AUGENER’S EDITION, No. 9212.

HANDBOOK
OF
VIOLIN PLAYING

BY
Prof. CARL SCHROEDER

TRANSLATED AND EDITED BY
J. MATTHEWS

WITH AN APPENDIX CONSISTING OF A
GUIDE THROUGH VIOLIN LITERATURE
AND A CHAPTER ON THE VIOLA

FOURTH EDITION

AUGENER Ltd.

LONDON

Printed in England.

CONTENTS.

PART I.
The instrument.

Origin of the violin.

The invention of stringed instruments is certainly of great antiquity, but exact information with regard to the origin of the violin has not come down to us. Although stringed instruments were in use before Christian times, we know that these had nothing in common with the violin, or that at any rate the bow was not then known. It is therefore presumed that its invention and use in connection with stringed instruments occurred in the first century of the Christian era.

Many are, notwithstanding, of the opinion that the use of the bow was known in pre-Christian times,—in India and in Persia. Pictures of Indian and Persian bowed instruments exist, but the period when they were employed is not exactly known. [See Fig. a and b] of page 2.

The oldest violins

known are those of the Tyrolese Lute maker Gaspard Duiffopruggar (Tieffenbrucker), made in the 16ᵗʰ century. A few of these instruments remain to the present day, and are noticeable on account of their fine, clear tone, as well as for the neatness and elegance of their workmanship.

Development of the violin.

After Duiffopruggar the following makers were those who chiefly laboured to perfect the violin:—Gaspard da Salo (middle of the 17ᵗʰ century), Giovanni Paolo Maggini (1590-1640), Andreas Amati (1520-1580), his sons Antonius and Hieronymus Amati, the son of the latter, Nicolas Amati (1596-1684), the pupils of the same: Jacob Stainer (1621-1683) and Antonius Stradivarius (1644-1737). Of the Amati violins, those of Nicolas Amati are the best; the most perfect specimens of violin making, at present unsurpassed, were made by Stradivarius. In his instruments everything is perfected, — tone, model, varnish, etc.

a. Rabab—Arabian bowed instrument
(of Persian origin).
b. Raba—Indian violin.

After Stradivarius the finest violins are those of his pupil Joseph Guarnerius del Gesu (1683-1745), and there are many of them which rank with those of Stradivarius. To the Guarnerius family of violin makers belong Andreas Guarnerius, pupil of Amati (middle of the 17ᵗʰ century), his son Joseph Guarnerius (1680-1730), Peter Guarnerius and the son of the elder (Andreas) Guarnerius (1725-1740). The names Stradivarius and Joseph Guarnerius mark the highest achievement of violin making, and to the present day none have succeeded in surpassing them. Of other Italian violin makers who have furnished us with good instruments may be mentioned Alessandro Gagliano (1695-1725), Carlo Bergonzi (1712-1750), Laurentius Guadagnini (close of the 17ᵗʰ and beginning of the 18ᵗʰ century), Joh. Bapt. Guadagnini (1755-1785), Dominicus Montagnana (1715-1750), Vincent Ruggeri, Giov. Bapt. Ruggeri, and Peter Jacob Ruggeri (beginning of the 18ᵗʰ century). In France, good violins were made by Lupot (18ᵗʰ century), Gand, Bernardel (19ᵗʰ century) and Vuillaume (1798-1875). In Germany, besides Stainer and his pupil Albani of Botzen, Klotz, (father and son) 17ᵗʰ and 18ᵗʰ century in Mittenwalde; Witthalm (18ᵗʰ century, Nuremburg); Bausch (father and son, Leipsic, 1805-1871 and 1829-1871), Jacob Diehl (Hamburg). In England, B. Banks, Salisbury (1727-1795); R. Duke, London (1754-1780); Jacob Fendt and C. Harris (early part of the present century), and Matthew Hardie (Edinburgh), have left many good violins.

Prominent makers of the present day.

Good violins are made in the present day by Hammig in Leipsic; Reichers, Berlin; Schunemann, Schwerin; Pfab, Hamburg; Lenk, Frankfort; Reuner, Berlin; Roth, Markneukirchen, etc.

[In England excellent instruments have been and are being made by Hill, Hart, Chanot, E. Withers, and Boullangier, London; W. H. Mayson, Manchester; F. Devoney, Blackpool; J. Monk, Merton, Surrey; and others. In France, by Miquel, Foucher, Lotte; and in America, Gemunder. These have all produced serviceable instruments. Ability to judge properly the merits of a violin,—whether new or old,—comes only with experience; beginners should therefore before purchasing consult a player or teacher possessing the necessary knowledge. Violins by the same maker, to all appearance exactly alike, yet frequently differ greatly in tone quality, and an instrument of bad tone is a stumbling block in the path of progress, disheartening the learner. Tr.]

Attempts at improving the violin.

Many attempts have been made at improving the violin by altering its form and proportions, and by using other kinds of wood:—metal, glass, and porcelain violins have also been constructed. Experiments have been made with the bass bar, bridge, soundpost, etc., in endeavours to make a further advance in violin making; but all these attempts have yielded no results of importance. The most remarkable attempted alteration of latter days proceeds from the piano maker Hagspiel in Dresden, and consists in bending or arching the upper table of the violin instead of working it out, the sound-holes appearing as round openings in the ribs instead of in the upper surface. The tone of these violins is of surprising power and volume, but they demand a peculiar, and somewhat firm bowing; a heavier bow is also needed. The maker proceeds on the assumption that there exists, in modern orchestras a tonal gap between the string and the brass instrument. The tone of the stringed instruments is often quite overpowered by the predominating force of the wind instruments. This is especially noticeable in opera orchestras, where their space will seldom permit of more than 10 or 12 first violins, and the same number of second violins; for instance in the instrumentation of Wagner’s Nibelungen Ring. In its production the wind instruments need so much space in the orchestra, that instead of a corresponding increase in the number of the strings, they must often be lessened, naturally occasioning a want of balance. A selection of the instruments made by Herr Hagspiel,—violins, violas, violoncelli and double basses, would probably tend to lessen this disproportion, as one of them yields at least as much tone as two of the ordinary instruments. By sufficient familiarity with the method of using them, the tone might be made to blend uniformly with that of the other instruments in passages of a light and soft character. In any case the inventor has thrown out a suggestion, and made a beginning towards preparing the way for a correct balance of tone in the orchestra, and his idea therefore deserves consideration. The author is not aware if practical experiment in the orchestra has been made with these instruments, but it should certainly give some advantageous result.

Another invention has been produced recently by Herr Christopher Scheinert in Berlin. It consists of a vibrating hammer or tongue for stringed instruments. This is a little instrument placed under the bridge of the violin, so that, (it being furnished with a slender hammer), elastic metal tongues vibrate freely between the upper table and the strings. The vibrating hammer is set in motion through the strings by the bow, through which simultaneous movement the power of the instrument is increased, and the tone colour elicited. Experts have tested the contrivance, declaring it to be a happy idea.

Professor H. Ritter’s invention of the normal three-footed bridge must also be mentioned. Assuming that the bridge in use for centuries, with its prescribed feet, does not fully convey the vibrations of the strings to the upper table,—the two middle strings sounding feebler than the outer,—Prof. Ritter has made a middle point of contact between the bridge and the upper table. This inner support is intended to make the middle strings sound with the same intensity as the outer ones.

In his pamphlet on the subject (Wurzburg, G. Herz), Herr Ritter demonstrates that his three-footed bridge has not only an aesthetic significance, but claims consideration scientifically.[1]

Attempts to discover the secrets of measurement
of the Italian violin makers.

For a long period violin making was restricted (deviations such as the experiments explained above, notwithstanding) to imitating the first Italian masters of the art, and endeavouring to equal them. But so conscientious and true in all their parts and contents is the workmanship of the Italian instruments that this has not been attained. A very general opinion is, that certain secrets in instrument making were known to the Italian masters but have become lost, and many have made the attempt to re-discover these secrets. A maker in Aix la Chapelle, named Niederheitmann, a violin amateur, possessing a collection rich in valuable old violins, believed the mystery to be discovered, and that it consisted in impregnating the wood. The substance used was a species of pine found in the vicinity of Cremona, or the instrument was mainly built of this wood. This pine (balsam pine) became quite decayed by the drying up of its resin, and thereby the key to the enigma why in spite of the closest imitation the old Italian tone was not arrived at, was found. This pine exists no longer in Italy, and thus was to be explained the reason why notwithstanding the closest copying of existing instruments, the old Italian tone quality was not reproduced. A friend of Niederheitmann’s, Concertmeister Henry Schradieck (formerly of Leipsic) interested himself greatly in this discovery, and having obtained through a chemist a similar resinous substance, made, with the aid of Herr Hammig in Leipsic many trials with this impregnation, from which a remarkable result was to be got, but which was not of long duration. Herr Schradieck, who went later to America, knowing that the balsam pine still grew there, did not rest until he found this tree, believing that instruments made from it would again approach the old Italians. Several violins were found already made with balsam pine wood, but the brilliant expectations that were cherished were not fulfilled.

Points of note in the old Italian violins.

Maggini violins. These instruments are of large outline. The upper table is highly arched and the arching rises somewhat suddenly from the edges. The wood of the upper table is thick and very good. The back, compared to the upper table is less thick. The wood of the back is taken slab-wise (the trunk of the tree being cut in layers across the whole breadth).[2] The sides are shallow. The varnish is thin, transparent, and of a clear brown colour. The purfling is frequently doubled; and spread over the back in arabesques. The tone of the Maggini violins is full and heavy, resembling the viola quality. The ticket is as follows:—

Andreas Amati. These are mostly of small model. The upper table is of good, fairly thick wood, and very highly arched towards the middle. The back is cut on the slab. The varnish is brown and transparent. The tone is delicate and not powerful.

Antonius and Hieronymus Amati. The violins issued as the work of the two brothers in partnership are much esteemed. More instruments of small than of large size were, however, produced by them. The upper table is highly curved, and has towards the edges a groove or furrow. The wood of the back and of the ribs cut slab-wise. The varnish resembles that of Andreas Amati’s violins. The tone is also small. The label runs:—

Nicolas Amati. These instruments are distinguished from those of the other Amati violins by a grander appearance, better and thicker varnish, and a more brilliant and penetrating tone. The scroll is somewhat small in proportion to the body. Label:—

Stradivarius. In the career of Stradivarius three periods may be traced, and the violins proceeding from each, of these distinct periods themselves vary more or less. The instruments of the first period differ but little from Amati violins, and are classified as being of the school of Nicolas Amati. The instruments of the second period are already quite different from the first. The whole model is larger, the arching finer, the wood of the upper table and also of the back is stronger, and the varnish redder in colour. From the third period proceeded the finest violins that are in existence. The model is again somewhat larger, the upper table is flatter, the wood of the back and of the ribs instead of being cut on the layers in slab form (sur couche), is taken on the quarter (sur maille). The varnish is still more brilliant, yet soft looking, and so transparent that the beauty of the wood underneath it is fully brought out. The f holes are wonderfully cut, and the entire work is finely finished in every detail. The tone fulfils every possible requirement, it is of great power and body, sparkling, noble, and yet sympathetic and sweet. The violins made in the last years of Stradivarius reveal the weakness pertaining to old age. The tone is still fine, but the workmanship is altogether inferior. From this time forward, when the arching is more prominent, and the varnish darker, the beauty of the tone is diminished. Label:—

Labels of various other Italian makers:—

Imitations of old Italian violins.

The old Italian violins have been so closely copied by many makers, with regard to model, wood, varnish and appearance of age, that it is difficult to discriminate between the genuine and the spurious. It is still more difficult when the copy possesses a fine quality of tone. It needs a practised, keen eye to determine the genuineness or spuriousness of an instrument, and it may well be that many, believing themselves to have bought a real old Italian instrument, have only obtained an imitation thereof. The inside ticket has of itself been closely copied, and may be purchased in sheets.

Constituent parts of the violin.

Exterior.

The most important part is the upper table or belly (a). The other parts are the ribs or sides (b), the back (c), the neck (d), the head comprising the scroll and peg box (e), the pegs (f), the finger board (g), the bridge (h), the tailpiece (i), the button[3] (k), the nut (l), and the f or sound-holes (m). The interior of the violin contains the soundpost and the bass bar.

Interior.

Function of the Soundpost
and the bass bar.

The soundpost, placed underneath the right foot of the bridge (a little way behind it) supports the upper table against the pressure of the strings upon the bridge, and the bass bar serves a similar purpose under the left foot of the bridge. The sound post, by connecting the upper table with the back, sets the entire instrument into vibration, and by its help the sound waves radiate to all parts.

Position of the Bridge

The bridge must stand on the middle of the upper table so that both feet are in line with the nicks of the f holes. Through the forward pull of the strings,—increased during playing,—the bridge has a tendency to bend forward. To avoid this one must frequently watch, and pull it backward, yet keeping the feet in the same place. The bridge may be fixed sloping somewhat backward rather than forward.[4]

Amount of pressure upon
the upper table.

Through the combined influence of the strain and pressure of the strings upon the upper table, it supports a weight of about 100 lbs. Against this burden, this, in other respects, fragile instrument, opposes a wonderful power of resistance, an example of its ingenious yet simple construction.

Size of the violin.

The violin measures in the length of its body 14 in., in breadth in the upper part 6⁹/₁₀ in., in the lower 8³/₁₆ in. The top height of sides 1³/₁₆ in.; bottom height of sides 1¼ in. Three sizes are distinguished,—“full”, “three-quarter”, and “half” size. These last serve for children.

The wood of the violin.

The upper table is made of pine. This must be very old, dry, compact, straight in grain, whereby the choice of suitable wood is rendered difficult. For the back, ribs, neck and bridge, maple is used. The sound post and bass bar consist usually of pine. For the fingerboard and pegs[5], ebony is the most serviceable.

The old Italian violin makers procured their pine wood from Italian Switzerland, and from the South Tyrol; maple from Croatia, Dalmatia, and Turkey.

The varnish.

This is of great importance for the instrument. In the first place it preserves it from the influence of the weather, and then it also has its influence upon the tone. A fine varnish must be transparent, so that the wood underneath may be fully shown up, and it must also be of a fine, but not glaring or staring, colour. The finest varnish is found on the violins of Stradivarius. Two kinds of varnish are used,—spirit varnish,—a gum dissolved in alcohol; and oil varnish,—a gum dissolved in oil of turpentine.

The strings.

Violin strings are made from the intestines of sheep. The lowest string has fine wire spun round it, silver wire being the best. Copper wire is greatly used, it being much cheaper. The best strings are obtained from Italy, from Rome, Padua, and Naples, although very good strings are also manufactured in Germany, at Markneukirchen. The value of a string consists principally in its perfect equality of thickness throughout; above all, there must not be knots in it. A string spun quite evenly yields accurate vibrations, and is on this account pure in tone.

In order to test the purity of tone of each string, it may be held as shown at both ends, pulling it rather tight, and then setting it into vibration with one of the fingers. If it appears double, thus:—

it possesses a pure tone; if, however, it appears threefold,—if only at one part of it,—it will be false.

Strings pure in fifths.

To obtain absolutely pure intonation, the strings must be pure in fifths, i. e., the notes in those higher positions which are pressed by one finger across two strings, must sound perfectly true. Many strings are rather thicker at one end than at the other; if this is not also the case with the adjacent string, or if the thicker end of it be not stretched in the same direction as the other string, then the two are not true in fifths with each other. Both strings must therefore lie from one end to the other regular in thickness, or else their thin ends must be laid in one direction.[6] In the latter case, however, all the harmonic notes are not true, and one also notices that the intervals in double-stopping generally, as well as in fifths, are not regular upon all the strings. A treatment is in vogue by makers of strings and instruments by means of which the strings are rendered quite pure in fifths. These prepared strings are, however, not so durable, nor so good in tone, as the unprepared. But it is of service to have always a few of these in readiness, as the violinist has not always time enough to select those strings which are true. Weichhold, Dresden, supplies strings pure in fifths, which may be recommended.

The string guage.

In order always to have strings of the same thickness, a string guage is used, which may be procured at any instrument maker.[7]

String guage.

Care of the strings.

That the strings may be kept fresh, it is advisable to wrap them in oil paper and then preserve them in a close, air-tight tin box. In this way they may be preserved in fit condition for a year or more.

The bow.

This received its name from its ancient form, which has undergone many alterations before the present form was arrived at.

The greatest improvement in the bow was attained by the Frenchman, Tourte, at the end of the 18th century. His bows possess the greatest elasticity and firmness, and are, in consequence, the most successful. After Tourte, Vuillaume in Paris, John Dodd in England, and L. Bausch in Leipsic, have made the best bows. At present the most celebrated bow makers are Tubbs in London, Knopf in Dresden, and Voirin in Paris. French bows are most in request, although many of them are made in Germany, sent en gros to Paris, stamped there as French, and issued to the world as of Parisian make.

Constituent parts of the bow.

These are (a) the stick, (b) the hair, (c) the nut, (d) the screw, (e) the head or point, (f) the lapping.

The stick is made of Pernambuco or Brazil wood; the hair is white horse hair, that taken from living horses being the best, though less often obtained. The screw serves to give the stick its proper curve. The lapping helps to give the fingers a firmer hold, avoiding contact with the smooth stick. Silk, silver wire, or leather is used for the lapping.[8]

Resin.

To set the strings in vibration, the hair of the bow must be rubbed with resin. Its German name “Kolophonium” is derived from the Grecian town Kolophon, from whence it was first procured. The unprepared hair of a new bow requires a small quantity of powdered resin rubbed into it. Before the bow is used, the hair should be tried upon some instrument not in use, or upon a stretched string. During the ordinary rubbing upon the hair, care must be taken that the resin is not rubbed hard, but allowed to glide lightly over the hair.

It is very usual to hold the resin with the left and the bow with the right hand. In this way the fingers of the left hand become sticky with resin dust, which is detrimental to the stopping, and also soils the strings and fingerboard. It is better, therefore, to reverse this procedure. Good resin is supplied by Gand and Bernadel in Paris, Hammig in Leipsic, Pfab and Diel in Hamburg, and others. The most suitable holders are those which open on two sides, and are also provided with a cover.[9]

Violin cases.

A good violin is worthy of a good case, to protect it against dust and damp. It should be so filled that the violin lies in it securely, and yet may be easily taken out. A leather covering for the case is also convenient, by means of which the effects of any sudden shock are minimised. The best cases are mostly obtained from Paris, though some very good ones are made in Markneukirchen.

Prices of violins.

It is not easy to state the exact price of a violin, especially of an old one, and here particular fancy and habit come also into the question. The best old Italian violins, such as those by Stradivarius and Guarnerius, are in our own time excessively dear, often £300 to £1000, and even more. Stradivarius received for his violins about 4 Louis d’or. Amati violins are considerably less, costing from £150 to £300. Other old Italian violins, if in fine condition, cost £30 and upwards. New violins by celebrated makers may cost from £15 to £30, yet one can often get a very useful instrument for from 50/- upwards.

Prices of Violin cases.

Cases cost from 5/- to £3, the latter price including a leather covering.

Prices of bows.

The bows of Tourte now cost £25 and upward. New silver mounted bows of best quality cost about 30/-, mounted in German silver about 18/-. Inferior qualities may be had from 3/- upward. The worth of a bow to its possessor consists in its firmness and elasticity, and in its proving fit to execute every kind of bowing with certainty.

Care of the instrument.

The instrument must always be kept clean and in order; every part should always be in proper condition. The dust from the resin must, every time after playing, be wiped from the upper table, fingerboard and bridge with a soft cloth. The strings, fingerboard and neck are then rubbed with an old silk handkerchief, taking care not to rub the strings to and fro, but always in one direction, else small fibres may be loosened. If the strings are dirty through perspiring fingers, the upper three strings may be rubbed with a little neats’ foot oil or almond oil, or a notched almond may be used. The G string may be cleaned with spirits or by rubbing with fine (No. 1) glass paper. The encrustation of resin upon the surface of the strings may be removed with spirits, observing that nothing drops upon the upper table, to injure the varnish.

To keep the neck quite smooth it may be occasionally rubbed with pulverized pumice stone put into a little muslin bag.[10]

The dust that accumulates inside the violin may be removed by warming some very fine gravel or grains of wheat, and throwing them inside. The instrument is then shaken about, and on shaking the grains out again through the f holes, the dust comes away also. To make the pegs work easily and yet hold fast, they must frequently be rubbed with dry soap and then with chalk, where they come in contact with the peg box.

Cleaning the hair of the bow.

If dirty, unscrew the nut from the stick, and wash the hair with warm water and soap. Then rinse in cold water, and hang up the bow to dry. When again screwed up, powdered resin is rubbed into the hair with a little brush. Spots of grease are extracted by rubbing with salt in blotting paper, or by a hot iron with blotting paper wrapped around it.

Naming and tuning of the strings.

The four strings of the violin are tuned in perfect fifths. The first is the E string (1ᵃ), the second the A (2ᵈᵃ), the third the D (3ᵃ), and the fourth the G (4ᵃ). The usual practice, when the pitch of the A is determined, is to tune the D to it, the G to that, and lastly the E to the A.[11]

Compass of the violin.

The compass of the violin extends over about 4½ octaves. In the orchestra to this extent at most:—

PART II.
The technique of violin playing.

Attitude of the player.

When playing from notes the player places himself opposite the desk a little to the left, so that the violin does not hide the notes from view. The body should be erect, but not stiffly so. The right foot is put outward, the left straight, so that the toes are in a line. The weight of the body must rest chiefly on the left foot.

Holding the violin.

Chin-rest.

The violin is held with the left hand and rests on the left collar bone. The instrument must be horizontal. To give a firm grip, a small pad is often placed between the violin and the left shoulder. A chin-rest screwed to the ribs, and covering a part of the upper table, is also to be recommended. The chin-rest serves also to protect the varnish.

To prove that the violin is held securely and well, the left hand may be removed.

Position of the left hand and the left arm.

The left hand is placed so that the neck of the violin is held between the lower joint of the thumb and the third of the index finger. The neck must not be gripped, but lightly held[12], and care taken that between the neck and that part of the hand which connects the thumb and first finger, there is an open space. The inner part of the hand is kept away from the fingerboard, so that the fingers may fall upon the strings from above. The position of the left arm must be such as to bring the elbow far enough to the right to place it underneath the middle of the violin. To attain a correct manner of holding, place the first finger on

the second on the 2ⁿᵈ note of the A string,

the third on the D string,

and the fourth on the G string,

so that the fingers lie as follows:

The fingers being lifted simultaneously, and allowed to remain in position over the strings, the position of the hand will be correct.

Holding the bow.

The thumb is placed with its fleshy part close to the projection from the curved part of the nut, taking care that the middle knuckle is not bent inward, but always in an outward direction. The second joint of the index finger must rest against the stick. The middle finger is placed opposite the thumb upon the stick, whereupon the other two fingers follow, close to these. The little finger will then about rest with the lower part of its point on the stick.

Position of the right hand and arm.

The right hand must project somewhat forward, and above the bow, and must be suitably arched. The carriage of the arm must be light, and the elbow not prominently lifted. When playing on the lower strings, the position of the hand and the lower part of the arm will naturally be higher.

Testing the position.

Having succeeded in acquiring a firm hold of the instrument and of the bow, it is best to examine before a looking-glass the attitude of the whole body, which must be natural and unconstrained. The body and head should be held erect, the shoulders somewhat back. When beginning to draw the bow across the strings the manner of holding should be examined and corrected after every stroke before proceeding further.

Bowing.

The bow is placed on the string at the nut, or lower part of the bow, the stick being tilted towards the fingerboard. The bow must be drawn steadily to its point, and exactly parallel with the bridge, whereby the wrist is compelled to move, and at the end of the stroke, on reaching the point of the bow, sinks so that the little finger only rests at its extreme tip upon the stick.

The upper arm is so held that with down strokes the elbow remains below the shoulder, until a third of the bow is left over. If the production of a louder tone is desired, the bowing is made closer to the bridge and in piano passages further away from it. The necessary power for producing louder tone is obtained only from the thumb, index finger, and wrist and the fore-arm is held as independently as possible of the upper arm.

Principal signs used for the left hand
and for the Bowing.

Use of the down and up bows.

As a rule, in every piece beginning with a full bar a down bow is used for the first note, and in a piece beginning with a single stroke on the up-beat (unaccented beat) or an up-beat consisting of several notes bound together, legato, the up bow is used. If the up-beat contains several notes, it must be so arranged that the last of these is played with an up bow. For example:—

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Exceptions to the rule of beginning a full bar with a down bow often occur; for instance, if the first bar begins piano, gradually to forte, as in the opening of the Freischütz overture:—

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Here one begins with the up bow, because afterwards at the nut end more power can be brought to bear, thus bringing the forte into effect. A further example of exceptional treatment is the beginning of the Euryanthe overture:—

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Equally there are exceptions to the rule of beginning up-beats with the up bow:—

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The first bowing exercises.

The violin being properly held, and the entire attitude being correct in every particular, the fingers of the left hand are placed on the strings as follows:—

Upon lifting them, let them remain over the strings in the same position.

The open strings are then bowed, and preferably at first the D string.

After each bow, let a pause be observed, to examine every detail of the position, and to revise it. The bowing exercises on the open strings are to be continued until at last notes varying in value from semibreves to crotchets are played with ease and certainty, and an even tone of good quality produced. The first bowing exercises are usually as follows:—

Each of these exercises should also be played upon the other strings. The exercise in minims and crotchets in half strokes and in the middle.

Placing the fingers.

The first exercise consists in setting the first finger on all the strings in succession, then the second in conjunction with the first, the third in conjunction with the other two, and finally the fourth is added.

In the same manner on the other strings. If one desires to remain in the key of C[13], the first finger when on the E string must be drawn back a semitone to stop F, and on the G string, the 2ⁿᵈ finger must be put forward a semitone to play the note B. The remaining notes are stopped alike on all the strings. It is better at first not to adhere to the scale, but to stop the notes of the other strings as shown above on the D string; thus producing the following tones:—

Next must be practised the putting back of the first, and the advancing of the second fingers on all the strings, then the advancing and withdrawal of all the fingers. Example:—

The fingers must so descend upon the strings that the first joint stands perpendicularly upon them. The pressure of the fingers upon the strings must always be in excess of the pressure of the bow. According to one’s playing, whether forcible or light, so the pressure of the finger is increased or decreased. In slow movements and long notes only that finger is pressed down which has to play the note. The others are lifted, yet so that each one is suspended exactly over its proper place. In ascending scale passages in quick time, the fingers are allowed to remain; in descending passages, one finger is lifted at a time. The observance of this rule greatly facilitates true intonation in descending scale passages, as, each finger being already in its place upon the note to be played, these places have not again to be separately found. There are, however, exceptions which will come under notice later. After the setting back of the first finger and the putting forward of the second finger have been successfully practised, the “free”[14] setting of the 2ⁿᵈ, 3ʳᵈ, and 4ᵗʰ fingers follows.

All the notes in regular order from the open G on the G string to B on the E string must now be played.

To attain certainty of fingering in the lower position, one of these two methods must next be adopted. Either intervals—thirds, fourths, fifths, sixths, sevenths, and octaves from each note on each string, in C major, must now be practised, or all the major and minor scales may next be played, with the practice of the intervals in all the keys. Choice must be made as to which method of study be next pursued, according to the individuality and intelligence of the learner.

Practice of intervals in C major:

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Here great care must be taken to distinguish between the differences that exist in these intervals, whether the 3ʳᵈ is minor or major; the fifth perfect or imperfect, etc.

Simultaneously with the practice of intervals for the left hand, bowing exercises for the passing of the bow from one string to another must be taken, also skipping over a string as in sevenths and octaves. The scales, and, later, intervals and chords, must likewise be studied with various bowings and also legato. First, two notes should be taken to one bow, then gradually more, also with single notes and bound notes mixed. The practice of intervals may now be extended to the following.

Chord exercises in arpeggio form.

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Stretching the little finger.

To reach the C in the second octave with the little finger,—whose natural position on the E string is on the note B,—it must be stretched, care being taken to avoid moving the wrist and altering the whole position of the hand.

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The various kinds of bowing.

These are best classified into “primary” bowings (Grund-Bogenstriche) of which there are six different examples, and “secondary” bowings (Neben-Bogenstriche).

Primary bowings.

1. The rapid detached stroke with the whole bow (Grand detaché). This is executed in such a manner that the bow moves quickly from its nut to its point, and back again in the same line,—parallel to the bridge. Between each stroke there must be a pause, but during it the bow must not leave the string. It must be so quickly executed that a crotchet is made to sound like a semiquaver.

Rendering:—

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The stick must be firmly held between the thumb and the first and second fingers. The elbow, at the commencement of the down stroke must rest close to the body, and, on reaching the point of the bow, not be raised above the stick. Especial care is needed in order to make the up strokes equal in power to the down strokes.

2. The “singing” stroke. Also executed with the whole bow. The first contact must be delicate, and the single tones must follow each other without interruption. The player, drawing the bow quite parallel with the bridge, must press more and more as the point is reached. At the change of stroke, the wrist makes a slight movement, and the elbow assumes the same positions as in the previous grand detaché bowing.

3. The detached hammered (martellato) bowing. This stroke is chiefly made at the point of the bow, which must not leave the string. With every note the stick is pressed or pushed by the thumb in the direction of the index finger, so that each tone is sharply cut out, but with a musical quality. The up strokes must receive a stronger pressure.

This bowing can also be played at the nut end, and of course entirely with the wrist, which must be held lightly over the strings. The elbow must be tolerably close to the body. The martelé bowing is an excellent preparatory study for staccato, which is really only one out of a number of martelé notes taken in one bow.

Rendering:—

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4. Detached stroke with the fore-arm. As indicated by its name, is executed by the fore-arm and the wrist, and from the middle to the point of the bow. The upper arm must remain quite still. In this bowing no pause must be made between the notes, but they must be connected easily and agreeably together.

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5. The “skipping” stroke. This stroke is made at the middle of the bow, which must be lightly held between the fingers and controlled by the wrist. The stick is made to vibrate strongly, whereby the bow is caused to move up and down. It is difficult to attain an agreement between the placing of the fingers and the skipping movement of the stick, for which reason this bowing must first be practised on one note:—

Afterwards several notes may be taken on one string, then on the different strings.

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6. The rebounding or springing (sautillé) bow. This bowing differs from the foregoing in that the bow rebounds from the string after each note, and is then permitted to fall upon it again from above. In order to avoid too great dryness or hardness in the tone, the bow when falling on the string must be gently controlled.

Rendering:—

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Secondary bowings.

1. The bound, or legato bowing. In this, as many notes are played at one stroke as may be found connected by the curved legato sign, or as necessitated by the phrasing. In passing from one string to another the wrist will require special watchfulness.

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2. The staccato stroke. This is, as already stated, a series of martelé notes taken in one bow, and must first be slowly practised with the up bow, to the point, and with a free wrist; the thumb only exerting a slight pressure upon the stick. The staccato is also executed with the down bow, beginning near the nut.

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3. The springing staccato stroke. This consists of a series of rebounding notes (“Primary bowing” No. 6) taken in one bow, and can be rendered both by the up and the down bows.[15]

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4. The Tremolo is a succession of quick notes in very short strokes, and is executed with a loose wrist, the upper half of the bow lying upon the strings.

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Another species of Tremolo is the following:—

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Here two notes are included in one bow, thus causing it to resemble the skipping stroke. Only the upper half of the bow is used, and it is held lightly with the thumb and first two fingers.

5. The Ponticello. This is executed with the bow lying quite close to the bridge, whereby the tone becomes somewhat nasal. When so produced by the whole string orchestra it often makes a fine effect.

6. Flautando. Also with the bow resting on the string, but, unlike the foregoing bowing, it is executed just over the fingerboard. The notes so played yield a delicate flute-like quality of tone.

Arpeggi.

By arpeggi is meant the intervals of a chord in quick succession. These may be extended over three or four strings with the most varied bowings and rhythms. Particular care must be taken to keep the wrist flexible.[16]

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The Vibrato or close shake

is a trembling similar to the vibrato of a vocalist. Employed occasionally and with discretion it is of good effect. On the violin it is produced by setting the finger in tremulous movement upon the string, so that the pitch slightly rises and falls. Only the thumb and the finger in use must participate in the holding of the instrument. There is no special sign for the close shake in general use, its employment depending upon the player’s taste. Sometimes it is indicated by the word vibrato.[17]

The Trill.

The trill is an even alternation,—usually quick,—of two adjacent notes and may be executed on all the notes of the violin. The note played alternately with the principal note may be either a tone or a half tone distant. The trill is made both with and without a turn at the end. The turn is played in one bow with the shake, and at the same speed. Exceptions exist in shakes ending with a full close. In a series of shakes the turn is reserved for the last:—

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Various kinds of turns:—

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