COTTON MANUFACTURING.

SINGLE-ACTION JACQUARD LOOM. Frontispiece.

COTTON
MANUFACTURING.

BY

C. P. BROOKS,

Examiner to the City and Guilds of London Institute; Sen. Honours Medallist, Cotton Manufacturing, 1887; Late Lecturer on Cotton Spinning, Weaving, and Designing, at the Blackburn Technical Institutions.

WITH OVER EIGHTY ILLUSTRATIONS.

Third Edition.

BLACKBURN: C. P. BROOKS, THE MOUNT.
LONDON: E. & F. N. SPON, 125 STRAND,
AND
NEW YORK: 12 CORTLANDT STREET.
1892.

[All rights reserved.]

Cloth, crown 8vo, 3s. 6d.
Second Edition.
WEAVING CALCULATIONS.
BY THE SAME AUTHOR.

A Handbook on all Calculations required in
Weaving and the Preparatory Processes, including
Standard Wage Lists. For further
particulars see the end pages of this book.

PREFACE.

The lack of books relating to the weaving of cotton goods is the motive which has led to the production of this work. Although several admirable books are extant on special branches of textile industry, few, if any, works claim to treat practically of the whole range of processes popularly known as Cotton Manufacturing as at present conducted, and which, at the same time, are within reach of the artisan’s pocket.

This class of work is all the more requisite in consequence of the admirable system of trade education introduced by the City and Guilds of London Institute, whose syllabuses for the subjects of Cotton Manufacturing and Weaving and Pattern Designing are included in this work. It is hoped that the student in either of these subjects may find a handy book of reference in this volume, which goes into explanatory details to as great an extent as space allows.

However, as the author has found, and doubtless many others actively engaged in the industry have discovered, it is becoming a requisite in the mill that those employed there be possessed of something more than “rule of thumb” systems of working—that careful and intelligent research and investigation is necessary to success in every department. The writer trusts that this volume, based on practical experience and on the application of theoretical principles in the industry, may prove of assistance to such.

In addition to chapters on Weaving, in which reference is made to most of the plain and figured fabrics woven in cotton, space is devoted to the preparatory processes, especially to the important one of Sizing; a chapter on Mill Calculations is added, as well as a Glossary of Technical Terms—necessitated by the nomenclature of different districts.

Acknowledgment is made of the assistance rendered by many correspondents, whose suggestions have been, and will be, welcomed. The thanks of the author, and it may be added those of the reader, are due to the many firms who have lent blocks to illustrate and simplify the letterpress. Amongst these may be mentioned Messrs. David Sowden & Sons, Shipley; Butterworth & Dickinson, Burnley; J. H. Stott, Rochdale; Devoge & Co., Manchester; Willan & Mills; Ward Bros.; and W. Dickinson & Sons, Blackburn; whilst especial mention should be made of Messrs. Howard & Bullough, of Accrington, whose sizing machinery has been selected for description; and of Messrs. Hy. Livesey, Limited, Blackburn, whose well-known weaving and preparatory machinery is engraved.

C. P. B.

The Mount, Blackburn,
January, 1888.

PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION.

In this edition some necessary additions and alterations have been made, especially in the statistical portion of the work; and as the City and Guilds of London Institute have altered the Syllabus of the textile subjects during the few months that have elapsed since the publication of the First Edition, the old Syllabus has been replaced by the new one. Apart from these alterations the book retains its original form, and the author hopes that this issue will obtain from those interested in cotton manufacturing the same kindly appreciation as the former edition.

C. P. B.

April, 1889.

CONTENTS.

COTTON MANUFACTURING.

CHAPTER I.
INTRODUCTORY, HISTORY, STATISTICS, COTTON AND COTTON SPINNING, MANUFACTURING.

In the general acceptance of the term, manufacturing is understood to refer to the whole range of processes which convert a raw material into the finished article, but whatever that word may usually signify, in the Cotton Trade it is technical for that department only, which comprises the conversion of cotton yarn into woven fabric, and as such is understood in the ensuing pages.

This department is frequently worked apart from spinning, and the gradual and marked severance of the cotton industry into the two great departments of spinning and manufacturing is a striking feature of this great trade, although the reason of cotton spinning finding so fertile a soil in South Lancashire is no more apparent than the cause of North Lancashire being so favourable to the prosperity of cotton weaving. Probably accidental causes in the early days of the trade had much to do with its future division—the fixing upon a South Lancashire town for the establishment of the first spinning machinist’s works, the fact that the factory system was firmly established in the spinning department before the working of looms in one building was possible, or at any rate advisable, and the existence of large warehouses in North Lancashire for distributing to the hand-loom weavers their materials for use, were probably some of these causes.

The fact of the trade being carried on in two divisions, each in different districts, has its disadvantages, the greatest being that of additional carriage—an extra cost of no inconsiderable amount. To remove this and other disadvantages, many attempts have been made to introduce the lacking department both in the North and South of Lancashire, but such attempts have generally failed to a greater or less extent, mainly in consequence of the incompetence of the hands, or rather the insufficient number of competent ones. Where the majority may excel in weaving, the number of good spinners is generally very small, and vice versâ. Another objection is the disadvantage at which the one party is placed should the production of one part of the industry exceed that of the other, the margin which might serve to provide remunerative occupation for both being at present often unequally distributed, the over-producer taking the lower position. On the contrary, there is no doubt that the skill of the operative is more greatly developed where one district takes up a specific branch of the sub-divided labour, and conducts it in a more fully equipped style, than would be the case were it to be attempted on a small scale.

The known pre-eminence of Manchester as the market town is attributed in part to the necessity for some common centre where a meeting of the representatives of each of these industries could take place to transact the business of the trade. The Exchange of Cottonopolis is that centre. Here, every day of the week, but more especially on the Tuesday and Friday market days from all parts where the cotton trade is conducted, the spinner goes to meet the manufacturer, the manufacturer to meet the merchant, who in turn represents all countries to which our manufactures are exported; and thus the Exchange has become, as it were, the heart of the trade, for on it depends the prosperity of the whole industry, and a stoppage or diminution of the business there paralyses the trade.

The movement of the cotton trade, like that of civilisation, has ever been westward. India is recognised as having been from time immemorial its home, and although there cotton has probably been in use for ages as clothing, there is no evidence to show that the substance was even known in Europe till the tenth, or that its manufacture was commenced in England till the end of the sixteenth, century. At that time the weavers used yarn made from “cotton wool,” as it was called, but which yarn was furnished by the Levant and only used for weft, linen forming the warp. However, the invention of simple hand-spinning apparatus rendered it possible for the ever-increasing demand for cotton yarn to be adequately supplied for a time by English spinsters, and it is chronicled that, in 1701, 1,900,000lb. of raw cotton were imported, although it is improbable that the whole of it was required for conversion into cloth. At the beginning of the eighteenth century such inventions as that of Kay’s fly shuttle so increased the output of the hand loom as to cause for some years a dearth of yarn. This had a good effect in inducing the great era of invention in cotton-spinning machinery, from 1760 to 1780; during which time Hargreaves, Arkwright, Crompton, and many lesser lights brought before the world the results of their labour. These inventions, the importance of which it is not necessary to refer to—their details and the story of their invention having been so frequently dilated upon—these created the cotton manufacture.

The cause which influenced the development of spinning machinery was antithetical to that which now caused an extension of the weaving, which was an excess of the supply of yarn, and for which the only consumers were the loomshops attached to scattered houses on the country side, containing one or two ponderous hand-looms.

It is rather more than a century since the Rev. E. Cartwright, a Kentish minister, first gave his attention to the invention of a power loom, and although his first patent in 1785 was not satisfactory, yet it is to this clergyman’s efforts that the world is indebted for the first power loom. In 1787, he patented such a machine, fitted with spring motion, batten or slay, temples, etc., with the addition of a protector and weft stop motion in an imperfect form. Nine years afterwards Robert Millar, of Glasgow, applied to it the means of picking by plates and shedding by tappets or wipers.

Here all the principles of the modern loom were present, although in very different form, and it is only in details that the loom of a century later presents a different aspect. In 1834 the weft stop motion was patented by Messrs. Ramsbottom and Holt, which was perfected seven years later and patented in its present form by Messrs. J. Bullough and Kenworthy, of Blackburn. To these gentlemen is due the invention of an improved dressing machine called a “tape,” the forerunner of slashing; also the take-up motion for cloth. They, too, patented the loose reed loom and the roller temple; but from records of the time and tales told by the older section of the community in Blackburn to-day, apparently, it is to John Osbaldeston "that the honour is due of breaking the concussion of the loom and inventing an improved temple. He also originated many of those inventive appliances so essential to adapt the power loom for weaving fancy goods, but was not successful in securing any pecuniary advantage to himself, thus illustrating the fact that not every benefactor of his species meets with the reward due to his merits."[1] The creative spirit which carried cotton-spinning machinery to so high a degree of perfection, was directed also to the improvement of the preparatory machinery of the weaving department.

In the hand-loom days each weaver stiffened or dressed his own warp whilst it was in the loom, applying the size with a flat brush. A length of about two yards was sized in this manner, and dried by means of hot irons being passed over the surface of the warp, paper being first laid over the damp twist, or by means of a fan; grease afterwards being applied. In the face of our modern systems this old-fashioned method hardly appears credible. The paste used was a mixture of flour and water, boiled over the fire, and stored in a stone vessel not unlike a swine trough. Probably from this reason the term “sow box,” indicating in our modern “slashers” the size vessel, arose; and etymologists may find some connection between it and the word "sowlin’"—a common expression in Lancashire for a mixture of the nature referred to—of its intended use or application. The necessity for this was removed by the invention of the dressing machine by William Ratcliffe and Thomas Johnston, his assistant, of Stockport, in the year 1803, by which warps were sized before putting them in the loom. This dressing machine consisted of little more than a frame with rollers to carry the warp from two back beams, one at each end, to the centre where the weaver’s beam was fixed, whilst between were arranged brushes traversing to and fro by means of rods actuated from a crank in the so-called crank dressing machine, to apply the “sow” or size. In addition there was a wooden fan to dry the warp, which passed through the healds and reed also.

Dressing was in vogue until 1830 without any competitive system, but soon after this the tape frame, producing five times more work than the dressing machine, was invented, and continued in use until in an improved form—delivering the yarn direct to the weaver’s beam, and with still further capacity for large turnout of work—it under the name of the “slasher” takes the lead among all sizing systems now current, which important position is attributable to a great extent to the speed and to the good quality of the turn off.

To James Bullough, a native of Westhoughton (though from early life a resident of Blackburn), may be credited this last invention, which brought in its train the beam-warping frame, and found increased employment for the winding frame invented early in the century by the senior Robert Railton.

The factory system was deeply rooted in the spinning department before we hear of any attempt at gathering a large number of looms under one roof. Arkwright had a spinning mill as early as 1771, but the first successful weaving shed was built in Glasgow in 1801 by Mr. Monteith, and contained 200 looms; previously, in 1790, Messrs. Grimshaw partially erected one at Knot Mills, near Manchester, which was burnt to the ground by a mob of hand-loom weavers. In 1813, we learn of 2400 power looms being in use in the United Kingdom. Since then the number of factories has rapidly increased, and excepting for the effects of occasional deterrent influences, such as war and famine, the cotton manufacture has steadily prospered and extended. 250,000 hand-loom weavers, and 30,000 power-loom weavers were engaged in all weaving trades of all materials in 1833. Now, in 1887, 250,000 power-loom weavers are engaged in the cotton industry alone; while in most districts a hand loom is a curiosity as a relic of the past. The contrast is great, more especially so when it is remembered that during the same period the trade has been established in many foreign countries where nothing but handicraft skill was available at the early part of the period, but where now the number of mules and looms has grown, and is growing, so rapidly as to create out of former consumers important competitors in the export trade.

The recent history of cotton manufacturing has been marked by little which has caused extensive alterations in its methods.

The extensive and well-organised association of the operatives for the protection of their position in relation to the masters, has become a power, as shown by the great strike of 1878, when the operatives were able to resist the masters for a period of nine weeks, and by the increasing influence of the employés in all trade questions. The more important Parliamentary proceedings relating to the cotton trade during the time of its being conducted on the factory system are, of course, the Factory Acts. The first important legislative enactment was the Factory Act of 1833. By this no young person under 18 was allowed to work before 5.30 a.m. or later than 8.30 p.m., nor more than 12 hours per day, although 3 hours extra might be worked per week to make up for lost time. Children had to be 9 years old, and had not to work more than 48 hours per week till 11 years of age, having 2 hours’ schooling per day to be provided by the employer. In 1844, females over 18 were granted the same privileges as young persons, and children were allowed to work 6-1/2 hours per day if only 8 years old. Work had to cease at 4.30 on Saturday. In 1846, the hours of labour were reduced to 11 per day, and 63 per week for children, young persons, and females. Only minor alterations were made till 1874, when the Ten Hours’ Bill was passed, limiting work to 10 hours per day, and 6-1/2 on Saturday. In 1878, all the previous Acts were repealed and a new one made which is still in force, and requires that for young persons and females the hours be limited to 10 per day, and 56-1/2 per week; that no child be employed at all under 10 years of age, or under the Second Educational Standard; and only half-time below 13 unless the Fourth Standard of Elementary Education shall have been passed, failing which the limit is 14 years of age. Males and females under 18 are deemed young persons, and all young persons and females possess certain advantages over the male workers, which rights are protected by Government inspectors. The Bill was a lengthy one, and contains many restrictions as to holidays, painting and cleaning, reports of accidents, fencing machinery, and school attendance, for the benefit of the employé.

The Limited Liability Act of 1862 gave great facilities for conducting business by companies of more than seven members, whose liability in case of a collapse does not exceed the amount promised on formation—a scheme inaugurated for the benefit of the working classes, but which has been misapplied in many instances.

The Employers’ Liability Act of 1880 gives facilities for recompense to the workmen for accident or injury sustained by the negligence of the employer or his deputies, such liability being incurred under certain conditions only, and being restricted to the amount of three years’ salary.

The Merchandise Marks Act of 1887 has caused a reaction in the tendency towards short lengths and false description, by making it a penal offence to falsely mark goods either in respect to dimension, quality, counts, or place of manufacture.

In addition to these, the variation of tariff charges, notably the reduction of Indian tariffs, the returns and reports to Parliament of statistical information, the Inquiry Commissions, and some few small enactments, all have their influence in a greater or lesser degree on the industry.

The cotton goods of a standard make at the commencement of this century comprised printer, muslins, corduroys, fustians, sheetings, shirtings, twills, ginghams. In 1830, records give madapollams, tanjibs, domestics, jacconets, gauze leno, figured muslin, splits, and velveteens. Later, in 1846, there are chronicled lawns, books, nainsooks, figured counterpanes; and, in 1864, brilliante, chambrey, blue mottle, satin checks, in addition to previously mentioned goods, from which list the absence of dhooties, Turkey reds, Turkish towels, and cloths of later origin will be noted.

A comparison of the position of the cotton trade to-day with what it was some thirty years ago shows a decided change in one respect—i.e., in the firms conducting the business. Many of the old private firms have disappeared and their places been taken by companies, while, for many years back, the tendency has appeared to be in favour of carrying on the trade by the co-operation of small capitalists. Some of these companies are not limited, being formed by a few speculative operatives who invest the savings of a frugal lifetime in the mill concern, to which they also devote their labour, being satisfied at the year’s end if they have drawn an ordinary wage, week by week, while the capital has been added to, and increased. Manufacturing, in consequence of the comparatively smaller amount of capital required, is generally selected for the above system.

To these establishments many of the wealthy manufacturers of North Lancashire can trace the beginning of their prosperity. By far the greater number of these companies, however, especially in spinning, are on the limited liability principle, and their increasing number shows how valued, as an investment, such companies are; so much so that it appears not unlikely, what with the narrowing margins and increased competition, that the trade will, at no very distant period, cease to be a means of making the wealthy cotton lord, and, as the trade falls into the hands of gigantic companies, become merely a bank, with a small rate of interest, in which the wealth of the smaller Lancashire capitalists will be locked up.

This carries our thoughts to another branch of the subject—the importance of the trade with regard to the capital invested in it, a sum which cannot fall short of seventy-five million pounds even in Great Britain alone, without taking the allied industries of machine-making, dyeing, calico printing, lace and hosiery manufacturing into account. By dipping into calculation, taking the spindles at the figure of 17s. 6d. each, and the looms at £16, the amount invested in plant will touch £45,000,000, and adding to this a floating capital of £30,000,000, fully which will be necessary to the trade in importing the raw material, converting it into fabric and distributing the same to the world, a total sum is obtained which indicates what is at stake in this mighty industry.

Statistics.

A perusal of the subjoined list will indicate in figures the extent of the trade, and from it will be observed the comparative importance of our trade with each country. Taking the value of the exports of piece goods only as the standard of comparison, the list of countries will be found as follows:—

Exports of Cotton Manufactures—Piece goods of all kinds.

In 1886, according to the estimate of Messrs. Ellison, of Liverpool, the number of spinning spindles in various parts of the world was as follows:—

In a recent estimate published by Messrs. Worral & Co., of Oldham, the spindles and looms engaged on cotton in Lancashire and its borders are given as 40,946,709 spindles, and 582,504 looms. This does not include other parts of the kingdom, nor a number of looms just now starting; therefore we may without erring take the number of cotton looms in the kingdom at about 615,000. In India there are 18,536 power looms.

The number of persons employed is:

of which 465,654 are in England and Wales, 37,167 in Scotland, and 1248 in Ireland.

Cotton Districts.

Taking into consideration the various districts of Lancashire, Blackburn is the most northern of those which take an important part in the industry, and this town also takes the lead in Lancashire, if not in the whole world, with regard to its importance as an exclusively cotton manufacturing town. The class of goods made are of a plain character, principally shirting, mulls, and jacconetts, while a large number of looms are engaged on dhooties, grey and coloured, which goods were introduced from Glasgow. A large quantity of dobby dhooties are manufactured in this district—this class of cloth, of comparatively recent origin, having been first made in Blackburn. The local spinning industries are now very important, most of the spindles being run by those who are also manufacturers.

Darwen weaving trade is of a similar character, and there is a fair trade in yarn by several sale-spinning mills.

The neighbouring towns of Preston and Chorley have a connection with goods of a distinctly finer and more “fancy” character, such as leno, velveteen, damasks, embroidery, and brocades, while the plain trade, including the well-known home trade shirting, is important. Here also the spinning trade is comparatively small, the yarns spun being 40/80’s T and 40/90’s W.

Burnley is remarkable for the recent increase of cotton manufacturing within its borough, and has a most extensive trade in Burnley printers and shirtings, with a few heavy twills—ranking second to Blackburn in quantity produced.

Accrington, Harwood and district have a plain trade, but in yarns the goods are of a much finer character than other plain districts. A large business is done in the better classes of printers for the supply of the local print and dyeworks.

The spinning of medium fine yarns, 40/200’s, from Egyptian cotton, seems to be centred in Bolton, as is also the manufacture of heavy fancy goods, especially Alhambra, Marseilles, and other counterpanes and towels, with some finer fancies—leno, damasks, and velvets; although many mills are to be found engaged in Blackburn goods.

Haslingden, Bacup, Rawtenstall, and many smaller districts in East Lancashire are engaged on manufactures of coarse and heavily-sized goods, shirtings, T-cloths, Wigans, and domestics.

Manchester, while being pre-eminently the English market of the manufactured cotton goods, is also known as the locality where the finest yarns known to commerce are spun—i.e., yarns from Egypt, and Sea Island cottons, 80/200’s in twists, and 80/350’s in weft. The finer numbers, however, are not used for the ordinary purposes of manufacturing, their consumption being divided between the lace curtain manufactories of Nottingham and the great sewing thread factories. The weaving trade of Manchester consists of checks, ginghams, Harvard and Oxford shirtings.

Oldham is, it is needless to state, the spinning town. Here the coarsest yarns, 4/24’s, made out of the waste from finer mills, have their spinning centre, and here the spinning of medium yarns from American cotton has made the name of the town familiar wherever English cotton yarn is known.

Rochdale depends mainly on the coarse trade, 12/24 warps (water T) made from Indian cotton, together with some mule spinning up to 30/40’s. The weaving of the heaviest cotton goods from waste, twills, sheets, T-cloths, velveteens, fustian and cords, is here carried on.

Mossley, 30/50’s, warp yarn; Shaw Lees, Royton, Dukinfield, Ashton, Heywood and Hyde, may be placed in the same category as Oldham, minus the waste trade.

Stalybridge spins 30/150’s.

Stockport has good trade in spinning, as high as 150’s gassed and doubled yarns with varied weaving, including the well-known Turkish towels.

Nor must the other parts of the United Kingdom be forgotten. Cotton weaving extends no further into Yorkshire than Todmorden, and about 2,000,000 spinning and doubling spindles are in use about Halifax, Brighouse, Sowerby Bridge and district, these being employed on yarns for dress fabrics made of a mixture of cotton and worsted, as well as for curtains and hosiery in the Nottingham and Leicester districts. In Scotland, the cotton trade is confined to the counties of Lanark, Renfrew and Ayr. The spinning trade is here going down rapidly, there only being about one third the number of spinning spindles running this year (1888), as compared with 1857. The doubling spindles are on the increase, especially for the Paisley thread trade. The weaving department is also increasing, there being in the three counties 28,853 looms as compared with 20,963 in 1856. The superior classes of cloth are made for the home trade—fine reeds, fine muslin, plain and figured, and the manufacture of Turkey reds is also extensive. In Ireland there are three cotton-spinning firms, three cotton-weaving firms, and one both spinning and weaving, with a total of 70,900 spindles, and 2501 power looms.

Summarising the different classes of work into which the industry is divided, we may allot to the coarse plain trade the Rossendale Valley and Rochdale, locating the medium plain trade in Blackburn, Burnley and Darwen, with the finest plain goods in Accrington and Preston, the light fancy trade in Preston, Chorley, and Ashton, and the heavy fancy in Bolton and Bury.

Cotton.

Even in a manual treating of the weaving processes it is not foreign to refer succinctly to the cotton and the treatment it has undergone to fit it for use in a weaving shed. The manufacturer who has had experience in a spinning mill often finds the knowledge acquired there to stand him in good stead in the selection and use of the yarn. Our chief supplies of cotton are drawn from the United States of North America; next in importance, although far removed in quantity from the first-named, is East India, then Egypt, and lastly Brazil. Cotton is a fibrous vegetable substance, being the fruit of the cotton plant, a shrub of the Malvaceæ, genus Gossypium. There are several varieties of this plant, but the development of the raw material is the same in each. The plant attains its full height about June (this being about two months subsequent to sowing), and the bolls or seed pods are found to be ripening about the middle of July. These bolls, about 1in. diameter, are divided by membranous walls into three parts, containing three or four seeds each, covered with the thin transparent cylindrical fibres attached by one end to the seed.

As the fruit approaches maturity, these fibres lose their cylindrical form, becoming ribbon-shaped through the collapse of their walls, and at the same time each fibre twists on its axis, thus causing a sufficient pressure on the interior of the boll to burst it at the junction of the compartments in the outer casing.

FIG. 1.

FIG. 2.

FIG. 3.

FIG. 4.

FIG. 5.

FIG. 6.

After being left on the trees for some days, during which time the ripening influences are at work, increasing the convolutions and maturing the fibre—or exposed perhaps in the case of unfavourable weather to the damaging influence of rain, which stains the cotton, or intense heat which renders it brittle, or wind which fills the boll with sand or leaf—the cotton is picked. It is then passed through a gin, a machine which has for its object the separation of the fibre from the seed. This latter, which in medium-stapled cotton exists in the proportion of 2lb. seed to 1lb. fibre, is used up at the oil-mills—while the cotton is packed in bales of 4cwt. and forwarded to the sea-coast for export. The foregoing may be taken as a condensed description of the cultivation of cotton on an American plantation. In Brazil and Egypt the season is about a fortnight later; in India planting generally commences in July, or immediately after the dry season.

The raw fibre then is a ribbon-shaped filament with corded edges twisted with 300 to 800 convolutions to the inch; thus, although to the naked eye appearing quite smooth, under the microscope it has somewhat of a resemblance to the shape of a joiner’s auger.

[Fig. 1] represents a typical cotton fibre about 400 times the actual size, and [Fig. 2] represents its section. [Fig. 3] represents an immature or imperfect fibre, one which is more transparent, brittle, and weak than the ordinary fibre, with no tendency to take dye. The convolutions also are few and irregular. [Fig. 4] represents its section.

The longest fibre is the Sea Island cotton grown off the coast of the States, averaging 1-5/8 inches in length, and chiefly spun into 150’s to 400’s yarn, although for experimental purposes 2150’s have been produced from it. Egypt gives three varieties—brown, white, and Gallini. The first-named is commonest and is used for 50’s to 150’s wefts and twists.

The American States yield a comparatively clean and even-running cotton, the best variety being Orleans, of a mean length of 1-1/16 inches, used for 30/40’s T and 30/60’s wefts. Texas, though shorter, is from its strength used for warp yarn, while the numerous varieties classed as uplands or boweds are suitable for weft on account of their usual good colour and cleanliness. The difference between the white 60’s and 70’s wefts and brown ditto is that the latter is from brown Egyptian cotton.

Brazilian is a very harsh fibre about average length, and used for twists either alone or mixed with American.

The East Indian varieties are extremely variable in length, and also in relation to the quantity of weak fibres; the properties common to almost the whole being brown colour, and dirty and rough character of the cotton. It is chiefly used in Rossendale, Bury and Oldham for coarse counts.

In the medium trade the fibre is subjected to no fewer than nine processes (each different, and sometimes duplicated or triplicated) before it arrives at the form of even thread known as yarn. In the fine trade two or three additional processes are added.

PLATE I.—PLAN OF SHED. To face pp. 16 and 18.

The spinning department, to describe it briefly, consists of:—

1. Mixing the cotton in stacks to secure thorough blending of various qualities, and elimination of the unevenness present in different bales or parts of one bale. Then commence processes for cleansing, viz.:—

2. Opening or passing the matted pieces of the bales through a series of armed beaters having the functions of both separating the material into small flakes and removing the heavier impurities contained in it, such as sand and seeds.

3. Scutching.—In this process a wing beater, revolving at a speed of 11/1500 revolutions per minute, removes the remainder of the heavy dirt, delivering the material in the form of a lap or roll of cotton. This process is repeated.

4. Carding.—Here, by means of revolving cylinders covered with fine wire teeth, and combing the cotton against other cylinders or plates similarly covered, the light impurities—leaf, dust, short and weak fibres—are extracted, and the lap attenuated into a thin sliver, in which the fibres are laid in such a position as to be easily drawn parallel at the drawing process. These four kinds of cleaning machinery remove impurities and other matter foreign to the nature of cotton, to the extent of about 10 per cent., taking middling American cotton.

5. Combing.—The long fibres are here separated from the short, thus enabling a portion of the cotton to be used for spinning finer yarns than the bulk would spin. It is only in the mills spinning yarns above, say 80’s, that this process is found; in ordinary, the custom is to go direct from carding to

6. Drawing.—A simple process repeated for yarn up to 30’s, used three times up to 60’s, and four processes are used above this. The machine has for its object the levelling of the slivers, six of which are placed together and drawn six times the original length. When this has been repeated once or twice, the sliver becomes very even and silky in consequence of all the fibres having had the curl taken out and been laid parallel to each other.

7. Slubbing; 8. Intermediate; and 9. Roving.—These frames are all constructed on one principle, and have for their object the gradual diminution of the thickness of the sliver, which at these processes is attenuated so much as to require twisting to keep it from breaking at the succeeding process. An additional jack roving frame is used at mills making over 100’s yarn.

10. Spinning completes the object of all the former machines—i.e., to produce a level clean thread, free from unevenness in every respect.

Four sorts of machines are used for completing the attenuation—the self-actor mule, ring frame, hand mule, and throstle frame. The two latter are fast disappearing in consequence of the great improvements over the hand mule recently made in the self-actor mule, so as to spin fine counts up to 300’s, and in the increased output of the ring over the throstle frame. The mule is automatic in all its movements for spinning the yarn and winding it on the spindle in the form of a cop—i.e., a cylindrical coil of yarn, cone-shaped at each end. In this machine the spinning is intermittent—i.e., for a few seconds the different portions of the machines are engaged in drawing out the roving to the required fineness until about 64 inches have been spun, the slack being taken up by a moving carriage bearing the spindles, then a few seconds are employed in drawing back the carriage and winding the yarn on the spindles. The ring frame is a constant spinner, and as fast as the yarn is spun it is wound on a bobbin, while the necessary twist is put in by a traveller shaped [C] revolving round a ring. It will thus be seen that the ring frame is only suited for warp yarns, mainly in consequence of having to use a bobbin, which of course requires modifications in the shuttle and box of the loom, and even then is disadvantageous. The ring frame is suitable and preferable for warp yarn up to 40’s, where the spinner also reels, warps or weaves his own spinning. The mule spins both weft and twist. Throstle twist (or, as it is called when reeled or warped by the spinner, water twist) is generally admitted to be the evenest and roundest thread, ring twist being next best, and mule yarn inferior to both. Mule yarn, however, possesses an elasticity which neither of these can boast of.

From a consideration of spinning we arrive at a definition of the manufacturing processes.

Unlike the spinning which is carried on in a building five or six storeys high, the manufacture of cotton goods takes place in a “shed,” as much of the work as is possible being carried on on the ground floor. The weft yarn, or that which is laid transversely in the cloth, leaves the mule in the condition in which it is required at the loom, but the twist or warp yarn passes through several “preparatory” processes to fit it for the operation in the weaving:—

1. Winding—to take the yarn from the cop and place it on the warper’s bobbin.

2. Warping or beaming to wind the yarn from 400 or 500 bobbins to one large beam.

3. Sizing—i.e., covering the warp with an adhesive preparation to fit it for standing the strains in weaving.

4. Attaching the healds and reeds to the warp, called looming or drawing-in.

5. Weaving.

Each of these will be described more fully in succeeding chapters, and as in different districts different methods are employed, more especially in the sizing and beaming systems, the one chosen for most minute description will be the one used most commonly, although the other systems will be referred to.

The weaving mill—or, as it is termed, shed—requires description next. The general details of such a building will be more easily understood by referring to the annexed plan.

The most important point to remember in the arrangement of the rooms for the different processes, is to place each so as to require as little transit of material as possible. The engine, a condensing one of 110 indicated H.P., horizontal, is driven by the steam generated in a 30ft. by 7ft. two-flued steel boiler working at 120lb. pressure.

In the flue is fixed a set of economisers heated by the hot air and gases generated in the furnace, and through the pipes of which passes the feed water.

In the winding room are two 200 spindle machines (100 each side), keeping 12 winders employed. There are 3 beaming frames, 504 ends each. In the sizing department are found the usual becks and cisterns for mixing purposes, and one slasher sizing machine. It will be noted that the weaving shop has direct communication with the looming room where the beams are stored, and with the warehouse whence the weavers obtain the yarn, at the same time returning the manufactured material. There is also an outlet into the mill yard without passing through any other department.

In case of a new shed having to be built, many important questions present themselves for consideration. In fixing upon the site, the essentials for a suitable position are a foundation sufficiently damp and of such a nature as not to easily part with moisture, even in hot weather, so as to preserve that humid atmosphere so essential to good weaving, more especially where heavy sizing is resorted to; yet there must be no yielding, for it is of vital importance that vibration be reduced to a minimum, both in weaving, winding and warping, to avoid breakages of yarn.

As many readers will be aware, it is partially in consequence of this disadvantage being removed in mills entirely on the ground floor, and partially in consequence of the increased dampness thereby obtained, that such mills can obtain good results out of inferior yarns. A position in the neighbourhood of good workpeople is most important; such an advantage more than compensates for the increased rents, rates and other dues of a town as compared with a country district, for with inferior employés, inferior work, and therefore less advantageous prices and fewer orders, are a consequence, while the cost of production is increased. Good coal and water supplies are of importance, and are best obtainable in the vicinity of a canal, and if the district under consideration be a hilly one, it will be worth while considering how to be sheltered from that bête noir of a weaver, the east wind.

CHAPTER II.
WINDING AND WARPING, WARP YARN, WINDING FROM COP, BOBBIN AND HANK, BEAMING, SECTIONAL WARPING, BALL WARPING.

As has been previously mentioned, the weft yarn, when it leaves the mule, is in the requisite form for use at the loom, whilst the twist or warp yarn passes through at least three processes to fit it for the operation of weaving. The object of these processes is to coat the yarn with a layer of the adhesive substance necessary to protect it from the chafing in the loom, and, secondly, to coil the threads of warp upon a flanged roller evenly, so that they will unwind at the loom in a level sheet the width of the beam, and containing the requisite number of ends to make a cloth of desired dimensions. Bearing this object in view, it is not difficult to understand the three processes—winding, warping, and sizing.

The Twist.

The warp yarn is generally received by the manufacturer from the spinners in skips of 200/250lb. weight, and in the form of a cop. This has a cylindrical formation coned at each end, the more pointed end from which the yarn is unwound being called the nose, the opposite end the cop bottom. The best Oldham spinners make the cop about 7-1/2 inches long and 1-3/8 inches in diameter.

In judging twist yarn preference is given to the most even thread, round and free from motes, soft places, and snarls. The latter are caused by slack ends at the mule, the torsion of the thread taking up the loose yarn in the form of a twisted loop. A similar effect called a snick is caused by loose ends and inferior traverses at the winding frame, but wherever caused, the fault is most annoying to the weaver, and deteriorative to the cloth if intended for printing, as the loops rise after the cloth has received the impression of the pattern, showing white specks of an objectionable character. The twist cop should be of full dimensions, firm and hard copped, free from loose ends, and having clear apertures at the bottom for the winder’s skewer. Any fault in these respects causes an increased percentage of waste—most objectionable to a manufacturer.

The selection of a yarn for profitable use depends upon the foregoing qualities, but care must be taken to select for heavy sizing an openly spun yarn; for lightly sized printing cloths a strong, well-twisted yarn; for sateens and velveteens a level one; and for other goods yarns suitable to them.

Winding from Cops.

The object of the machine shown on [Fig. 7] is to wind the yarn from the cop to a bobbin of about 4-1/2 inches lift—that is, having a barrel 1-1/2 inches diameter, and a head or flange at each end with a space between of 4-1/2 inches.

The machine, [Fig. 7], is duplex, having similar parts on each side of the frame; on each side will be observed two rows of spindles driven from a central tin drum by bands; five inches from the top of the spindle is fixed a braid bearing a flannel washer on which the bobbins rest, and are driven round by the friction; the cops are fixed in a spindle rail, the end from each passing round a knee board covered with flannel, thence through a brush which serves a secondary object of cleansing the thread from loose dirt, and tightening it so as to prevent snicks being formed. In front of this brush is fixed a guide plate, slitted to prevent the winder lifting the thread so as to pass lumps too large to go through the slits.

FIG. 7.—WINDING MACHINE. To face pp. 22 and 23.

The brush and guide plate form a traverse, moving in slides alternately up and down to fill the bobbin with yarn, which is drawn from the cop through these “cleaners” by the friction between the bobbin and the revolving spindle. To enable a greater length of yarn to be wound on the bobbin, it is made of a barrel shape—i.e., of greater diameter at the middle than at the ends. Although the first few layers appear parallel, a greater increase of diameter is noticed at the centre of the lift afterwards, simply caused by allowing a longer dwell of the traverse than at the ends of the bobbin.

FIG. 8.

[Fig. 8] shows an ingenious arrangement for obtaining the reciprocating motion, and at the same time the varying speed. A mangle wheel A is driven by pinion B, alternately engaging with the inside and outside of mangle wheel, thus reversing its direction of motion. On mangle wheel shaft a spur wheel C of eccentric motion gears with a similar one D on a stud, driving by a pinion E the rack F connected with the traverse. When the traverse is halfway of the bobbin, the mangle wheel is set opposite to the pinion B; and the small side of the eccentric C driving the large side of D. It is quite plain, then, that by this setting of the eccentric wheels the traverse will be at its slower speed, while as the mangle wheel revolves the larger side of C will drive D, and thus drive the traverse quicker as it gets near to the flange of the bobbin, and consequently nearer to its reversal. An exactly similar movement is obtained in another make of winding frame by means of a heart cam actuating a treadle, to one end of which is attached the traverse chain. As the larger or smaller part of the heart actuates the treadle lever, it is driven more quickly, while its normal speed is attained when contact is equi-distant between the apices. It will be observed that when the bobbin attains a larger diameter, even if the speed remains the same, the yarn is wound on more quickly in consequence of the bobbin’s greater circumference, but the speed is also increased because of the additional friction generated by the increased weight. To obviate this uneven strain on the yarn, the back row of spindles is often made to revolve more slowly than the front one, and as the bobbin increases in size it is placed on the back row. Winding from either throstle or ring bobbins is performed on a similar machine, modification having to be made in the spindle rail only, so as to obtain a proper position for the bobbin to unwind itself, the yarn coming off the bobbin at right angles to it and causing it to revolve on the modified spindle. Occasionally, where a manufacturer possessing the cop winding frames uses ring bobbins, the yarn is unwound from them in the ordinary way over the nose of the bobbin, and a little additional drag is applied.

Winding is performed by women, who are remunerated at the rate of about 1/4d. per lb. for 32’s T, and proportionately more for higher counts. The most frequent fault in the shape of the bobbin is in its being soft near one of the flanges: often dirt gathering in the guides causes this, or the traverse is not set half-way of the bobbin when the mangle wheel crab is opposite to the pinion. Gigging is the name given to winding off any excessively large bottoms by means of a slowly revolving bobbin, forming part of the winding frame. The speed of the driving drum averages 160 revolutions per minute. The traverses should have all gatherings of fluff, motes, etc., brushed out twice a-day.

FIG. 9.—BEAMING FRAME. To face pp. 24 and 25.

Winding from the Hank.

Coloured yarn used for dhootie and other striped cloth is received by the manufacturer in the hank, in which form it is dyed. When winding it on the ordinary bobbin for warp, only slight modifications of the winding frame are required. A swift is substituted for the spindle rail, and used for holding the hanks while unwinding them, while the kneeboard and brushes are absent. If the coloured yarn be used for weft for heading purposes, a pirn is substituted for the bobbin.

Other systems of winding have been introduced with only partial success, the principal one being a modification of drum-winding: a tube on which the yarn is wound rests horizontally on a revolving drum, the thread traverses the width of the drum, and thus a bobbin is built up, having level edges sufficiently firm without any protecting flanges. The ordinary drum-winding is similar, excepting that a flanged bobbin is used.

Beam-warping.

Three methods of warping are in use, but far ahead of the others in production stands the beaming system. To enable a sufficient number of threads to be gathered in one sheet for sizing purposes, say 2000, it is necessary to wind them first on a warper’s beam. This is a round roller, of wood, five inches in diameter, having an iron flange 20 inches diameter, and also an iron pivot at each end. This will hold 500 ends, each 15,000 to 20,000 yards in length, so that for a cloth of 2000 ends four beams are required at the sizing machine.

The beam-warping machine is for the purpose of warping the yarn from these 500 bobbins to a beam.

The bobbins from the winding frame are placed in a creel, generally a [V] creel, and shaped in plan view as its name indicates, each arm of the [V] being a frame containing tiers of pegs to hold 250 bobbins, the apex being nearest to the frame. The yarn passes through a reed, under and over several horizontal rollers, emerging in front through a guide comb, and thence to the beam. The beam is driven by friction, resting on a large drum making about 50 revolutions per minute; therefore, whatever the size of the beam may be—i.e., whether full or empty—the yarn, being pulled at the front, is travelling at a constant speed.

To avoid sudden strains of yarn the creel does not rest on the floor, but is suspended from overhead beams by rods. The older makes of beaming frames have a bed creel. Only one vertical creel is used, the other half of the bobbins being fixed in a horizontal frame. The [V] creel is preferable.

The whole frame occupies a space of about 16 by 18 feet.

The guide comb is of interesting construction. It is capable of expansion or contraction. Each tooth of the comb projects from an iron box, and is kept in position by being passed through the coils of several spiral springs; by means of a screw and nut at each end these springs can be compressed, thus diminishing the distance between the comb-teeth equally at all parts of the comb. When the expanding combs are used, far leveller beams are made than are otherwise attainable.

In the event of a thread breaking, the warper must have some arrangement for running the yarn back, so as to find the broken end to piece it up. This is obtained by six falling rods placed above seven fixed ones. When the machine is running forward the sheet of yarn passes between the fixed and loose rods, the latter resting on a slide. When the machine is reversed, the slide receives a slight impulse, allowing one rod to drop, say 3-1/2 feet, the yarn being suspended at the top by the fixed rods; whilst this rod is dropping it pushes the slide still further, and another drops, and so on, until when the sixth rod has fallen, twelve times 3-1/2 feet equalling 42 feet of yarn are taken up. This is ample for piecing purposes; indeed, the woman in attendance seldom finds it necessary to go so far.

FIG. 10.

FIG. 11.

PLATE II. To face pp. 26 and 27.

Prevention, however, is better than cure, and several machines are on the market fitted with stop motions to arrest the action of the machine at the breakage of a single end, and reducing the number of falling rods to two. One favourite system is to have a small bent wire, not unlike a hairpin, but about 1-1/4 inch in length, suspended from each thread and held in position by slots across the frame. This system is shown in [Plate II.], [Figs. 10] and [11]. Immediately under these pins are two nip rollers M ([Fig. 10]), revolving in contact, one of them borne on a movable centre, and attached to an upright lever N. This is immediately above an upright slide I, the bottom of which is connected to one end of a lever centred on the drum shaft of the frame. At the other end of the lever is a foot board and also the connection of a long rod with heavy balance weight always tending to press the footboard up, and consequently the slide down.

The machine is driven by a single open strap on the pulley, which, however, does not actuate the machine until it is pressed against the friction plate.

To start the machine, the footboard is pressed down, the slide consequently lifted and held in position by a hook which catches on the framework. By an inclined collar J, on the centre of the lever H ([Fig. 11]), the friction pulley and plate are pressed into contact and the machine is in motion. When an end breaks, the hair-pin drops between the nip rollers, pressing the loose one away from the other, therefore by means of the upright lever already referred to knocking off the catch H ([Fig. 10]). As soon as this is done the slide drops, and with it the lever O. The inclined collar relieves the pressure on the friction plate and the machine stops. The attendant pieces the broken end which is thus brought under his or her notice.

Beam warping machines are of various sizes, the most common being for 504 bobbins, the width being 9/8ths, or 54 inches between the flanges of beam. Other widths, of course, are in use, from 44 to 108 inches.

The waste of yarn, in the preparatory processes, indeed in all departments of mill work, is extremely important, and should be kept at as low a percentage as possible. At the winding frame the total waste should be 1 to 1-1/4 per cent., varying with the count and quality of yarn, and the total waste of warp yarn throughout the mill should not exceed 1-1/2 per cent. at the most.

For the purpose of measuring the length of yarn on the beam, each warping frame is supplied with a roller half-a-yard in circumference, round which the yarn passes; on the end of this roller is a worm driving a worm wheel B, of 54 teeth; on the stud carrying B is a second worm C, driving a worm wheel of 132 teeth. The worm only takes one tooth at each revolution, therefore a complete revolution of the first worm wheel represents a length of 27 yards having passed the measuring roller; this is equal to one tooth only on the second wheel B; therefore, a complete revolution of the latter means 3564 yards—technically called a wrap—1/2 × (54 × 132)/(1 × 1) = 3564. If a warp contains 4 wraps and 7 teeth, it is 14,445 yards long - 4 × 3564 + (7 × 27). For other warping calculations see Chapter IX.

The faults in beams are principally, bad, or no piecings, soft places caused by fine threads, or ends unevenly distributed in the combs, or by crooked flanges.

Where dhooties and other striped cloths are made, the warper has to be provided with a sheet showing how the coloured yarn is “laid in” at the side. This will be described under the heading of Dhooties. Where possible, all the coloured yarn is placed on one beam of the set, leaving the other beams all “grey,” as the undyed yarn is termed.

In any case of warping two counts of yarn on one beam, whether coloured or grey, allowance must be made for the different diameters of the threads.

Sectional Warping.

PLATE III.—SECTIONAL WARPING FRAME. To face pp. 28 and 29.

Where a warp is composed of two or more different counts of yarn, or where a ball warp is required without having recourse to the old circular warping mill, it is usual to use a sectional warping frame—[Plate III].

As its name indicates the beam is warped in several sections called “cheeses,” of the usual diameter, but only about five inches in width. Several of these sections are afterwards slid on a bar, compressed at the ends and treated in the usual way. If required to be made into a ball, the ends are gathered into a loose rope and coiled in a balling machine. This latter method is generally adopted in those spinning mills where the yarn is warped by the spinner and sold in the ball. The sectional mill is a diminutive beaming frame of 400 bobbins running at a high speed. The yarn is warped on a square block between two circular plates, and when doffed is flangeless, thus necessitating careful treatment.

There is an interesting piece of apparatus attached to these machines for making all the cheeses of a uniform diameter when a certain fixed length has been wound on, and the increase of diameter is regulated automatically by the increment of length. The advantage of this is obvious when using two counts, say 30’s and 40’s, the warp in each case being, say, 1200 yards long.

If the diameter of warp were not regulated in any way, and the same strain placed on the yarn, the 30’s warp would be of greater diameter than the 40’s, or if of the same diameter the 40’s would be softer.

To obviate this a standard cheese is made; and in making it, the attendant releases the setting lever, and allows the stud to move freely in the vertical slot. With it is also released the scale lever, and the other parts which control the presser. A required length of warp is wound on the section block, say the length of a cut, which is indicated by the measuring roller, and the movement thus made by the presser is shown by the movement of the stud in the vertical slot. The hand-wheel is then turned until the stud has returned to its former position opposite the recess in the back of the slot. The position of the nut is then noted on the front scale, and tightened up by the handle shown. The setting lever is now brought forward, and the stud resumes its normal position in the recess, and the setting operation completed. In order that each succeeding section may be the exact size and length of its predecessor, the only attention necessary by the warper is to see that the revolution indicator points to the same figures. Thus, when all are run off together, their sizes diminish at an equal rate.

This machine is taking the place of the warping mill in the cotton trade, especially for coloured work.

Ball Warping on the Warping Mill.

Before beam warping was invented, ball warping was the system commonly employed in the preparation of yarn for sizing. This is a somewhat clumsy method, and so far as the cotton trade is concerned has been superseded by a modern system, excepting in one or two cotton manufacturing districts situated on the borders of Lancashire and Yorkshire, and for certain classes of goods in Bolton. A brief reference to it will not be out of place then, although, probably, the subject may interest few readers rather than many. The warping mill consists of a creel for bobbins, and a large circular frame. These are of different sizes, a common circumference being about 18 yards. This framework, or reel, is about 10 feet high, and thus forms a somewhat extensive cylinder. About 500 bobbins (which are wound from the cop in the ordinary manner) are placed in the creel and the ends from each are gathered together midway between the reel and the creel, at what is termed the heck box. This slides vertically between two posts, and has for its object the correct guidance of the yarn to the reel and also the keeping of the lease. The latter term will be understood by all connected with weaving as being the separation of the threads alternately, an arrangement which is used to enable the position of the ends being easily found in succeeding processes. Supposing there are 504 ends in the creel, these would pass through the heck box, and forming a loose rope be attached to the top of the mill. This revolves, and as by suitable mechanism the heck descends, the warp is coiled round the cylinder spirally, making in all several hundred yards, say 350. When the bottom of the mill is reached the direction of revolution is reversed, and a second layer wound upon the first one, and a third layer on the second, thus a warp of (3 × 504) 1512 ends is made 350 yards in length. Of course, the dimensions of the warp may be varied either in length or number of ends. The warp is now unwound from the mill and coiled in the form of a large ball. In districts where ball-warping is still used, the manufacturer is not usually his own sizer, and the warp, therefore, is now removed to a sizer’s establishment, where, after being weighted to the required extent, it is coiled into ball form again and returned. In the few places where ball-warping is still used the warping mill just described has been superseded by the sectional warping frame, as the ends are kept straighter, and a greater length run through in the same time. The uneven lengths in the old ball-warping mill, caused by the outside layers being longer than the inner ones, are also obviated.

CHAPTER III.
SIZING MATERIALS, MIXING, AND MACHINERY.

In a weaving mill there is no more important process than sizing, and on its satisfactory management depends the quality and quantity of work turned off, and probably the success of the concern. This is exemplified by the anxiety of a manufacturer to get hold of those recipes well known as obtaining good results. The sale of a shirting, domestic, drill, or heavily sized cloth, absolutely depends on the satisfactory sizing, whilst the cost of making it is regulated by the production of the looms. This has been known in many instances to vary 2s. per loom per week, in the use of a good mixing and a bad one. Cotton warp will not weave well without the previous application of some strengthening substance. In the loom the tension on the threads is great, and whilst distended—and therefore in the most favourable condition for being chafed—the healds with alternate vertical motion, and the reed with reciprocating horizontal motion, rub the threads so severely as to fray them to pieces, unless sized. This point was recognised and counteracted, even in the hand loom days, as mentioned in Chapter I.

In sizing, the objects are to press into the thread a mixture of suitable ingredients, so as to strengthen the yarn, smoothen it, and lay the fibres which project from the surface of the thread, thus increasing the strength, and at the same time reducing the amount of fluff at weaving; also to give to the yarn and cloth the requisite appearance of toughness, strength or body, known technically as the “feel.” It is in the sizing that the “boardy,” “leathery,” “clothy” feels or grip are produced.

Another very important object of this process is the introduction into low classes of cloth of an additional weight of foreign substances. We have not here to deal with the debated and debateable point of its honesty or otherwise, but how the object may best be attained; so long as heavily sized pieces will be bought, so long will they be made, and no blame can, at all events, be attached to the manufacturer. He profits not by the weight, unless unscrupulous, for the price obtained for the piece of cloth is not based on the total weight, but on the amount of cotton contained in it. Frequently the state of the market allows a greater profit out of pure sized goods.

The percentage of size put on cotton goods is calculated according to the increase of weight on the warp only. Thus if the warp in a piece of cloth be composed of 10lbs. of cotton covered with 4lbs. of size, the warp will have been sized to the extent of 40 per cent. The amount of size on cotton warps varies from 3 to 200 per cent. In those classes of goods which are intended for dyeing or bleaching, and which are generally sold by the counts of yarn, it is obviously not wise to add foreign matter to be washed out again, but in those exported goods which have to be made of a fixed weight, or certain feel, heavy sizing is adopted. In the chapter treating of cloths, fuller information on this point is given. Up to 20 per cent. are termed light sized goods, from this to 50 per cent. medium, and above 50 per cent. heavily sized.

Yarn for Warps.

The selection of suitable yarn is obviously important. Warp yarn is generally stronger than weft, and the hardness is obtained by extra twisting of the thread: owing to this peculiarity, warp yarn is generally called “twist.” For heavy sizing purposes, a soft spun twist is advisable, and one made out of the harder and wiry stapled cottons. Brazilian is of this character, and is often mixed with American for “shirting” warps. The spongy and size-absorbent properties are obtained at the expense of the strength of the yarn, and therefore a good sizing twist often winds badly. The colour of the warp yarn is not important, and therefore whiter cottons are often reserved for weft. Fine twists are spun out of longer and finer cottons forming a close spun thread, which is used for better classes of cloth lightly sized. Strength and elasticity are great advantages in twist, and these properties should be obtained and preserved for the last process of weaving.

Sizing Materials.

Many points distinguish a good size-mixing from a bad one, and the leading qualifications for a suitable one are adhesive properties—it is no use sizing warps if the substance falls off at the loom—good colour, and uniform consistency. Mealy cloth is often produced by lumpy size. Yarn, even with a heavy coat of size, should remain tenacious, pliable and smooth.

The number and variety of sizing substances render it impossible to adequately describe the properties and use of each. Mention is only made of those of greatest use and importance; yet the list is sufficiently long. They may be divided into four classes—those for forming the basis or body of the mixing or adhesive substances, those for rendering the dried size pliable, weight-giving substances, and antiseptics. In the adhesive substances, flour is of first importance for medium and heavy sizing. This is manufactured by grinding a portion of the wheat grain, and the qualities used in sizing are of the better sort, fully equal to those used for bread-making. For giving body and adhesiveness to the size, flour is valued, but is found a rather expensive substance, and rather inclined to mildew. To remove this latter disadvantage, and also to render flour more suitable for the purpose for which it is intended, most manufacturers steep it in water for periods varying from three days to as many months. Practical men and sizing specialists generally agree, however, that from two to three weeks is the best length of time for fermentation. On judging the quality of flour, comparisons of colour and stiffness after boiling are made; in the latter case equal quantities of each sample should be taken and treated similarly, both as to amount of water taken and time allowed for boiling. The best test, however, and one that applies to all sizing substances, is whether it “goes far” or not in actual use.

Farina is the ground starch of the potato, and largely used in light sizing on account of its cheapness and convenience for mixing. It requires the use of a softener with it, generally tallow or wax, to counteract a harshness which it gives to the twist when used alone.

Two other vegetable substances—sago and rice flours—are used for very light sizing, especially for fine reeds or coloured work.

Softeners.—Unless some ingredient with a more or less greasy nature be mixed with the above substances in sufficient quantities, the warp is so brittle and harsh as to break frequently in the loom. The substance most frequently used is tallow (refined animal fats). This is somewhat expensive, yet its softening properties in heavy sizing are often introduced into the mixing. The quantity of tallow to each bag of flour or clay varies according to the quantity of other softeners used. In using tallow care must be taken to obtain it hard and free from grit; much wear of clacks and rams may be attributed to gritty matter in this and other ingredients, especially in china clay.

Wax is a softener used for light sizing with farina. It is of two kinds: Japan wax, a vegetable substance, of rather yellow colour, and paraffin wax, clear and semi-transparent, obtained from mineral oils. A high melting point of wax is a great desideratum, to ensure the mixture hardening thoroughly on the warp—110° is considered a fair temperature for wax to bear before melting. For softness, castor oil and glycerine are occasionally adopted, as is also Irish moss.

Soap.—A mixture of animal and mineral substances is not generally used, although a good softener, its frothy nature when boiling rendering it difficult to deal with. Soap and chloride of magnesium (so called anti.) should not be used together, as their action on each other tends to make the size lumpy. One important property of soap, or rather alkali contained in it, is that it kills any acid developed in the mixing. Soda has a similar and stronger tendency. Chloride of magnesium, muriate or chloride of zinc have softening properties, but those substances will be more fully mentioned in the next group.

Weight-giving Material.—Next to flour no substance enters into heavy mixings in such quantity as china clay. This is a white earthy matter found in Devon and Cornwall. After having all stony substances washed out it is dried and packed in bags for shipment to Runcorn and other small ports in the neighbourhood of cotton manufacturing districts. In selecting good qualities, colour and smoothness should be borne in mind. To use this material to advantage a good knowledge of other materials is required, so that such ingredients may be used with clay as to keep the size on the yarn at the loom. When clay is boiling it is somewhat dangerous to lift up the lid of the boiling beck, this substance having an unpleasant property of spurting up, possibly on the face or hands of an attendant.

Metal size is that containing the chlorides of the metals, magnesium and zinc. Chloride of magnesium, a mineral salt obtained in Germany, is valued as a weighting and softening compound. It has the peculiar property of attracting moisture to itself, always causing cloth or any substance containing it to feel damp. This substance is melted out of its solid form into a liquid by the application of steam, and is afterwards stored in a lead-lined tank. Muriate of zinc, or chloride of zinc, is a substance of importance for weighting, and is also valuable in checking the growth of mildew.

Mildew, as may be seen under a microscope, is a species of fungus—a vegetable growing under certain conditions favourable to its development. If warp or cloth is sized or finished damp, then stored in a dry room for a considerable time, mildew may be expected, unless antiseptics have been used. An antiseptic is a substance tending to destroy vegetable life, and of antiseptics muriate of zinc and carbolic acid are the most suitable for sizing purposes. As chloride of magnesium does not prevent mildew, indeed, its use being rather favourable to the development of that evil, the name anti, or antiseptic, usually given to it is misleading. It is very important that a manufacturer should take every precaution to prevent mildew by the use of real antiseptics, especially when using such sizing materials as flour, tallow, or any other which readily mildews. It may be mentioned that the maker of the cloth is liable for any damage done in this respect, if the cause can be found in defective sizing, even though the growth may not be seen until the goods have arrived abroad.

The before-mentioned chlorides are greatly dependent on the weather, and also on the situation of a shed, for their good weaving properties. In case of east winds, extremely dry or cold atmospheric conditions, or in a dry shed twist sized with magnesium, zinc or china clay, is rendered brittle first. Numerous other materials are used by a few manufacturers, but they do not require an extended notice. Dividing them into the four classes previously mentioned, we may refer to:—1st, maize, starch, tapioca, dextrin, and gum; 2nd, oils, compositions, spermaceti, curd soap, Irish moss, cocoanut oil; 3rd, French chalk, Epsom salts; whilst soda is used to prevent iron-mould, and blue to take away a yellow tinge from the size mixing.

Size Mixing.

Mixing is performed in becks—wooden tanks fitted with dashers, constantly revolving and stirring the mixture. To each beck pumps are attached so as to force the size to another beck to complete the mixing process; or, if the mixing is ready for use, to pump it to the size box of the slasher frame.

A set of becks generally consists of four—two about 4 by 8 feet, and two each 4 feet square, while for heavy sizing a copper or copper-lined boiling pan is used. This latter is fixed at a higher level than the becks for convenience in transferring the boiled size to the becks.

Considering that a mixing made from a fixed quantity of certain ingredients is not generally used for percentages ranging more than 15 per cent., and that different mixings are required all the way up to 150 or 200 per cent., whilst at the same time not more than two or three manufacturers may use exactly similar mixings even for the same degree of weighting, it will readily be seen that the mixings employed in the cotton trade are innumerable. This difference has been caused by the jealous care taken by a sizer to preserve to himself the recipe of his own mixing, and rightly so. Thus, new mixings have had to be adopted by new firms, the correct quantity of each ingredient having to be fixed by repeated experiments; and as the true properties of each substance have not been, and are not yet, well understood among manufacturers according to scientific investigation, the differences of opinion, and consequent differences of recipes, are very great. Nor is it to the ingredients that these opinions are confined, but to the order of putting each into the beck, the times of fermenting and boiling, and many other details.

It is somewhat difficult to satisfactorily determine beforehand the amount of weight which can be obtained from a mixing. An instrument, really a hydrometer, but often, from the name of its inventor, dubbed a “Twaddle,” is sometimes used; but unless a fixed temperature is always taken, these instruments are not reliable, as a mixing twaddles differently at different heats. Indeed, from the varying results obtained, a twaddle cannot be said to be of much practical use in sizing. A better system, perhaps, is to take the proportion of solid or semi-solid matters in a mixing as against the weight of water, and compare it with the ratio of another mixing which is known to give a certain percentage. Thus, if one mixing of 3lb. of solid matter to a gallon (10lb.) of water gives 25 per cent., then a mixing with 6lb. solids to the gallon may roughly be said to put in 50 per cent. Heavy liquids, such as zinc and solution of magnesium chloride, will have to be reckoned partially as liquids, in consequence of the evaporation which will take place on drying at the cylinders; and the softeners, from their inability to retain liquids as well as the starches, will not be calculated as having the same weighting power. Magnesium may be reckoned as having one-third of its weight in solids, and zinc at one-half.

For Light Sizing.—Taking a pure size, say 8 to 10 per cent., farina and wax or tallow is generally used as being the cheapest, and at the same time most suitable mixing. The ingredients are generally combined in the same beck that they are boiled in; for 10 per cent. the following may be used: 200lb. farina, 20lb. wax, 200 gallons water. By the addition of clay, the same may be made serviceable up to 25 per cent.

For Medium Sizing, say 50 per cent.—Flour, clay softener and chlorides are used—say flour 480lb., clay 224lb., tallow 60lb., chloride of magnesium (so-called anti) 5 gallons, zinc 2 gallons, soda 8lb., water 150 gallons in all. It is mixed as described for 100 per cent.

For 100 per cent.—1lb. of size for 1lb. of warp. Similar ingredients are used, but different proportions. Flour 560lb., clay 560lb., tallow 130lb. (or other softener), chloride of magnesium 20 gallons, chloride of zinc 10 gallons, soda 10lb., and blue.

The flour is steeped alone for three weeks, at the end of which time the zinc is added to it with soda and boiled, then the other ingredients, which had been previously heated in the boiling pan, are lowered into the flour and the whole boiled together.

For 150 per cent. put still more clay and magnesium to the same quantity of other substances, adding some specially prepared softening grease, or adhesive size mixture.

The mixing of size requires constant care and supervision; for variations in the quality of materials, in the weather, or in time of storage or steepage necessitate changes in the proportions of ingredients to obtain correct and unvarying weights.

Sizing Machinery.

The slasher is the machine generally used for applying the size to the yarn; the usual name for the process is taping, a word derived from the old tape frame in use 30 years ago, and handed down to its successor, the slasher. One sizing frame is required for 300 looms, the width of the frame being adapted to the size of beam required for the loom; this is a few inches wider than the cloth. A common size is a 9/8; this makes warps 54 inches wide between the flanges, the drying cylinder face being 60 inches wide; a 6/4 is 60 inches beam and 66 inches on face; an 8/4 = 78 inches and 84 inches respectively.

A sizing frame is of great length, and in three portions—at the back the creel, in the centre the drying, and in front the headstock. (See [Plate IV].)

PLATE IV.—SLASHER SIZING MACHINE. To face p. 40.

Supposing a warp is required of 2480 ends—three beams, each 504, will be taken together with two of 484 each; these are placed in the creel in two levels, and the narrower ones are placed at the back. If they were in front of the broader ones the sheet of warp would overhang the narrow beams. The ends are gathered in one sheet, the layers from the hinder beams passing over the top beams and under the bottom ones, all leaving the creel after passing under the foremost beam and travelling into the sow box. Two contiguous boxes or troughs are used for holding the size—the one farther from the creel, called the size box, receiving the mixture directly from the beck, a regulating valve being fixed on the inlet pipe to prevent the box becoming too full. The sow box is the larger one, and receives the size from an aperture in the bottom of the size box, as well as from a separate pipe. In the bottom of the sow box is fixed a boiling pipe of elliptical form, perforated with small holes, through which steam is forced into the size, causing it to boil, and thus always be in the fittest state for application to the yarn. At about half the height of the box two pairs of rollers are fixed, the back pair having the bottom one of wood, and the top one of iron, covered with flannel and cloth; the front bottom roller, or finisher, is of copper, having resting on it a heavy iron one, likewise covered with several layers of flannel and two of cotton cloth. On the firm and even surface of these rollers depends, to a great extent, the quality of the sizing. Between the wooden roller and the end of the box nearest the creel is a copper immersion roller, its use being to lower or raise the warp in the size by means of a rack and pinion. The warp ends coming up from the beams pass under the immersion roller, thus being soaked under the surface of the boiling size, thence between the first and second pairs of rollers—the object of these being to press out all superfluous size and imbed into the thread that which is required. Immersing the thread deeply is advantageous for heavy sizing, although, by simply dipping it, the fluid only attaches itself to the outside of the thread. Better results could be obtained by pressing the yarn whilst under the surface. An example of the hollow india-rubber ball illustrates this. If a punctured or slit ball be immersed in water, without pressure, little or no fluid enters it; but if, whilst under, it is squeezed, the air is expelled, and, on expanding, the surrounding water enters, filling the cavity. Similar results can be obtained by expelling the air from the interstices of the yarn whilst under the size, and patents have been taken out for suitable apparatus. This point is worthy the attention of machinists. Unless well boiled, size retains a granular nature, causing faulty cloth; to obviate this, many machinists insert between the size beck and the sizing frame an extra boiling apparatus, so arranged by the intervention of pipes to boil the size under pressure, impinging steam against the particles of size as they enter the box, thus breaking the globules. After boiling thus, the size enters the box in the ordinary way. To lay the fibres on the yarn a few sizers have recourse to revolving brushes acting on the thread directly after passing the finisher roller. These revolve about 700 revolutions per minute, considerably faster than the warp speed. They are considered advisable for fine reeds and fancy goods.

Adverting to the process of sizing the warp, we come now to the drying; this is done by means of two tin or copper cylinders about 7 feet and 4 feet diameter respectively, the larger one being nearer the front of the frame (see [Plate]). Steam at a low pressure is admitted to these, and both are enclosed in a wooden case. The sheet of warp passes over the smaller cylinder without touching it, and round the larger one; leaving this at the bottom, the twist is next led over the small cylinder and passes to the front of the frame under both. Thirteen or fourteen yards of warp are always drying. Although the moisture has been expelled, the twist is now in a very hot state, and on its passage into the headstock a couple of fans are used for cooling purposes. Systems of drying by currents of air have been introduced, but seem to take no hold in the cotton industry. It is important that the surface of the drying cylinders be kept smooth.

FIG. 12.

The headstock of the slasher consists of framework, holding the rods and reed necessary for separating the sized threads, and the apparatus for winding the yarn on the weavers’ beam. This latter operation comprises the driving of the whole machine, as all the actuating power is transmitted from the headstock by the pull exerted at the front of the machine. By iron rods the sheet of warp is repeated horizontally into as many layers as there are back beams; then, by means of an expanding comb, the rods are separated vertically; thus each being sundered from its fellows, no possibility of “sticking” remains. The split rods are shown in [Plate IV].

The most effective mode of winding the yarn on the beam is shown in section at [Fig. 12].

FIG. 13.

Power is received by the main shaft carrying the cone drum, and transmitted by a strap cone drum; this in turn drives by a pinion the wheel fixed on the friction roller (the largest of the three rollers at the upper part of [Fig. 12]), which is thus positive driven. It also drives the beam shaft, but not positively; the only connection between the cog wheel A, [Fig. 13], and the shaft on which A rides loose, is by means of the friction plates L, between A and B, and A and C.

Unless these are compressed so as to clip a felt washer, the beam is not driven at all, so that it is very easy for the sizer to regulate the tension at which his yarn shall be wound by moving the weight H on the lever G, which presses the positive driven plates B and C against the friction driven plates L L, bringing them into closer contact and thus speeding the beam, consequently tightening the yarn.

The friction roller is a shade larger in diameter than the finishing roller in the sow box, and is connected with it by a long side shaft, each roller revolving at the same speed; the yarn is consequently kept sufficiently tight during the whole process.

In the old style of frame, without the above-mentioned friction, cone drums were used for regulating the speed of the warp. As the beam increased in diameter, one revolution meant a greater length of twist wound on, and the strap had to be moved along the cone drums to diminish the number of revolutions of the beam per minute, and thus keep the speed of the sheet of warp constant.

Numerous presses are used to get a hard beam with a greater number of cuts on it. Although, when extremely hard, the weaving is more difficult, the advantage of fewer gaitings of beams in the shop, doffings at the size frame, and less waste is adequate compensation. These presses generally consist of one or two rollers resting on a stand under the beam in the frame. By weighted levers the stand and rollers are forced upwards against the beam, and keep it hard whilst winding. [Figs. 14] and [15] represent plan and section of this presser.

The duties of the slasher, or, as he is more frequently called, the taper, are to keep the size of proper boil and density, so as to obtain a constant weight of cut, to keep the twist pieced, and doff the beams when filled. In some operations it is necessary to stop the frame for a few minutes, and although the stopping handle is connected with the cylinder steam pipe to prevent further admission of steam to the cylinders, these remain so hot as to brown the twist.

FIG. 14.

FIG. 15.

Slow Motion.

A slow motion is usually fixed on new frames, and as will be seen from [Fig. 16], it is a simple and effective method for preventing brown or hard places in the warp by running the machine very slowly instead of stopping it completely. A thin pulley rides on a collar on the main shaft of the frame, and by the gearing shown ([Fig. 16]) drives the driven cone far slower than its usual speed. Obviously the fast and slow motions could not be both connected with the driven cone by fixed gearing, and consequently, to enable the slow motion to be put in gear only after the fast speed is out of action, the shaft only drives a plate carrying a ratchet pawl. The ratchet wheel is on the driven cone shaft, and as the pawl only overtakes the wheel when the latter is almost stopped, the desired end is obtained.

FIG. 16.

Marking Motion.

To enable the weaver to finish the piece when a required length has been woven the warp is marked at the sizing frame at a certain length. This is generally done for plain goods by means of a measuring roller 14·4 inches in circumference, round which the twist passes. On the end of this is a tin roller wheel driving a change wheel or stud wheel. By means of a worm on the same stud the motion is transferred to a bell wheel of 45 teeth, which drives a marking cam so arranged as to gradually lift and suddenly drop a hammer, which smits the warp against a block soaked in some colouring matter.

To get the wheels for a certain length, say the stud wheel, multiply the length of mark desired in inches by tin roller wheel, and divide by the bell wheel and the circumference of tin roller.

FIG. 17.—DHOOTIE MARKER.

To get the tin roller wheel, multiply the circumference of measuring roller by bell wheel and by stud wheel, dividing by length of mark required. To prove this the length of mark may be obtained from the wheels, say stud wheel 105 and tin roller wheel 45.

(14·4 × 45 × 105) / 45 = 1512 inches, or 42 yards.

In marking dhooties, in addition to the smit for the end of the piece, additional smits have to be made where the heading for each scarf has to be inserted. Usually this is done by having an additional train of wheels and an extra marker, called a dhootie-marker, to strike 3, 4, or 6, etc., times for the cut-marker’s once. In [Fig. 17] a special arrangement is shown. The usual wheels are shown at h, the worm i, the bell wheel k, the bell shaft cut-mark hammer m. The other wheels and the marker n refer to the dhootie mark; b is fixed to the stud and drives c with d, a pinion on another stud; the wheels e, f and g complete the train, and on the same shaft as g a cam o operates the dhootie-marker. This is arranged to strike any number of times for once of the cut-marker, regulated by the number of teeth in the change wheel f, 10 teeth in which give one mark to a cut mark, 30 give three marks to a cut, 100 ten marks to a cut, and so on by somewhat similar systems for higher numbers.

Tape Dressing.

The tape dressing machine—the predecessor of the slasher—is still used in Scotland, being suited to the light fabrics principally made there. The back beams are placed in a creel at one level and the ends pass through a reed at the back of the frame. The sheet is then immersed in size, and passes between a pair of slowly revolving circular brushes, afterwards being dried by a fan, and also on a small cylinder. There is no friction, and the yarn is wound on the beam after being split by the rods and reed.

Ball Sizing.

Only one system of sizing in addition to those referred to requires description, and that is ball sizing, the process following ball warping, described in the previous chapter. The warps are uncoiled from the ball, and run into a large vat of size, at the bottom of which the warp remains some time, passing over and under some eight or ten rollers until thoroughly soaked. The superfluous size is expelled by passing the warp between rollers, when it is removed to another machine for drying purposes. This has 12 cylinders 2 feet in diameter, and of considerable width, heated by steam. Between these cylinders the warp is flattened and dried, after which it is again balled and placed in a cloth for a short time to become “mellowed;” even yet it has one process to undergo—beaming. Here the warp is taken, the ends sundered out and run over a frame to the weaver’s beam. The reader will readily see that the extra processes of balling after warping, and beaming after sizing, as well as two machines required for sizing, are sufficient to explain the fact that ball systems are dying out, and not only for this reason, but also because of the uncertainty as to what extent goods can be weighted, the percentages being very irregular. The warps are often streaky also, but the thread preserves a rounder and stronger formation than at the slasher frame.

Looming and Drawing.

FIG. 18.

FIG. 19.