screw passing through all, as shown in [Fig. 4].

The next thing is the figure. The head you must shape as fancy dictates, and the result will be the criterion of your cleverness as a wood-carver. If you cannot manage to carve a head, you might buy one and stick it on, or make your figure out of a large Dutch doll.

Fig. 5.

Fig. 6.

Fig. 7.

The head and body must be in one piece; the hat may be separate and glued on, or carved with the head, as you prefer. The trunk must terminate as in [Fig. 5], to allow the legs to fit in and swing easily. The legs must be made in two pieces ([Figs. 6] and [7]).

Fig. 8.

Fig. 9.

[Figures 8] and [9] speak for themselves. The flanges must correspond of course with the slots, and a pin is run through to keep the leg in its place, while it is fitted loosely so as to swing. The lower part of the leg and boot should be made rather heavy, so as to come down with some force on the spring-board.

When you have made your figure you can dress him if you like, but the legs must be left free at the joints. Loose trousers of very light striped stuff can be fitted, but they must not come much below the knee. The figure may be painted a dark brown, the hat red or white, the boots of course black, and the stand green or blue picked out with black, but you must use your taste in these matters. When all is finished it is not difficult to make the gentleman dance; but still your spring-board must be tightened to the right pitch, and the spring wire bent so that the feet of the figure are just off the spring-board; then by slightly agitating the wire the nigger will commence to dance; and it will entirely depend on its owner’s tuneful ear whether he dances in time to the music or not.

CHAPTER VII.—MOVING MODELS, AND HOW TO MAKE THEM;
OR, ‘DROP A PENNY IN THE BOX AND THE MODEL WILL WORK.’
By Frank Chasemore.

Many a penny have I invested when, as a lad, visiting such places of amusement as the Crystal Palace, Polytechnic, London Crystal Palace, and Pantechnicon, in obedience to the entreaty forming the sub-title of this chapter, placed on the cases containing models and figures; and I yet very vividly remember the delight experienced from seeing the models start into motion. Indeed, even now, though arrived at man’s estate, I rarely miss dropping a penny into the coffer of any case containing a moving model when I chance to come across one.

Now these models, complicated as they may sometimes seem, can be easily made by any boy who can use his tools, and, as the construction and exhibition of them will afford great amusement, I propose in this chapter to give detailed practical instructions for making them.

The subjects I have chosen are a windmill, a yacht in full sail, a watermill with real water, dancing niggers, etc., so that there should be sufficient variety to suit all tastes and skill.

A Model Windmill.

The windmill being the simplest in construction of the working models, we will take it first. The model, with the necessary pictorial background, is to be enclosed in a case, which will bear somewhere on the front of it the legend forming the title of this chapter, and the sails will go merrily round on dropping a penny into the box, thus practically illustrating the old song, ‘Money makes the mill to go.’ The cost of the whole model and case will be something under 8s. Now for the construction.

We will make the case first. For this get some half-inch deal board, 12 in. wide, and plane it smooth on both sides. Cut the pieces for the back, top, bottom, and sides, and square them up true. The dimensions of these pieces are as follows: the back, 20 in. long and 12 in. wide; the top and bottom pieces, 12 in. long and 10 in. wide; and the two side pieces are each 20 in. long and 10 in. wide.

Having cut and trued up these pieces, proceed to form them into a box by joining the edges by dovetailing, if you are skilful at cabinet-making, or get some friendly carpenter to do it for you, if you are not up to the work. If you cannot manage either to do it yourself or to get it done for you, the parts can be joined with glue and screws, but the side pieces will have to be cut one inch shorter than for dovetailing, in order that the top and bottom pieces may fit in flush with the back piece.

The front of the box is to be closed by a door, of which the upper 12 in. is of glass. Make the door out of a piece of half-inch board, 8 in. by 11 in. for the bottom piece, and fasten to each end a strip of wood 20 in. long and ¹⁄₂ in. square, so that one end of each strip is flush with the lower edge of the board, leaving 12 in of each strip projecting beyond the upper edge.

These strips should have a groove ¹⁄₈ in. deep cut in them to hold the glass. This you had better get cut for you. Put your glass, which must be about 11¹⁄₄ in. wide and 11 in. long, into the grooves, and the upper edge of it will be half an inch from the ends of the strips. Fasten it in by a cross-piece of wood ¹⁄₂ in. square and 11 in. long, glued and screwed to the two side strips.

If you prefer it, the glass can be put in the door after the manner of window-panes. In this case the side and top strips must have a rebate cut in them, and the top edge of the wooden portion served in the same way. You must choose for yourself which method you will adopt. Either will do, but the latter is perhaps the neater.

In the top of the right-hand end of the wooden portion cut a slot large enough to allow the necessary penny to pass freely. The door you will fasten to the box with two small brass hinges, and you must put a small brass hook on the other side of the box to keep it fastened. But it will be better if you do not hang the door till the inside arrangements are completed, for fear of breaking the glass.

Fig. 1.

[Fig. 1] represents the case and model complete. Divide the interior of the box into two portions by a horizontal partition, fastened to the back and sides by glue and screws. The space below the partition is to be 7 in. deep. In the right of this space fit a cash drawer 9 in. long, 3 in. deep, and 3 in. wide, to hold the pennies. The side of this drawer nearest the machinery must have a slot cut in it for the starting lever (A, [Fig. 3]) to work in. The sides of the case are made of wood, so that the working of the model can only be seen from the front and so that the flow of pennies will be larger.

Paint the back of the inside of the case to represent a landscape, or a suitably coloured picture can be pasted in, and serve the horizontal partition in the same manner to represent ground, blending the back and ground together in a natural manner. Paint also the top board to represent sky.

Make the mill out of wood or cardboard. It is to be 7³⁄₄ in. high, and the holes for the spindle carrying the sails 5³⁄₄ in. from the bottom. The sails are to be 9¹⁄₂ in. across, and can be made of wood or cardboard, or, better still, wood cross-pieces with cardboard sails. Make the spindle of iron wire ¹⁄₈ in. in thickness. It should be about 3¹⁄₂ in. long. Flatten one end of the wire and drive it into the centre point of the cross-pieces of the sails, being careful to keep it quite square and upright.

Pass the spindle through the holes in the back and front of the mill, and put a knob of sealing-wax on the end, to prevent it working out when the mill is at work. If the mill is made of cardboard, the inside must be strengthened with wood to support the spindle.

We will next turn our attention to the mechanism to set the mill in motion. Very few of my readers possess the tools and skill to use them necessary to cut and fit the wheels, and, as it would come very expensive to get them made specially, it will come very much cheaper to buy one of the cheap eight-day clocks, which will suit our purpose admirably. These can be procured at most of the suitable shops, and will cost about 5s. 6d.

Take the frame and works out of the clock case, and remove the pendulum and hands, as you will not require them. If you now turn round the spindle on which the minute hand fits, you will notice that, although the parts that carry the hands are in motion, the rest of the wheels are stationary. On examining these hand-turning wheels carefully, you will notice that the one carrying the minute hand is fixed on the central spindle by jambing only, and that it turns a small flat wheel which, in turn, gives motion to the wheel carrying the hour hand. This wheel is fixed to a tubular spindle, which fits over the spindle of the minute-hand wheel, which itself is tubular and jambs on the central spindle. Now, as you will not require this movement, take off the hour-hand wheel, and after removing the small flat wheel, replace it and fasten it, together with the minute-hand wheel, to the central spindle with solder.

Some of the cheap clocks have the minute hand fixed direct to the central spindle, the hour wheel only being tubular. In this case the hour wheel and the spindle must be soldered together after the small flat wheel has been removed. As you will not require the escapement wheel, push on one side the small spring clip that presses on the end of the spindle, and it will drop out.

Fig. 2.

Fig. 3.

You will now want a pulley wheel (B, [Fig. 3]). One of the wooden sheaves used in Venetian blinds for the cords to run over will do very well indeed, or if you possess a lathe you can turn one for yourself. It should be 1¹⁄₂ in. in diameter and ¹⁄₄ in. thick, having a small hole right through the centre, of a size to fit tightly on the hour spindle of your works. [Fig. 2] represents the frame after the wheels not required have been removed. [Fig. 3] represents the starting lever and pulley. This pulley must have a notch ¹⁄₄ in. deep cut in one rim, for the hook of the lever to fall into and stop the machinery. This pulley must not be more than 1¹⁄₂ in. in diameter, or you will not be able to get at the winding-up pin.

The frame carrying the wheels must now be mounted in its place under the horizontal partition. For this purpose fasten with screws a block of wood to the floor board, or back of the case, in such a position that the front of the frame is about 5¹⁄₂ in. from the front of the case, and so that the centre of the wooden wheel is about 4 in. from the horizontal partition, and immediately under the spindle carrying the sails of the mill. The horizontal partition must have a slot cut in it, inside the mill, for the connecting cord to pass. The frame is to be fastened to the supporting block by screws, but before doing this you must make the all-important starting and stopping lever.

Get a piece of iron wire ¹⁄₈ in. thick, and about 10 in. long. Flatten one end and bend down about half an inch of this end to form a hook, standing about at right angles to the length; place this hook in the notch of the wheel when it is a little beyond the centre of the pulley, as seen in the cut, and cut the wire to such a length that the other end of it will be about 1 in. from the side of the case, when the gear is in position. Drill a hole crosswise through the wire about 3 in. from the hook, and fasten a small wire to the gear-frame, standing at right angles to it, about 2¹⁄₂ in., measured horizontally from the spindle of the pulley, and near the top. This is for the lever to turn on, as shown in the cut. At the free end of the lever solder a piece of tin bent up on three sides like a small tray, with the edge not bent at the extreme end. This tray or scoop should be about 1¹⁄₂ in. square, and is to catch the penny as it is dropped in.

The hooked end of the lever must be weighted, to slightly outbalance the other part, so that the hook will drop into the notch in the pulley. The frame can now be put in its place and fixed to the block with screws. Bend the long end of the lever till the scoop is 3¹⁄₂ in. from the under side of the partition. In bending the lever you must also see that the scoop is horizontal, or the penny will not remain in it long enough to start the gear. Now connect the spindle of the sails and the wooden pulley-wheel by passing a silk cord or fine string round both tightly, and knotting the ends together.

Now on winding up the spring and pressing down the lever the works will start into motion and the sails will revolve. The speed can be regulated by placing the sails at such an angle that they will offer more or less resistance to the air.

The slot in the door for the insertion of the penny must be cut three-quarters of an inch below the upper edge of the wooden partition, and inside you must fasten a tin trough to conduct the penny to the scoop at the end of the lever. This trough must slope downwards to the edge of the scoop, or the penny will not fall into it, but remain just inside the hole.

The model is now complete, and works as follows: The spring having been wound up and the door closed, the works are kept from moving by the hook of the lever catching in the notch of the pulley, but on a penny being put into the hole, and sliding into the scoop at the other end of the lever, its weight presses down the scoop end and lifts the hooked end out of the notch in the pulley, which turns round, and continues to do so, carrying the sails of the mill round with it till the notch again comes under the hook, which (the penny having fallen out of the scoop into the drawer) falls into it and stops the machinery, giving one revolution of the pulley for a penny. The pulley being twelve times larger than the spindle of the sails, these will revolve twelve times each time the model is started. The model will work about 204 times each time it is wound up.

A Model Cutter Yacht.

Having finished the windmill to your satisfaction, we will now turn our attention to the construction of a model requiring rather more complex machinery. This is shown at [Fig. 4], and represents a cutter-yacht sailing on the port tack, on a lee shore; which, if carefully made, so as to produce the effect of the rolling and pitching of a real yacht upon a real sea, will catch many a penny.

Fig. 4.

The case is made exactly in the same manner as the former one, and has the same dimensions, but has no horizontal partition, only a cross-piece in the front, half an inch square.

The inside of the back you must paint to represent a cliff and sky, or you can paste a coloured picture of the same on it.

The yacht is to be 5 in. long, and is to be set in a sea of silk, which will be described [further on]. If you prefer it, a full-rigged ship can be substituted for the yacht. For the machinery you will require, as before, an eight-day clock movement, some brass wire, and three or four pulley-wheels. [Fig. 5] shows the front view of the mechanism when complete, and [Fig. 6] the end view of the same.

Fig. 5.

Fig. 6.

As was the case in preparing the works for the windmill, you will require to make some alteration in the wheels, but in this case, as the hour and minute movement will be required for the starting gear, the minute spindle only is to be soldered to the central spindle, and the small flat wheel retained in its place. The escapement wheel must also be retained. B ([Fig. 5]) is one of the wooden pulleys, 1 in. in diameter, fixed to the minute-hand spindle, and is in connection with another pulley-wheel of the same size (B), turning on a screw fixed in a block of wood fastened to the floor-board in such a position that the centres of the two pulleys are the same height from the floor and 4¹⁄₂ in. apart. O is a lever of wire about 7 in. long, working on a pivot passing through it about 2¹⁄₂ in. from the end C. This end is connected with the keel of the boat, and the other end is weighted, to balance the boat.

Now take your boat, and at each end of the keel fix a small brass plate having a hole drilled in it (FF, [Fig. 5]), 4¹⁄₂ in. apart, and fix another plate drilled in the same way at C, about 2³⁄₄ in. from the stem of the boat. Take two pieces of wire 5 in. long and bend one end of each into an eye and the other end into a hook, crosswise with regard to the eye, and hook a wire into each of the plates FF, on the keel of the boat, and connect the other ends with the pulleys B and B by two small brass screws passing into the fronts of BB, as shown in [Fig. 5], and arrange the pulleys so that one of the pivots shall be up while the other is down.

Fig. 7.

All these joints and connections must work freely, although not loosely. The two pulleys, BB, you must connect with a cord passing round both. The pitch of the vessel is regulated by the distance the pivot screws are from the centres of the pulleys, which should be about half an inch. You must next make the regulating gear or fly E ([Fig. 5]). To do this you must take out the pin from the left-hand lower corner of the frame-plate and prise up the plate and take out the fourth wheel near R ([Fig. 5]), and on the spindle of it fix a pulley, which can be readily done in the following manner. Cut a small notch in one side of the hole in the centre of the pulley just large enough to admit a piece of your wire. Solder about half an inch of this wire along one side of the spindle about the middle of it, and force the pulley on to the spindle over this piece, and it will jamb lightly and be keyed to it. [Fig. 7] will show you how to cut the hole in the pulley.

Now return the wheel to its place and re-fasten the frame-plate. Next you must make the fly E. Get a small brass pulley about ¹⁄₄ in. in diameter, and to it solder a strip of tin cut to the shape shown, but being wider in proportion at the ends, say 1 in. wide and 4 in. long. Twist the ends of this fly askew like the fans of a screw propeller, so that it will catch the wind in revolving. Now fix a block of wood to the bottom of the case and fix the fly to it by a small brass screw passing through its centre, so that it works freely and is 3¹⁄₂ in. from the centre of the driving pulley R and level with it. Fasten a block of wood to the back of the case, in which you must fix the screw N ([Fig. 5]) for the lever O to pivot on. You must next make the starting gear. This is shown in [Fig. 8].

Fig. 8.

As we require the pulleys BB to revolve about twelve times, and as they are attached to the minute-hand spindle, the hour-hand spindle will revolve once. Therefore, on this spindle fix behind the pulley B, by soldering, a circular plate of tin or brass, a little larger than the pulley, and cut in one edge of it a slot a quarter-inch deep and one-eighth of an inch wide. Make your lever as before, but long enough for the hook to catch in the teeth of the wheel C, [Fig. 8]; and solder a piece of tin to the lever, to fall at the same time into the slot in the disc A, [Fig. 8]. This piece of tin must be long enough to keep the hook free of the teeth of the wheel C during the revolution of the disc A. The length of the other part of the lever is to be the same as for the windmill. [Fig. 6] shows an end view of the machinery. K is a wire connecting the keel with the lever Q, and helps to give the rolling motion so suggestive to voyagers.

Fix your gear into the case in such a position that the keel of the boat will be 7 in. above the floor of the box, and bend the starting lever so that the scoop will be the same distance from the floor and front of the box as in the former case. You have now to make the sea. Get a piece of silk of the kind called Persian, dark green or ‘undecided’ blue, about 18 in. square, and in the middle of it cut a slit 6 in. long, and in this slit fasten the hull of the boat with glue, puckering up the silk, to form the waves on the sides of the vessel. Crumple the whole of the silk into miniature waves, and glue the edges round the edges of the case and to the strip of wood fastened across the front 7 in. from the floor. Touch the crests of the waves with white paint. The silk waves will rise and fall with the motion of the vessel, and appear themselves to be the cause of that motion. If the silk has a tendency to drop in, it can be supported by a floor-board, 7 in. from the bottom, with a hole cut in the centre 5 in. long and 2 in. wide for the boat to work in, and a slot cut for the wire K, [Fig. 6]. Be very careful that all the joints and connections work easily, or a jerky motion will be the result.

Wind up the works and drop in a penny, and the lever hook will be lifted out of the escapement wheel, and round will go the pulleys, causing the little ship to pitch and roll till the slot A comes round again, when down falls the lever hook and stops the movement. The pace of the movement can be regulated by the angle of the fans of the fly catching more or less air.

As the minute spindle revolves twelve times, the pulleys will revolve only once, which will give about seventeen revolutions each time of winding.

Dancing ‘Niggers.’

[Fig. 9] is a view of a case of dancing ‘niggers,’ and is easily made. In the sketch the figures are one-third the real size.

Fig. 9.

The case measures 9 in. high, 7 in. wide, and 7 in. deep. The back forms a hinged door by which you can get at the gear. The slit for the penny is in the top, and near the right-hand back corner. The legs of the right-hand figure are both made separate from the body and jointed at the knees. They are fastened to the body by small pins, to allow of free working. This figure you must strengthen by glueing a piece of wood behind it 1 in. long, ¹⁄₂ in. wide, and ¹⁄₄ in. thick. The other figure has only the left leg moveable, and must not be jointed at the knee. Glue a strip of wood about ¹⁄₂ in. wide and ¹⁄₄ in. thick right up the back of this figure, and glue it to the floor board. The left leg must have a similar piece of wood glued behind it, and projecting ¹⁄₂ in. longer at the thigh end. Fix the leg to the body by a small pin, for it to work freely on, and in the piece of wood projecting fix, at right angles, a piece of wire about 2 in. long, and cut a curved slit in the background for this to work in, when the figure is about 1 in. from it.

This background you must make out of cardboard, and fix about 3 in. from the front of the case, which is glass. The background you can paint to any design you please, such as a street scene, or on the sands, and the floor to correspond.

Behind the right-hand figure cut a vertical slit in the background about ¹⁄₈ in. wide and 2 in. long, so that the centre of it comes opposite the centre of the figure when the feet are just touching the floor. Fix a piece of wire about 7 in. long into the centre of the figure behind, and at right angles to it, and bend this wire downwards at right angles about 2 in. from the figure. About 1 in. behind the background fix an upright block of wood, to come as high as the centre of the figure, and in front of it fix two small staples, one near the top, and the other about 2 in. lower, but directly under it. Into these slip the end of the wire attached to the figure, after passing it through the slot in the background. This will keep the figure in its place and allow of its moving up and down.

Fig. 10.

Fig. 11.

Prepare the works as for the yacht model, and also insert a pulley (A), as shown in [Figs. 10] and [5]. This is connected with another pulley (B, [Fig. 10]), which is fixed to a block by a screw that is countersunk below the face of it, and to which is fastened by a small screw two wires working freely and passing one to the wire from the left-hand figure, and the other to the cross-piece of the wire from the right-hand one, and connected with them by the ends being bent into rings. From the cross wire to the figure to the right is also hung a drop wire with a small weight at the end, to help to pull it down. [Fig. 11] will explain the fixing of this gear. A fly must be also fitted to the movement, to check the pace. This can be fixed to the pulley (B) or in front of the escapement wheel. The stopping motion is the same as in [Fig. 8], but more slots may be cut in the disc, to regulate the length of time allowed for a penny.

The works you must fix behind the background so that the starting lever comes conveniently for the penny in its fall.

With these three examples of the necessary clockwork you will be able by the exercise of a little ingenuity and the power of contriving to make moving models of any subjects that may suggest themselves to you, such as the following: a steamboat with revolving paddle-wheels, cobbler mending shoes, soldiers marching, etc., etc.

A Real Water-wheel.

I will now tell you how to make the model shown in [Fig. 12], consisting of a water-mill working with real water, a small fountain in the middle, and children playing at see-saw in the background.

Fig. 12.

This model is worked with water-power only, and has no clockwork. The case you must make larger than in either of the former cases—24 in. high, 14 in. wide, and 14 in. deep; the height of the floor of the model from the bottom of the case 4 in., and the depth of the upper partition 4 in., the intermediate space closed by a glass door 16 in. by 14 in. The case must be made out of ¹⁄₂ in. stuff and well dovetailed together. In the right-hand bottom corner a drawer for the pennies with a slot in front. The back or one of the sides should have a door in it, to get at the machinery, should it at any time require attending to.

Fig. 13.

You must now make two zinc tanks, the top one air-tight, to occupy the whole of the upper space, the other also air-tight at first, to occupy the space left in the lower partition by the drawer. The top tank will be 13 in. by 13 in. by 3¹⁄₂ in., and will have a small receiver, about 6 in. square by 1 in. deep, soldered to the bottom of it, and communication with it by a small hole, as shown in E, [Fig. 13], about a quarter of an inch in diameter, and having also a small pipe passing from it to the outer air through the large tank. This pipe is not shown in the figure, but it is soldered to the top and bottom of the tank and the ends filed off flush. The zinc for the bottom and sides of the tanks can be cut out of one piece, as shown in [Fig. 14]. The edges of the tops should be turned over, to add strength. The soldering must be made air-tight. The background of the picture is a false back inserted about 2 in. from the true one, behind which the pipes are placed connecting the vessels together, as shown in [Fig. 13], which is a back view.

Fig. 14.

These pipes must be carefully soldered in. A is the air-pipe to supply reservoir F when in use; B is the pumping-pipe, in the middle of which is fixed an india-rubber force-ball, to be procured at any india-rubber shop, in which is a small pin-valve, to prevent the water flowing back. This pipe extends from the bottom of tank G to the top of tank F, leaving a space of about ¹⁄₈ in. between the ends of the pipes and the metal of the tanks. C is a small pipe by which the water from the basin of the fountain is run into G. E is the receiver into which water from F runs, and from which two pipes lead, one to the wheel of the mill, and the other to the fountain. K is a regulating tap, to govern the supply of air and regulate the amount of water passed into E. D is the stopcock connected with the starting lever, which is about 6 in. long and soldered to the handle of the tap. This tap must work easily, and yet be air-tight.

The lever must be counterweighted, to close the tap when the penny has fallen off the scoop at the end of the lever. H is a small pipe fixed in the top of the tank G to allow the air to pass out when the water is running into it through C. The basin of the fountain should be made of zinc, and fastened to the tube C, and the jet is formed of the end of a blow-pipe connected to the tube from E. The rockery you must form of cinders and paint them to a suitable colour. The mill-wheel should be made of zinc and painted, and the water from it conducted to the basin of the fountain. The other pipe from E you must conduct to a position suitable to set the wheel in motion.

The see-saw you must place so that it can be set in motion by the axle of the mill-wheel, which is carried out long enough under the rockery-bank to reach it, and has a cross-piece of wire soldered to it at a point immediately under one of the figures, and which in revolving tips up one end of the board.

Fig. 15.

This end of the board is made, slightly heavier than the other, which will make it return to be again tipped up. We will now see how the model is worked. Pour water into the basin of the fountain till it is full, and open the starting lever as shown in [Fig. 15]. The bottom vessel will now be quite full. Now work the force-ball, which will pump the water out of G into F, the air rushing into G through the pipe H. As soon as the upper tank is full the starting lever is to be closed, and the model is ready to begin work. Now as F, [Fig. 13], is an air-tight vessel, no water can run from F into E. But as soon as a coin is dropped into the scoop at the end of the lever A, [Fig. 15], its weight presses it down and opens the cock D, which allows the air to be drawn into F, and consequently allows water to pass into E, [Fig. 13].

The quantity of air allowed to pass is regulated by the extent to which K, [Fig. 13], is opened. The water being in E, and this vessel communicating with the atmosphere through the pipe not shown in the Figs., the water falls into the two pipes, and is conducted by one to set the wheel in motion, and by the other to the fountain-jet, through which it issues and again falls into the basin, and thence again into G.

How to make a Cheap Clock.

An ingenious and inexpensive timekeeper may be made by any boy for a few pence and a little labour. Buy a sheet of millboard, the thicker the better—size, 27 in. by 22 in.—cut off a strip 10 in. by 27 in., and shape it as shown in [Fig. 16], the top part to be 10 in. square, and the lower 17 in. by 4 in. Next mark off the remainder of the millboard into three equal parts of 4 in. each, as shown in [Fig. 17], then, with a straightedge and a sharp knife, cut half through the lines AA. This will form the two sides and back of the case. The funnel (B, [Fig. 18]) should be made of tin, with a square top to fit over the millboard, and have a very small aperture at the point; any tinman will make this for 3d. or 4d. The spindle (C, [Fig. 18]) must be 3³⁄₄ in. long, 3¹⁄₂ in. deep in front, diminishing to 2 in. at back, have a screw-shaped groove from end to end, and work on a small spindle or axle, projecting 1 in. in front, for the hand to be connected to, and ¹⁄₂ an inch at rear. If the young horologist has not a lathe at his disposal, the spindle can be obtained from a turner for a few pence. The weight may be made of a piece of shaped stone, or of an empty stone ink-bottle, from the neck of which the cord passes over the bar (C), round the grooves of the spindle, and out of the hole (K). A small weight, such as a bullet, must be fastened to the other end. A piece of canvas should be glued round the edges of the case, and the whole painted with a good coating of Brunswick black, over which any design may be made, either with gold lines, grotesque figures, or coloured pictures. The dial should be of white paper, 7 in. in diameter, and the hand cut out of the spare millboard and then gilded. Four small reels (E, [Fig. 17]), such as are used for silk, should be glued on the back, to keep the case from the wall, and a ring fastened to the top to hang it by.

Fig. 16.

Fig. 17.

Fig. 18.

It is now ready for the motive power, which is obtained by the falling of sand, as in the hour-glass. The sand must be first well washed, dried, and sifted, to remove all stones, then poured through the case top to within two inches of the cross-bar (C, [Fig. 18]), the weight resting on the surface. As the sand runs through the funnel-point the weight will descend with it at the rate of about 1 in. per hour. The flow of sand will be perfectly equable from the time the case is filled until it is nearly empty, which is explained by the fact that the sand lies in a succession of conical heaps, only the first of which presses on the bottom, the others throwing their weight on the sides of the case. A gallon of sand will be more than sufficient to fill the cases, and as it falls it should be caught in a vase placed beneath for that purpose. In winding up the clock the inside weight must be raised to the cross-bar by pulling down the bullet end of the cord, and the sand poured through a paper funnel into the top of the case, care being taken to set the hand to the right hour. A clock of the dimensions here given will work for about twelve hours, but by lengthening the sand-box the working hours will be increased in proportion. It will save time and trouble to have a double supply of sand and two vases, and use them alternately. Of course one does not pretend that such a simple clock as this will keep accurate time.

CHAPTER VIII.—HOW WE MADE A CHRISTMAS SHIP.
By C. Stansfeld-Hicks, Author of Yacht and Canoe Building, &c., &c.

‘What shall we do to amuse the boys?’ was the question asked at a friend’s house. ‘They are tired of Christmas trees, and it is so difficult to think of anything new.’

‘Well,’ I suggested, ‘why not have a Christmas ship?’

A Christmas ship! We never heard of such a thing! What is it?’

Fig. 1.—The Good Ship Santa Claus.

And this was the commencement of the planning and building of the vessel in question. To commence was a comparatively easy matter, but before she was finished and ready for her cargo the shipbuilders got rather weary. But you see they had to do everything for the first time, and with little or no previous experience. By attention to the details given in this chapter, those who go in for this Christmas ship will get on faster than we did, profiting by our experience, and not having to retrace their steps and do things over again, which was often the case with us in our first attempt.

When all was finished, the ship, as she appeared in the library, was an extremely pretty sight, her long black hull illumined by the light from the open ports, through which was caught a glimpse of her main deck with its fittings. Around her extended a very realistic sea, ruffled in miniature waves, and far above, towering over the heads of the young people present, were her lofty masts with their complicated rigging. Some of the sails were set, while others were stowed on the yards. Deep down in her hold were most of the presents, while many others were suspended from her yards and rigging, which too were lighted up with small coloured lanterns.

Everything had been kept a profound secret until the library door was thrown open to the guests, and the Christmas ship, glowing with her illuminations and crammed full of presents, stood before them. Such was her capacity, that, although there were some thirty or forty young people ready and eager to plunder her, it was not until they had made three successive raids on the goods and cargo that the hold was declared to be empty, and even then in some of its recesses there still remained a few unappropriated gifts. And now to the details of her construction.

FIG 2

FIG 3

The first operation is to make the frame or stand. This is shown in [Fig. 2] and [Fig. 3], as well as in the [sketch] of the ship complete. It is marked H H H H in [Fig. 3]. The size of the stand will of course entirely depend on the size you intend making the ship, but it should be in about the same proportion to the hull of the vessel as is shown in the diagram ([Fig. 2]). If the ship is to be 5 ft. long and 3 ft. wide, the stand should be 8 ft. long. You will require two pieces of 11-in. deal plank, ³⁄₄ in. thick, and a short piece about 3 ft. long, which will be used as follows. For the hold of the ship you must get a suitable box, which may be obtained from the grocer. An old currant or biscuit box will do. We used a Florence oil case, which answered very well with the V end turned down and the bottom taken off (see [Fig. 6]). [Fig. 7] shows the manner in which the boards for the stand are arranged round the box. A is the box, B an 11-in. board with a slot about 2 in. deep cut to fit the box. C is a similar board the other side, and D D are two filling pieces placed between the long boards to fill up the space left at either end of the box. A couple of cross pieces may be placed at the dotted lines to secure the frame together. The top of the box is left flush with the upper edge of the stand.

In [Fig. 3] the dotted line shows the outline of the box. When the stand is made and put together, the simplest plan to adopt is to take any large packing case which the stand will cover, by about a foot at each end and a few inches at the sides, and nail the stand down on this case. A block of wood must then be put under where the box for the hold comes, of sufficient thickness to keep this box up just flush with the top of the stand, and when the block is nailed down the box can be screwed to it. No fastening will be necessary at the top, as the stand should fit all round it too closely to prevent it working. Care should be taken that there are no nails or splinters inside the box, or when the presents are being taken out some one’s fingers may suffer. It is a good plan to glue some smooth thick wrapping paper over the inside of the box after it is screwed down.

FIG 4A

FIG 4

FIG 5

FIG 6

FIG 7

FIG 8

FIG 9

The sides of the ship, which are only the height of the vessel above water, can be made of thick cardboard. Millboard will do, but it cracks easily. The shape of the side having been cut out, a couple of lines must be marked within which the ports are to be cut. The lower edge of the port should be about two inches above the water-line, and the ports themselves two inches high and three wide, the whole height of the vessel’s side out of water amidships being about 6¹⁄₂ inches (this is for a 5 ft. ship), while at the bow it will be an inch or so higher and half an inch at the stern (see [Fig. 1]). In cutting the ports you will find a sharp chisel the best tool to use, particularly if you are operating on thick millboard. When the ports are cut out the pieces of millboard cut away will do for port lids (see [Fig. 10]). A is the ship’s side, B the port lid, which is hinged on to the upper port sill by a piece of calico D D, glued on; C is the tricing line for raising or lowering the port. [Fig. 9] shows the battens (A A). These are about an inch high and three-quarters thick; they are screwed down on the stand just inside the line the side of the ship will take, and serve to secure the lower part of the ship’s side by glue or screws; or another batten can be run outside the ship’s side—the two battens taking one side of the ship between them, and this is the stronger plan. The deck should be made of a stout piece of deal board, about three-quarter-inch; it must be strong, as it serves to bind the whole fabric together, and the sides are none too strong. This deck is the upper deck, the main deck being formed by that part of the stand inside the vessel’s hull, and the main hatchway being the box. The deck must be placed just at the top of the line of ports (see A A in [Fig. 8]), so as to leave room between the two decks, and also to leave a bulwark all round the upper deck. The stern may be made of a piece of deal an inch thick, shaped as [Fig. 11]. [Fig. 12] shows the section and the way the edges are bevelled off at A A. The bows can be fastened together by screws or glue, to a wedge-shaped piece of wood put between them (see [Fig. 13]). C is a triangular block of wood shaped to suit the vessel’s lines, B B the millboard sides, A is a piece of millboard or wood shaped as [Fig. 14]. The part A A goes between the sides which terminate at the line B B, shown in [Fig. 8]. The hook B is formed by a piece of wire inserted into the end of the knee of the head, and is used to hang a small figure for a figure-head. Those little plaster angels which have a small wire eye between the wings from which they are generally suspended by elastic, are the most suitable, as the wings fit on either side of the bowsprit, and the figure looks very well.

The most effective part of the affair has now to be described, and that is the way the hold is lighted up. [Fig. 2] shows this. A is a common paraffin lamp, with say a three-quarter inch burner (though an inch is better); L is a tin reflector so fitted as to throw the light downward and forward toward the bow; at K is a strong partition to secure the lamp from being upset or damaged while the hold is being pulled about for presents; M M shows the line of the main deck, opening from which is the box P. The rays from this lamp light up the whole length forward of the main deck, and, if the ports are open, send a bright radiance from them through the room.

The upper deck must be fitted with a hatchway of sufficient size just over the box which constitutes the hold, and this hatchway must be so placed that every part of the box can be reached through it even by a small child. The ports may be made to open and shut simultaneously by bringing all the tricing lines into one hauling part, which on being pulled hauls up all the ports at once. This is very effective if the ports fit well, as the room can be darkened, and the ports being suddenly hauled up, the whole interior of the ship is shown brightly illuminated.

The fittings for the lamp on the upper deck have next to be considered. The principal part is the funnel, which can be made of an old canister by cutting it down where soldered together, reducing it to the required diameter and boring holes along the lapping and lacing it together up the side. This is better than soldering, as the heat of the lamp cannot affect the joint. The lower ends of the tube are cut and opened out as at [Fig. 4], and a kind of tin washer is cut out ([Fig. 5]), the inner circle just being large enough to slip over the funnel, but being stopped by the lower ends. The outside circumference of the washer must be large enough to cover these ends. By screwing the washer down on the upper deck, having previously slipped the funnel through it, the funnel is firmly fixed in position, the rake being determined by the way in which the lower ends are cut. To further steady the funnel and make a neat job, a small bridge is cut out of another tin canister or piece of sheet-tin or zinc, as at [Fig. 4], B B. This may be made of any suitable width and pierced with a hole in the centre to pass it over the funnel; it is then bent down to the required curve, the ends joining the bulwarks and fitting in the upper deck. A light rail may be fitted, as shown in the elevation, or if the tin is cut as [Fig. 4]A the side pieces A A can be bent up to form a rail. This bridge may be painted with japan black, which can also be used for those parts of the vessel which require to be painted black.

The partition K ([Fig. 2]) must be made to remove, working in slides, so that the reservoir of the lamp, by taking off the chimney, can be got out for filling and trimming; the chimney is got off by pushing it up the funnel far enough to clear the lamp.

It will have a good effect if a poop and topgallant forecastle are fitted, as in [Fig. 8]. C is the poop and D the forecastle. These decks can be made of millboard, and light strips of wood are glued along inside the rail or bulwark, the top of which comes about half an inch short of the top of the rail. The small deck is then placed so as to rest on these strips; it can be fitted with a rail as shown, or not, as the builder decides.

The sea is made of green glazed calico, which must be large enough to cover the stand and hang over all round, touching the floor and concealing the rough stand and its supports. A long slit is made in the centre line of the calico, to pass it over the ship’s hull, and it is then glued along the ship’s sides before they are painted, care being taken that this is carefully done, no rucks or puckers being left. The waves are made by rolls of thin paper introduced here and there, under the calico and glued to the stand, and wherever a wave crest appears the calico is touched up with white paint, and if this is artistically done the effect is very good.

The sides of the ship are now painted black, and if the calico comes far up on the side, it must be painted over and considered as part of the vessel’s side; but along the water-line there should be a certain amount of undulation indicated by the paint, and at the bows and here and there along the side, a little white paint must be put, to show the broken water and foam, while the vessel’s wake should also be indicated by lines of foam diverging at an angle from the course of the ship. Copper may be shown by a copper-red just at the bow and stern along the water, but all black will do very well. The streak containing the ports should be painted white, the outside of the ports black, and the inside red.

The rigging will now have attention. The masts may be made in only two pieces; the topmasts, topgallant masts, and royals being all in one. The lower masts should be rather stout, and can be made of common deal; they must be firmly stepped in blocks secured below for their reception, and the mainmast must be so placed as not to unduly interfere with the hold being got at. The rigging and spars and sails of a ship are given in full with diagrams in other articles in this volume, and need not be repeated here.

The character of the rigging and the number of sails set must depend on the ideas of the builder. The ship may be made at anchor, to save trouble, with all her sails stowed, and a good effect can be easily produced by furling the sails, as is the case with the lower yards in the first illustration. Any rough piece of canvas the proper size will do for this. The ends are made fast to the yardarms, the corners are then folded behind (away from the bows) to the middle of the sail, in order to make a bunt, and the sail rolled up and secured to the yard by lashings of thread or string.

To look well, the sail when stowed should be much larger in the roll at the middle and diminish off to nothing at the ends.

Those stays which it is intended to suspend lamps from should be of wire, and the topgallant yards, if used for a similar purpose, should also be of wire, and if the yardarms are used for this purpose short pieces of thick wire should be lashed to them.

When all is ready, to allow of free access to the hold without damaging the sails or rigging, it is best to brace the head yards sharp up and the main yards aback. This is shown in [Fig. 15]. By doing this a sufficient space is left on one side of the ship. A A is the fore-and-aft line of the vessel, B the fore yard, C main yard, showing the space B C. D is the mizen trimmed in the same way as the fore yard. The ship would then be ‘hove-to,’ which is an almost stationary position adopted when speaking another vessel or waiting for a boat, etc.—in this case for her Christmas visitors.

I do not think any explanation will be necessary as to the presents. The smaller ones, whatever they are, can be just mixed up together in the hold, and if there are any of a superior character, they can be very well fixed in various places in the rigging.

The Christmas ship in which I had a hand was well found in boats, anchors, cannon, etc., all of which were distributed among the boys of the party. In conclusion, I can only hope that, should you decide to build such a vessel, it may prove a source of amusement to yourselves and gratification to your friends, and no doubt very many will be only too anxious to learn when the good ship Santa Claus is likely to arrive.

CHAPTER IX.—MODEL STEAM-ENGINES, AND HOW TO MAKE THEM.
By Paul N. Hasluck, Author of Lathe-work, &c.

I.—Principles of the Steam-Engine.

This chapter is intended to fully describe the constructive details of miniature steam-engines. It is proposed to first give an idea of the general principles which govern steam-engines, and to explain the various characteristics and methods of constructing different types of engines. The boiler and its several fittings and attachments will be duly described, and then minute directions given for constructing engines with oscillating and slide-valve cylinders. Illustrations of both vertical and horizontal engines will be given, and also sketches in all cases where they will serve to explain more fully the meaning of the text.

This is a brief outline of the scope of the present chapter. Those readers who have acquired only slight manual dexterity in the use of tools will find little difficulty in making the engines illustrated, if the instructions given are carefully followed. In each case the minute details of the various processes incidental to our engineering work will be carefully described, so that those unacquainted with the mechanical arts will be able to comprehend the method of procedure.

Model engines, in every stage of manufacture, from the rough castings direct from the foundry to the complete, highly-finished working model, may now be purchased in nearly every town of importance throughout Great Britain. Though this trade is of but recent growth, its continual extension proves that model engines are objects of interest to a large number of the rising generation, and hence it is felt that information as to their manufacture will prove acceptable to very many readers.

It will be advisable to gain an insight into the principles which govern the action of a steam-engine, and to learn some of the technical peculiarities, before proceeding to attempt its manufacture. There are numerous text-books on the steam-engine, which may be studied with advantage, and which show the theoretical principles.

The modern engine, which now claims our attention, is the result of numerous successive improvements. The application of steam as a motive power was probably originally made by Hero, who, 150 B.C., constructed, or at least described, an Æolipile. This was a hollow sphere with hollow bent arms attached; when water placed inside the sphere was heated, and steam generated, it issued from the arms, and reacting on the air caused the sphere to rotate. A model of this, the primogenitor of the modern steam-engine, can be bought at many opticians’ shops for about one shilling.

The commencement of the eighteenth century began the first steps towards the development of the modern form of engine. Savery and Newcomen made improvements, which were perfected by James Watt, who was born at Glasgow in 1737. Amongst other valuable improvements he first contrived to convert the reciprocating motion into a rotary one by means of the crank. In the year 1800 Watt retired from business, leaving the steam-engine in much the same condition as we find it now. The application of steam-power for locomotion on both land and water followed, and now stationary, locomotive, and marine engines, driven by steam, are distributed all over the civilised world.

The varieties of model engines are in many cases indicated by their names. Stationary engines are intended to be fixed, as those used for driving machinery. Locomotives are those which are intended to travel by steam, and are self-moving. Marine engines are those used to propel ships. Of these three classes we shall deal only with the first and third in the present chapter. Locomotives are much more complicated in their construction, and consequently are more difficult to make.

Horizontal engines are those having the cylinder lying with its axis in a horizontal position. Vertical engines have the cylinder upright; sometimes they are designated by the latter adjective. Beam engines have an oscillating beam; one end is connected to the piston and the other to a rod which drives the crank. Cylinders are single-acting when the steam is admitted only at one end, and consequently with these the crank is only propelled during half of its rotation. Double-acting cylinders are provided with valves which admit the steam at each end of the cylinder alternately. Oscillating cylinders are fitted to oscillate with the motion of the crank, and the steam-valves are usually contrived to act by this oscillating motion. Slide-valve cylinders have a sliding valve, worked by a rod connected to an eccentric on the crank shaft, which opens the steam ports to alternately admit live steam and exhaust at both ends of the cylinder. Slide-valve cylinders are invariably double-acting.

Boilers, which are the vessels in which water is converted into steam, are usually described by their shape and position. They may be cylindrical, spherical, etc., and horizontal or vertical. The construction also forms a distinguishing characteristic. Tubes are usually inserted in the boiler to convey the heat from the fire. These tubes—which are more properly called flues, especially in large boilers—vary in number from one of large gauge to scores of small ones, thus naming the respective boilers single-flue or multiflue. It may be advisable to mention here that tubular boilers are those in which the water circulates in the tubes, and the fire impinges on the outer surface. When the fire operates inside the tube it is called a flue. A tube carries water; a flue carries flame and the volatile products of combustion.

Boilers, or steam generators, that are used to contain the water which, when converted into steam, drives the engine, require to be sufficiently strong to withstand an internal or bursting pressure. This pressure is very great in high-pressure engines, but in models it is generally very low, and seldom exceeds twenty pounds to the square inch. The evaporating capacity of the boiler is according to the requirements of the engine it has to supply. The resistance of the piston to the steam shows the pressure at which it should be supplied. Boilers are generally tested, by means of a hydraulic pump, to stand a pressure at least double that at which it is intended to use them. It is unsafe to generate steam in any vessel that has not been properly tested. This fact cannot be too strongly impressed upon the mind of the reader.

Suppose a double-action cylinder, 1-inch bore and 2-inch stroke, is to make one hundred revolutions of the crank per minute, let us see how much steam will be wanted to drive it. The area of the piston is ·785 inch, and each revolution of the crank will require the cylinder to be filled twice—that is, one stroke in each direction. This will take a column of steam ·785 inch in diameter and 4 inches long for each revolution, or 314 cubic inches of steam per minute. If the speed is greater, the quantity of steam must be increased proportionately; and when running at the rate of one thousand revolutions per minute—a speed often attained—3,140 cubic inches of steam will be wanted to supply the cylinder. That is at the rate of about 100 cubic feet per hour.

The pressure of the steam has not yet been taken into account, but it obviously forms a most important factor in the calculation. Water in an open vessel boils at a temperature of 212° Fahr. Provided that the vessel allows the steam to escape freely, all the heat that can be applied will only generate steam at the same pressure, though it will escape faster. As the bubbles of steam ascend to the surface they escape, having only the pressure of the atmosphere to overcome. When water is confined in a closed vessel, like the boiler of a steam-engine, the temperature may be raised to considerably above the usual boiling-point. The heat is always proportionate to the pressure, and steam at a pressure of 120 lb. per square inch is equivalent to the heat represented by 345° Fahr.

A correct knowledge of the fact that pressure depends on temperature cannot be urged too strongly on the mind of the model engineer. In many model boilers it is quite impossible to raise the heat sufficiently to produce an adequate pressure. Boiling water at 212° Fahr. does not produce any available pressure of steam, it merely counterbalances the weight of the atmosphere, which is 15 lb. to the square inch. By increasing the heat, which can only be done in a closed vessel, available pressure is obtained. Thus 228° = 5 lb., 241° = 10 lb., 251° = 15 lb., and so on. The steam, and the water from which it is generated, and with which it remains in contact, have both the same temperature.

A cubic foot of water weighs 62·5 lb., and it will produce 882 cubic feet of steam, at a pressure of 15 lb. to the square inch above the normal atmospheric pressure; this is equal to a temperature of 251° Fahr. If the pressure is raised to 150 lb., which requires a temperature of 371°, only 187 cubic feet of steam will be produced. Steam is elastic, and hence the more it is compressed the greater will be its force. If one cubic inch of steam, at a pressure of 30 lb., is admitted into a cylinder, and the supply cut off when half filled, the steam will expand till it has filled the cavity, and in increasing its bulk twofold its force will diminish in inverse ratio. The pressure will therefore diminish to 15 lb. to the square inch. The expansive force of steam is always at work on the piston of the engine, and it varies in accordance with the arrangement of the valves.

Let us now trace the effect of the steam when admitted to the cylinder. When the governor valve is opened the steam flows along the pipe to the slide valve chest, and if one of the ports are open it reaches the cylinder. In traversing the pipes which conduct it to the cylinder the steam is cooled considerably and its force diminished. In course of time the parts become heated to a certain extent, and then the loss of power is less. When the steam enters the cylinder it at once exerts a certain force on the piston. This has the effect of turning the crank shaft, and in due course the slide valve closes the steam inlet. Now the steam within the cylinder acts expansively, and continues to drive the crank shaft to the end of the stroke. Then the exhaust port is opened, and allows the spent or dead steam to escape. At the same time the inlet at the other end is opened and the live steam rushes in and exerts its full pressure on the piston, causing it to travel in the opposite direction. The opening and shutting of the steam ports is effected by an eccentric on the crank shaft. In treating of the construction of these parts, the relative sizes will be given and the correct motion explained.

II.—A Simple Toy Engine.

The most simple form of toy engine is that [illustrated] herewith. It consists of a tin boiler, a single-action oscillating cylinder, and a fly-wheel. These parts are sold ready for putting together at a very low price, and a complete engine may be bought for a couple of shillings, though one of ‘superior make’ at twice that sum is by far a preferable investment.

Fig. 1.

Fig. 2.

The [drawing] represents the most simple way of constructing a steam-engine, and, if the workmanship is fairly good, a working model will be produced. First is the boiler; a tin box 1³⁄₄ in. deep and 2 in. in diameter, will serve for this. The joint at the side should be made by folding the edges of metal over each other, and then soldering. The top and bottom are both soldered on their respective places, steam-tight, of course. The top of the boiler must be provided with small bosses of metal, soldered on the inner side, into which the pillar ([Fig. 3]) and the safety-valve ([Fig. 5]) are screwed.

The tin plate is not sufficiently thick to afford a hold for the thread on the pillar and valve. A disc of brass, say the size of a sixpence, and ¹⁄₈ in. thick, is soldered on the under side of the lid, and the holes, which are tapped to receive the pillar and valve, are bored and threaded before the lid is fixed. By this means a strong hold is secured for the fittings. The screw plug A ([Fig. 1]) is similarly provided for. When each piece is screwed into its place a little hemp or cotton, placed between the shoulder of the ‘fitting’ and the surface of the tin plate, will assist to ensure a steam-tight joint.

The standard or pillar is brass, about 2 in. long from end to end. Any form may be given to it, according to fancy, the one shown in [Fig. 2] being perhaps as good as any. The lower part is circular, ¹⁄₂ in. in diameter, and it has a flat face on one side, against which the valve face of the cylinder works. [Fig. 3] shows this. The centre of the pillar is bored up in the middle of the screwed part to meet one of the holes a b, it is immaterial which. The other hole is bored right through the pillar to the opposite side, and forms the exhaust port, the one communicating with the central hole in the pillar being the steam port. For the sake of distinction we will suppose that a is bored into the central hole, and b is bored through the pillar; then, when the pillar is screwed on to the boiler, and steam is generated, it issues from the port hole a.