THE ECCLESIASTICAL ARCHITECTURE
OF SCOTLAND
FROM THE EARLIEST CHRISTIAN TIMES TO THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.

THE
ECCLESIASTICAL
ARCHITECTURE
OF SCOTLAND
FROM THE EARLIEST CHRISTIAN TIMES TO THE
SEVENTEENTH CENTURY

BY
DAVID MACGIBBON AND THOMAS ROSS
AUTHORS OF “THE CASTELLATED AND DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE OF SCOTLAND”
VOLUME TWO

EDINBURGH: DAVID DOUGLAS
MDCCCXCVI
All rights reserved.

PREFACE.

As this Volume contains drawings and descriptions of the examples of the First Pointed and Middle Pointed Periods in Scotland, and, therefore, illustrates the finest of our mediæval edifices, it may be convenient at this stage to consider the position these buildings occupy in relation to the general system of Gothic architecture in other countries. There can scarcely be any question as to the Gothic style having been imported into, and not being native to, this country. We have already seen that the Norman style was gradually introduced from England, and was afterwards superseded by the transition style. The buildings of the first pointed period also show unmistakable indications of their design having been brought from England,[1] while those of the middle pointed period, although clearly allied in style to English examples, exhibit in their details a few signs of other influences. Although many of our Scottish edifices contain much beautiful work, and all are full of interest, it must be admitted that even the best examples of Gothic in this country cannot claim to give full expression to the fundamental principles of the Gothic style as developed in its native home, the Royal Domain of France.

The style being here an exotic, and being carried out rather as imitative than as original, it is naturally to be expected that it should disclose symptoms of departure from the spirit which animated those by whom it was wrought out and developed. And that is, in fact, the case.

Notwithstanding the beauty of many of our larger and finer edifices, such as Holyrood and Melrose Abbeys, and Glasgow, Dunblane, and Elgin Cathedrals, evidence is wanting in the design of these edifices of a full appreciation of the leading principles which inspired and guided the architects of the Ile de France. The Scottish buildings represent the echo rather than the original voice of the genius of Gothic architecture.

The principal aim of the French architects of the latter half of the twelfth century and during the thirteenth century was to produce structures in which the arcuated or vaulted system of building should be developed to its fullest extent. With these architects the vaulted construction of the roof thus became the ruling element in the design, all the other features being wrought out so as to be supplementary to, and indicative of, the principles of the arcuated style. Every detail was designed so as to fulfil its structural function in subordination to that general idea. Thus the ribs of the vaults formed the framework on which the vaulting panels rested, and conveyed the pressures created by the weight of the roof to the points where these pressures were all concentrated on the capitals of the wall shafts. From that point the forces so concentrated were distributed, the vertical pressure being conveyed downwards by the wall shafts to the foundations, and the horizontal thrusts being counterbalanced by buttresses and flying buttresses, which performed their share of the work by carrying these forces obliquely to the ground. These primary features were the skeleton which constituted the main elements of the building. They formed a structure in stable equilibrium, which was independent of the filling in of the walls, with windows, doors, and other details. The latter were but the clothing and ornamentation of the main structural framework, and in the completed style (as at Amiens Cathedral), all superfluous masonry is abolished, and the spaces between the main structural elements are enclosed with screens of tracery. The Gothic structure was thus a composition in complete contrast with the Romanesque or Norman edifices which preceded it. In the latter, although arching and even vaulting were employed, the arched system of construction was in an elementary state, and the inert mass of the walls was chiefly relied on as a counterpoise to the thrusts of the arches.

It was not till the end of the twelfth and during the thirteenth century that the Gothic system had been fully worked out by the French architects. The arcuated principle had then been developed in a complete and logical manner, and had entirely freed itself from the heavy and unnecessary mass of the earlier Romanesque. Nothing was preserved except the lightest framework required for stability, enclosed with screens of tracery filled with stained glass. Every detail of the fully developed Gothic style was designed on the same logical principles as the leading structural features, and gave expression in its design to the function it was required to fulfil,[2] while the whole building was so ornamented as to be in complete harmony with the general idea.[3]

In England the details of the perfected Gothic, especially as regards decorative features, were carried out somewhat in the same spirit as in France, but the leading elements in the general design do not seem to have been so fully understood or carried out. The adherence to wooden roofs—a common and general practice in England—alone shows the difference in the guiding principles which operated in the two countries. The wooden roof is a complete departure from the leading element of the arcuated style. It shows an inclination to fall back on the ancient trabeate or horizontal beam system, from which it had been the great object of the earlier mediæval architects to free their designs. The wooden roof ignores the leading idea of a vaulted fireproof covering, and abandons the principle of the concentration of the roof pressures on particular points, as is the case in groined vaulting. No doubt a wooden roof may be designed so as to throw a greater amount of its pressure on some points than on others, but the principle of the wooden roof is that of the tie beam and the distribution of the weight over the side walls.

The actuating motive of Gothic design in the main feature of the vaulting being thus lost sight of in England, it is not surprising to find it inactive in other directions. The Romanesque element of massive walls, with small windows, is likewise partially adhered to, and in details also the guiding principle of French design is in some respects abandoned. The round form of the abacus—so universally employed in England—may be cited as a characteristic example of departure from the Gothic principle.

In France the abacus of the columns is invariably shaped so as to receive each shaft or rib which it is its function to carry; whereas the round abacus adopted in England receives indiscriminately all the members which descend upon it, and their loads are often carried by shafts not having any distinct or structural relation to the members which rest on the abacus above them.

Notwithstanding these and similar defections from the leading principles of Gothic, the architecture of England is (as has already been pointed out)[4] in many respects very charming, and, in point of variety and picturesqueness, possibly sometimes surpasses French examples.

What is here attempted to be pointed out is not so much that English Gothic is defective in the above respects, as that certain logical principles, inseparable from a genuine arcuated system, are less weakly developed in England than in the Ile de France. If between the architecture of the two countries there is not much to choose as regards picturesque details and ornamental features, there can be little question but that the logical spirit which apprehended and followed out the principles of the arcuated style to their full limits is more clearly apparent in the one than in the other.

The position of Gothic in England being as described, it is only natural to find in the structures of the leading periods of the style in Scotland, which shine by a light borrowed from England, a similar and even greater departure from the main ideas which actuated the architects of France. The same defects occur here as in England—the frequent use of the wooden roof for wide spans being common to both countries, and producing similar results in each. The wooden roof led, from the principles of its structure, to changes and peculiarities in the design throughout. In some cases the wall shafts which divide the bays are entirely omitted, and give place to a large expanse of plain wall over the main arcade. Instances of this occur at Sweetheart Abbey and Dunblane Cathedral (see [Figs. 758], [510]). In other examples a continuous arcade is carried along at the triforium level, without any strengthening of the walls over the main piers, thus carrying out the principle of the wooden roof, which implies an equal pressure all along the side walls. This is a very marked feature at Kelso Abbey and Dunblane Cathedral.

In some buildings, although vaulted, the wall shafts are of such slight dimensions as to be scarcely of any value (even to the eye) in conveying the weight of the vaults to the ground, and these shafts frequently do not descend to the base, or even to the caps of the main piers, but are carried on corbels inserted in the side walls at a considerable height above the caps of the piers. The functional use of the wall shafts is thus disregarded, and they become mere ornaments.

Slight wall shafts of this description, carried on corbels, occur in the nave of Glasgow Cathedral, in the choir of St. Giles’, Edinburgh; in St. Michael’s, Linlithgow; Crosraguel Abbey, &c.; while in the choir of Glasgow Cathedral and in Haddington Church the small wall shafts spring from the caps of the main piers.

In Elgin Cathedral the vaulting shafts, which are mere beads, descend to the ground, and the clerestory arcade is almost continuous.

In Lincluden College the vaulting shafts, which are heavier than usual, all rest on corbels in the side walls, not far above the floor, so that none of their loads are conveyed to the foundation.

Vaulting is very generally adopted in the side aisles, but in these, too, the Gothic idea is often lost sight of, the wall responds having frequently their bases supported on side benches or seats, instead of being carried to the ground.

Externally, as well as internally, our Scottish Gothic is somewhat defective in its mode of carrying out the arcuated principles. The wooden roofs so frequently employed really require no buttresses, and, therefore, our buildings are in so far right where in such cases only very slight pilaster-buttresses are used in the triforium, as is the case in Glasgow, Elgin, and Dunblane Cathedrals. In the side aisles, which are vaulted, the buttresses are sometimes heavier, but these features are insignificant as compared with the great flying buttresses and piers of the genuine arcuated or Gothic style of Northern France.

In many other respects there may be traced in Scotland a certain absence of the Gothic spirit, which discarded every element not essential to the carrying out of the arcuated principle. Even in our finest structures the Romanesque or Norman influence continues to prevail. A large expanse of heavy walling, with small openings, is not unusual. In almost no building are the solid side walls omitted and light tracery substituted between the main supporting piers, as is the case in the best Gothic in France. The broad masses of masonry in the triforium and clerestory of the churches at Linlithgow and Haddington may be cited as examples of the absence of the Gothic spirit. The continued adherence to solid walls with narrow lancet-formed windows is a marked feature of both English and Scottish architecture.

Moulded caps, with round abaci, are usual here, as in England, and have the same defects, both in principle and practice. In the later examples the relation between the shafts or mouldings, which carry the caps, and the arch-mouldings above them is abandoned, and that genuine Gothic principle is entirely ignored.

Many of the above defections from pure Gothic arise from, or owe their origin (as we have seen) to, the use of wooden roofs.

It may be argued that there is no necessity for the above principles being adhered to, and that English and Scottish architects were quite at liberty, when required, either from want of skill or absence of funds, to cover their naves with wooden roofs.

That argument is at once conceded; but, then, they should have frankly acknowledged that they departed from the arcuate and adopted the trabeate system. That, however, was never done; hence the imperfect carrying out of the arcuate system, as practised in France, which we find in most of our churches, and which shows that the style was here not original, but imitative.

What we desire to insist on is not that good architecture is incompatible with structures roofed with timber, or any other material, but that the fundamental principles of Gothic spring from the development of an arcuated style, and that that principle has been only fully and logically carried out in Northern France. In other countries in which Gothic architecture was adopted, much of its spirit was caught and developed; but when the vaulting or dominating feature of the style was absent, the manifestations of the Gothic spirit were comparatively weak and imperfect. These weaknesses and imperfections appear to prove the derivative nature of the architecture in those countries, and especially in Scotland.

But the fact of the Gothic of Scotland being of borrowed origin does not prevent much of it here, as in England, from being beautiful and instructive, as, it is hoped, the following pages will show.

Probably one of the Scottish edifices in which Gothic principles are best exemplified is Melrose Abbey. The whole building was vaulted with stone, and the vaulting was chiefly groined. The ribs (see [Fig. 767]) descend on the caps of vaulting shafts of trefoil section, the central division of which rests on a corbel at the level of the main pier caps, while the other two divisions of the trefoil shaft descend without interruption to the base of the piers. That at least was the design, although it was in some of the piers interfered with by the introduction of a screen. In the south aisle also the vaulting ribs are carried on wall shafts or responds, which descend to the bases; but there is an unnecessary amount of wall on each side of these shafts and over the longitudinal arches, which lead into the outer chapels.

The vaults are counterpoised with suitable flying arches (see [Fig. 766]) abutting on solid buttresses, loaded with lofty pinnacles, which give them due resistance to the thrusts brought to bear on them. The windows in the south chapel walls (and clerestory of choir) are larger than usual, and are filled with tracery; but there is here also an unnecessary amount of plain wall between the bays, especially in the nave clerestory.

There is, however, at Melrose an entire absence of the heavy blank wall so often introduced over the main arcade, although the absence of any triforium makes the building seem somewhat low and squat. The large amount of solid masonry over the exterior of the great east window of the choir and south window of the transept is likewise a defect. The round abacus is almost always used at Melrose, but the shafts of the piers are simple and distinct, and each member carries a clearly defined series of mouldings.

The authors beg again to tender their acknowledgment of the assistance they have received from many quarters. They have especially to thank Mr. T. S. Robertson, Architect, Dundee; Mr. William Galloway, Architect, Wigton; and Mr. R. Bruce Armstrong, for the drawings and descriptions they have kindly contributed, and which are referred to in the text. To Mr. John Honeyman and Mr. T. L. Watson, Architects, Glasgow, they are also indebted for assistance in connection with Glasgow Cathedral.

Since the description of St. Andrews Cathedral in this Volume was written, considerable progress has been made with the works referred to in the text, as being carried on for Lord Bute by Mr. Kinross, Architect, and several new points have been disclosed.

The west doorway from the cloister into the nave (which is in a modern vinery) has been opened up on the south side, and its massive first pointed architecture has been shown. The arch is pointed, and the details (including dog-tooth enrichments) correspond in style with the entrance to the chapter house (see [Fig. 452]).

The whole of the crypt of the refectory (see [Fig. 454]) has been excavated and the pillars uncovered, showing that there were two rows of pillars and three vaults in the width of the building. The pillars, which are round, have been restored so far as they were incomplete, and so have the groined arches, the new work being executed in red sandstone, so that it may be easily distinguishable from the old work, which is of a light coloured freestone. The masonry of the old pillars being considerably shattered, it has been found necessary, in restoring the crypt, to insert an iron column in the heart of each pillar, in order to give them sufficient strength to carry the weight of the vault. It is not known to what use this crypt was applied.

In the east range of buildings running south from the chapter house, the excavations have been continued, and the pillars of a vaulted chamber below the dormitory have been revealed. As this chamber contains a fireplace, it may possibly have been the day room or calefactory of the canons, as only one fireplace (and that in the calefactory) was allowed in the monasteries. There is, however, some doubt as to whether this fireplace is original. At the south end of this chamber a deep drain or water channel, carefully built with ashlar, has been found. This was, doubtless, the main sewer of the monastery, through which there flowed a constant stream of water. The stream which fed the mill race (see [Fig. 457]) is not far distant. The latrines were, without doubt, situated above this sewer.

In the grounds of the existing school of St. Leonard’s, which lie on the south side of the road leading from the “pends” to the harbour, was formerly situated St. Leonard’s Hospitium, or Guests’ Hall, for the reception of pilgrims and strangers visiting St. Andrews. This Hospitium was an ancient foundation, but according to Martine it was rebuilt by Prior John White in the middle of the thirteenth century. Of this structure there still survive the ruins of the east wall, and by recent excavations made to the westwards, it has been discovered that the building consisted of a large hall, having a central nave and two side aisles. The foundations disclosed show that there were four bays in the length of the hall.

The following translations from Bower’s continuation of Fordun’s Scotichronicon,[5] which Lord Bute has been good enough to send us, together with his own valuable notes, throw some light on the dates of parts of the cathedral and other matters connected with it, especially the work done by Prior Halderston, 1418-1443, viz.:—

“This Lord [prior] James Halderston [inducted in 1418], master in Divinity, was extremely eloquent and of a good presence, and very careful and neat in his person and dress. After he had ruled his house well for twenty-four years, he died at his monastery on July 18, and was honourably buried in the north wall of the Chapel of our Lady, in the cathedral church, A.D. 1443.

In connection with above, Lord Bute mentions that Bower (p. 366) states that Bishop Henry Wardlaw, who died April 6th, 1440, “was buried in the Church of St. Andrew, with greater pomp than his predecessors, in the wall between the choir and the Chapel of our Lady,” thus making it evident that the Chapel of our Lady was the chapel on the north side of the choir.

“He [Prior Halderston] adorned the church of his monastery with wonderful and remarkable beauty, both in the carving of the stalls and in the painting of figures. The nave of this church had been erected by his predecessor, the Lord [prior] James Bisset, of worthy memory [who sat from 1393 to 1416], in a sumptuous manner, with rafters and ceilings [tignis et tecturis], but inside it was an empty, vast, and deserted synagogue. He [Halderston] fitted it throughout in becoming manner with glass windows, along with the erection of altars, figures, and decorations and polished pavements.” Lord Bute asks—“Did he add the altar against the screen which crosses the south aisle just west of the eastmost door into the cloister?”

“He [Halderston] built the eastern gable from the foundations, along with its arch [arcuali voltâ].” As Lord Bute remarks—“This must mean only the east window, the greater part of the east wall being of transition work” (see Figs. 443-444.) “He adorned pleasingly the hinder vestry [revestiarium] with the reliques and other restorations and cases [clausaris] at considerable expense.”

Lord Bute thinks that “the revestiarium is evidently the east end of the church behind the high altar, sometimes wrongly called the Lady Chapel,” and refers for the use of this term to the contemporary accounts of the death of the Red Comyn, in which he is sometimes stated to have been dragged by the friars into the vestry, and sometimes behind the altar, thus showing the space behind the altar to have been the vestry.

“He laid with a pleasing pavement the whole space not only of the choir, but also of the transept [transversarum capellarum] of the church, along with both sides [lateribus sive panis] of the cloister, and also the outer chapter house [inferius capitulum]. He rebuilt, as it were, from the foundations the fair and remarkable palace within the court of the prior’s lodging, along with the handsome [decentoribus] oratory and chamber which are there situated; and likewise domestic manor-houses in their [or his ‘suis’] ‘locaperhendinalia’ [places where he might occasionally have to stay, perendie = the day after to-morrow], such as Ballon, Segy, and Kynmoth.”

The following note on the above passage is subjoined by Lord Bute:—

“Bower states (pp. 368-369) that Prior John of Haddington, who sat 1263-1304, ‘made the great chamber which is situated in the east part of the monastery, beside the burying-ground;’ that Prior John of Forfar (1313-1321) ‘built the new chamber adjoining the cloister, which the priors have usually had, and which Prior William of Lothian (1340-1354) afterwards enclosed on every side with a very strong wall;’ also, that William of Lothian roofed ‘the eastern chamber’ at great expense.” Lord Bute goes on to say—“My impression is, that the ‘new chamber’ is that afterwards called the senzie chamber; several priors and bishops are mentioned as having died ‘in the prior’s chamber,’ but that Halderston rebuilt the eastern chamber, erecting a fine house there, and also rebuilding some rather decayed old oratory on a finer scale [decentiori]. He was the first who obtained for the priors the use of the pastoral insignia—viz., the mitre, staff, and ring. ‘He strikingly increased for their glory the pomp of divine service, at the celebration of the mass of our lady in her chapel. [Probably it was the custom for the priors to sing or say it on certain days, or every day].... In his days the Lord William Bower, vicar of St. Andrews, completed the altar of [Christ] crucified in the nave of the church, adorned with its permanent [solido] throne and sumptuous figures; and likewise William of Ballochy, his sub-prior, with the desire of the said prior, completed in a very beautiful and comely manner the space of the dormitory at the sides and the other pavements.’”

With regard to the work of William Bower, Lord Bute says:—

“I only know of one other instance of a permanent stone gallery of one arch crossing the nave; this is at Frankfort, and I got there an architectural work on it. At Frankfort, the imperial throne stood upon it as the Commissioner’s throne used to stand in St. Giles’, Edinburgh, before it was all pulled down a few years ago; the throne of the King of France on the rood loft at Rheims, &c. &c. But this throne was not permanent. I believe that at St. Andrews there was this single span arch, bearing a platform, upon which was a great canopy (as in St. Giles’), and under the canopy the royal throne, looking eastwards, and the altar of the crucifix back to back with it (as with the imperial throne and domestic altar in the gallery at Aachen). In the rood loft at Rheims the king’s domestic altar was not back to back with the throne, but at the south end of the gallery at his right hand. Above the roof of the baldaquin or canopy (at St. Andrews), over the throne and altar, I imagine the great rood, with a multitude of ‘sumptuous figures,’ to have towered up towards the roof.”

From the above quotations from Bower, and Lord Bute’s remarks thereon, attention is drawn to a number of interesting points connected with the cathedral and priory, and the names and dates of the priors to whom certain parts of the structure are due. We gather from them—

1. That the Lady Chapel was situated on the north side of the choir.

2. That the nave was, to a large extent, rebuilt and roofed by Prior James Bisset, about the beginning of the fifteenth century, but remained an “empty synagogue” till completed and furnished with glazed windows, altars, and decorations by his successor, Prior Halderston.

This corresponds with the period assigned in the text ([pp. 18] and [28]) for the rebuilding of the upper portion of the west end.

3. Numerous other works were carried out by Prior Halderston. He it was who altered the east end, and introduced the single large window in place of several smaller ones. He also executed the pavement of the choir, transept, and cloister walk, and rebuilt the prior’s palace. He likewise carried out other works, the sites of which are indefinite; and he obtained for the priory the pastoral insignia.

According to Lord Bute’s view, a single great arch was thrown across the nave, between the second pillars from the crossing, above which was a gallery, where stood the royal throne, surmounted by a baldaquin, having the altar of the crucifix behind it; while above the canopy towered the great rood, together with numerous figures. Lord Bute points, in support of this view, to the example at Frankfort, where an arch of a single span supported the rood loft and imperial and royal thrones.

As regards the Commissioner’s or royal throne at St. Giles’, Edinburgh, it no doubt occupied the centre of the gallery at the west end of the choir, or “High Church,” when the building was divided into three churches, and it had a canopy over it. It thus stood in the position where a rood loft might have been, but the gallery it occupied was an erection of this century, and did not rest on an ancient base.

Edinburgh, October 1896.

CONTENTS.

THE ECCLESIASTICAL ARCHITECTURE OF SCOTLAND
FROM THE EARLIEST CHRISTIAN TIMES TO THE SEVENTEENTH CENTURY.
V O L U M E I I.

FIRST POINTED PERIOD.

In the previous volume those styles of architecture in Scotland were dealt with which are directly derived from the earlier styles of Celtic and Roman or Romanesque art, and it was shown, in the examples of the Transition style, that the old forms were passing away and new forms were being introduced.

We have now reached that point in the history of mediæval architecture when it took an entirely new and original development. It has already been pointed out[6] that this new departure sprung from the necessity which arose for the invention of an elastic system of vaulting which should admit of all the arches, forming vaults over spaces of any form on plan, being carried to the same height at the ridge. This requirement led to the introduction of the pointed arch in the vaulting, and from that department it soon spread to all the other arched features of the architecture.

This new development took place at a time when great changes were occurring, especially in France, in social and intellectual life. Men’s minds were then gradually awakening, science and instruction were spreading under Abailard and other teachers, the towns were obtaining their freedom, and a new system of things was gradually unfolding itself.

Architecture, which had hitherto been confined to the monasteries, was now undertaken by laymen, who, discarding the old traditional methods, strove after a new and simpler mode of expressing their ideas in stone. The elaborate and stereotyped features and ornaments of the Romanesque style were rejected, and simpler forms, at first almost without ornament, were adopted, which emphasised the constructional elements of the architecture.

Of this simple, but vigorous, early pointed style numerous examples still exist in France and Spain. When introduced amongst the Normans and English towards the close of the twelfth century the pointed style had acquired a certain amount of ornamentation of a new and appropriate description.

The examples already illustrated show that during the Transition period the new style was making itself felt in Scotland about the end of the twelfth century. At Dundrennan and Jedburgh Abbeys the pointed arch becomes prominent amongst the round arches of the earlier style, but many of the old enrichments are still adhered to. This clinging to old forms may still to a certain extent be noticed in some of the structures whose leading features are in the first pointed style, but these relics gradually, though slowly, disappear. The round arch, however, sometimes maintains its position in Scottish doorways throughout the whole of the Gothic period.[7]

The pointed arch is above referred to at Kelso[8] as having been introduced, along with Norman elements, at the crossing under the tower, where its strength was considered useful. The pointed arch, however, cannot generally be said to have been adopted in Scotland in consequence of any special requirement of construction; it rather followed the lead of countries further south as a matter of fashion. Few of our early churches were vaulted throughout at the beginning of the thirteenth century, and the forms of such vaults as existed were, doubtless, borrowed from England. The vaults of the choir of St. Andrews Cathedral and the lower church of Glasgow Cathedral are probably the only exceptions, most of our other large churches having been vaulted, if vaulted at all, at a later period. The large churches were generally designed to have the side aisles only vaulted, the central aisle being covered with a wooden roof, as, for example, Arbroath Abbey and Dunblane and Elgin Cathedrals. Holyrood Abbey is an exception; but there the vaulting of the central aisle was sexpartite, and the pointed arch was not much required.

The first pointed style, when introduced into this country, speedily spread, and most of our large churches are built in that style. Many monasteries, as we have seen, were founded in the time of the sons of Queen Margaret; but most of these appear to have been at first on a small scale, and were chiefly rebuilt on a larger plan, together with new monasteries, in the thirteenth century. Such are the abbeys of Holyrood, Inchcolm, Kilwinning, Pluscardine, Culross, and Beauly.

The thirteenth century was also distinguished as the great epoch for the erection of cathedrals. The secular clergy had then risen to power, and, under their guidance, the erection of magnificent cathedrals, both at home and abroad, was the principal architectural phenomenon of the period. In France and England the great majority of the cathedrals owe their origin or completion to about this epoch; and in Scotland there were erected, in whole or part, during the first pointed period, the cathedrals of St. Andrews, Dunblane, Glasgow (the choir and crypt), Elgin, Brechin, Dunkeld, Caithness, the choir of St. Magnus’ in Orkney, and Galloway.

The first pointed style, in which all the above structures were carried out, reached Scotland, as already mentioned,[9] through England. The relation between the ecclesiastics of the two countries was then very close, the monasteries being colonised from English houses, and the cathedral rules being based on the uses of those of England.

Hence, as might be expected, the connection of the style of architecture adopted in Scotland with that of England is at this period very intimate, almost the only difference observable being that the first pointed work in Scotland is rather later than that in England, and that the Norman and transition features are more slowly rejected. We find the same desire in both countries to render their principal ecclesiastical structures complete and varied. We have no cathedrals in Scotland which can vie with Salisbury, Lincoln, or York in size and magnificence, or in the possession of double transepts. The Scottish cathedrals and abbeys, however, were, for the most part, complete in all departments, having choir and nave with side aisles (and, in the case of Elgin Cathedral, with double aisles to the nave); a presbytery of one or two bays without aisles, but with large windows on three sides; well-marked transepts with eastern aisle; generally a large central tower over the crossing, and frequently two western and other towers.

Great central towers over the crossing of the first pointed period formerly existed at St. Andrews and Elgin Cathedrals, and at Dundrennan, Arbroath, Holyrood, Kilwinning, and Dunfermline Abbeys, but of these not a vestige now remains. The only central towers which now survive are those of Glasgow Cathedral and Pluscardine Abbey, which are carried on the arches of the crossing. There is also a central tower at Culross Abbey which rises with solid walls from the foundation. The central towers of Kirkwall and Dornoch Cathedrals have been rebuilt.

Of the other towers which once adorned our churches there still remain the two noble western towers of Elgin Cathedral, and one of the western towers of Holyrood Abbey. At both of these edifices the towers were carried up with solid walls from the foundation. In other examples, of which, however, only fragments survive, such as Arbroath and Kilwinning Abbeys, the towers opened with arches into the central and side aisles, so that the space occupied by the towers was included in the church. At Kilwinning the arch in the towers next the nave appears to have been carried to a great height, so as to form a kind of western transept. At Inchmahome Priory there are remains of one western tower, which was included in the nave. At Cambuskenneth Abbey a large detached tower exists close to the west end, and at Lindores Abbey there are remains of one western tower.

The dependent buildings were also usually numerous and complete, the cathedrals and abbeys being almost all provided with large cloister garths, surrounded by handsome chapter houses, refectories, guest houses, &c. The chapter houses are generally square, and vaulted from one central pillar; but that of Elgin Cathedral is detached and octagonal, with vaulting springing from a lofty central column. The western portals are generally important, those of Elgin Cathedral and Holyrood Abbey being specially fine. That of Kirkwall Cathedral, already described,[10] is the finest of this period.

The Norman round apse gives place at this time, as in England, to the square east end, and there is in the first pointed period no indication of a round or multangular chevet like those in France.

The similarity of all the details of the architecture of Scotland to that of England has already been fully explained.[11]

The Scottish churches are comparatively low in the vaulting; they do not exhibit the soaring ambition of those of France, but are, like the churches of the sister country, comparatively moderate in height. The buttresses are simple and plain, and flying buttresses and pinnacles are occasionally used. The caps are round on plan, and have foliage founded on that of the early first pointed style in England.

The windows are almost always of the lancet form, several being often grouped together, and some incipient forms of tracery are attempted, as at Dunblane and Glasgow Cathedrals.

In the piers the massive round columns of the Norman style are abandoned, and clustered shafts are used, which give a lighter character to the interior. The sections of these piers are exceedingly simple and effective. They are usually illustrated in connection with each edifice, and they have all a general resemblance to each other. The section consists of one larger attached shaft (usually brought to an acute edge in the centre) on each of the four cardinal faces, and one or two intermediate smaller shafts between the four principal shafts, either separated by square fillets or without such fillets. In the later examples the sharp keel edge on the face of the shafts becomes a fillet.

The bays sometimes follow the ordinary arrangement in England, having a triforium arcade over the main arcade, surmounted by the clerestory. In some of our largest churches, viz., St. Andrews and Glasgow Cathedrals, and Kilwinning, Holyrood, Arbroath, and Pluscardine Abbeys, this arrangement is followed; but it is notable that in several churches, as at Elgin and Dunblane Cathedrals, the triforium is dispensed with, and the clerestory is placed immediately over the main arcade. In other examples, as at Dryburgh Abbey, the triforium is reduced to a minimum, and the gallery represented only by a round cusped opening. The absence of the triforium is an arrangement which was much adhered to in the later epochs of our Gothic architecture.

The relative lengths of the nave and choir have already been referred to;[12] but attention may be drawn to the remarkable fact that in the monastic churches, which were constructed chiefly for the use of the monks, the choir, or portion set apart for the ecclesiastics, is small, and the nave is large; while in the cathedrals, which were intended for the use of the community, the choir is large as compared with the nave.

During the first pointed period attention seems to have been chiefly directed to the erection of large cathedrals and monastic churches—the number of parish churches constructed at this period being comparatively small.

This, no doubt, partly arose from the large number of parish churches built during the Norman period. Several examples of small churches of the first pointed period, however, are illustrated, which show that the style extended to all departments of ecclesiastical structures.

ST. ANDREWS CATHEDRAL, Fifeshire.

The ancient city of St. Andrews, formerly the ecclesiastical metropolis of Scotland, is now reduced to a small, but interesting, town, full of the remains of its former grandeur.

Situated at the eastern point of Fifeshire, on level ground, raised a considerable height above the sea, and surrounded with a rocky coast, there is little in the nature of the site to impress the beholder; but as seen in approaching from the west, the remains of the ancient edifices, with their ruined towers standing out against the sky, produce an impression of departed greatness which accords well with the venerable and stirring history of the place.

There are vague traditions of the site having been occupied by an ancient hermit at a very early period;[13] but St. Andrews was not recognised as the see of a bishop till about 950, when Cellach, the first bishop, was appointed. After him there followed ten Culdee bishops, the last being Fothad, by whom the marriage of Malcolm Canmore and Queen Margaret was celebrated.

The dedication of the cathedral to St. Andrew is involved in fable; but Dr. Skene[14] thinks that the church was founded between 736 and 761, and that portions of the relics of St. Andrew were brought to the place at that time, probably, as tradition has it, by Acca, Bishop of Northumbria, who was banished from that country in 732, and is believed to have founded a church amongst the Picts. The author of Celtic Scotland points to the similarity of the events which succeeded one another in Northumbria and in Southern Pictland in the eighth century. In the former country the Columban Church was expelled and secular clergy introduced; the Church of Hexham was dedicated to St. Andrew, and his relics were received there. In the latter country, sixty years later, the Picts expelled the Columbans and introduced the secular clergy, while at the same time they received part of the relics of St. Andrew, and founded a church in his honour, St. Andrew afterwards becoming the national patron saint.

After the death of Fothad, the last Bishop of Alban, in 1093, the see of St. Andrews remained vacant till 1107, when Turgot, Queen Margaret’s chaplain and biographer, was appointed to the bishopric.

In 1158-59, Arnald, Abbot of Kelso, was consecrated Bishop of St. Andrews. That prelate immediately set about the building of the cathedral, but he died in 1162, when the work was scarcely begun. The structure progressed under his successors, and probably the whole, including the west end, was finished in little more than a century after its commencement. The original west end, having been blown down by a tempest of wind, was rebuilt by Bishop William Wiseheart (or Wishart) between 1272 and 1279. It is usually stated that the cathedral occupied 160 years in building, but it would appear to have been entirely erected from east to west on the ground it now occupies in about 115 years.

The Cathedral of St. Andrews was also the conventual church of the priory of Canons Regular of St. Augustine, which was founded by Bishop Robert about the year 1120; but of the conventual buildings erected at that time there are now no remains. The church of St. Regulus, however, which was probably erected by him, still survives.[15] The bishop was, ex officio, the prior of the monastery.

The structures erected by the various succeeding bishops and archbishops are noticed as we proceed.

In 1559 the cathedral was attacked by the mob and greatly destroyed, and thereafter became a general quarry for public use. In 1826 the Barons of Exchequer took possession of the ruins and had the rubbish cleared away, and what remained of the structure put in good order, the bases of the piers, where they existed, being brought to light, and the outline of the ancient buildings marked out in the turf.

A property adjoining the cathedral having recently been acquired by the Marquis of Bute, excavations on the site of the priory have been carried out by him, under the superintendence of Mr. J. Kinross, architect, and considerable remains of the foundations of the ancient monastic buildings have been disclosed to view.

The cathedral, of which the ruins still exist ([Fig. 441]), consisted of a short aisleless presbytery and a choir of five bays with side aisles, having an eastern chapel in each aisle; north and south transepts, each of three bays, with eastern aisles; a nave of twelve bays with north and south aisles;

Fig. 441.—St. Andrews Cathedral. Plan.

and a large central tower over the crossing. The interior dimensions of the edifice were as follow:—Total length, 355 feet; width of nave, 63 feet; length of transepts, 167 feet 6 inches; width of transepts, 43 feet 2 inches.

The older surviving portions show some remains of the transition style, but the principal parts of the structure have been carried out in the first pointed style. The remains of the choir piers clearly indicate that that style has prevailed in the choir, and the beautiful entrance to the chapter house gives some idea of the boldness and vigour of the first pointed work which, doubtless, extended throughout the building.

The cathedral has been very greatly ruined, but some portions have escaped destruction. Of these the east end wall still stands, but without its gable, and one half of the west end wall is entire. Besides these, the south wall of the nave, the west and south walls of the south transept for a considerable height, portions of other walls and foundations, and certain of the pillars to a few feet above the bases, are all that now survive of this once splendid structure. The east end of the choir, and the south transept and nave as far west as the fourth bay of the nave, show some lingering traces of the Transition style; and in portions of the nave, as far as the cloister doorway in the third bay from the west end, the lower part of the wall half-way up to the window sills, is of the same period. This is evident from the flat band, chamfered at top and bottom, which runs along thus far, and is a characteristic feature of early work.

The building of the western portion by Wishart is described with considerable minuteness in the Orygynale Cronykill, by Andrew Wyntown, who was a canon of the priory. He says (Vol. I., p. 390):—

“Wilyhame Wyschard wes blessyd in Scone.
Sevyn yhere and a half wes he
Byschape, and gert byggyt be
Nere all the body of the Kyrke:
Quhare that he begowth to wyrk,
Yhit men may the Taknys se
Apper and be affinnetè,
Ewyn owth[16] the thryd Pillare
Frá the Chawnselare Dure[17] sene thare;
Báth wndyre, and owth that south part,
And the north syd swá westwart,
And that west Gáivil alsuá
In-til hys tyme all gert he má.
And bot of hys Ethchettis[18] hále
Hys Kyrk he endyd Cathedyrale,
Bath in the Stane, and Thak, and Tre
The body of hys Kyrk thus he
In all thyng gert be byggyt welle,
That langyt til it ilke dele.”

Fig. 442.—St. Andrews Cathedral. Original East End.

Nothing is said about an earlier west end, but the description applies well to the later upper story of the south wall (see [Fig. 448]) and the lower story of the west end of the nave (see [Fig. 450]).

Fig. 443.—St. Andrews Cathedral. East End: Exterior.

The east end wall is not now in its original condition, but enough remains to show what it was originally. [Fig. 442] shows its first condition when it was divided into three stories, with three windows in each, similar to those still remaining in the lower story ([Fig. 443]). The windows of the top range had in the interior ([Fig. 444]) shoulders at the springing of the arch similar to those of the windows still standing in the nave and transept. Nothing remains to show how the apex was designed. The windows of the two upper stories were almost entirely abolished during the first half of the fifteenth century, when one large window was inserted with simple tracery, of which enough remains to enable the design to be reconstructed ([Fig. 445]). The arch of this window is very slightly pointed, and is indeed semicircular in its inner ring, the object being to get as much extra height as possible without penetrating into the corbel course of the apex, the

Fig. 444.—St. Andrews Cathedral. East End: Interior.

cornice outside being, however, slightly raised in the centre over the top of the arch. The jambs and arch springers of the original windows, which did not require to be removed, have been left to tell the tale of the original design (see [Figs. 443] and [444]). We have in this east end an example of the Norman style of designing a façade by piling story above story, altered at a later date by the insertion of one large traceried window, so as to bring the façade into harmony with the later style of designing similar façades. From the small portions of the north and south walls still standing, it is evident that the same design as in the east wall of three stories was continued westwards in the choir. The upper story consisted of an arcade, having a central light in each bay, and an arch on each side opening into the passage which ran along the centre of the wall (see [Fig. 444]). On the outside these side openings were represented by blind arches. Against the north-east corner of the east wall a high angular buttress has been built (see Plan), having massive base mouldings of probably fifteenth century work. A similar buttress is indicated in the plan of the cathedral shown in Lyon’s History of St. Andrews as having existed at the opposite corner. The object of these buttresses is not apparent, as the east end wall shows no sign of weakness, although it has been badly used when the buttresses were built by having its corner stones pulled out. For the preservation of the structure the corners, which have been removed, ought to be replaced, seeing that the east wall now stands quite detached. The blank wall of the presbytery beneath the lower windows of the east end (see [Fig. 444]) appears to have been ornamented with an arcade, the blocks for the bases of the shafts being still in situ. The arcade must have been merely placed against the wall, and not bonded into it in the usual way, or else there would have been some remains or indications of it.

Fig. 445.—St. Andrews Cathedral.
Window inserted in East End.

In the foundations of the east wall there can be seen fragments of ancient sculptured stones, and it has been proposed that these should be removed; but fortunately, for the preservation of the structure, that idea has been abandoned.

The presbytery had a groined vault springing from lofty angle shafts. The ribs are crossed by a curious horizontal band, at the level where the vaulting becomes of arched construction. This groining may possibly have been renewed at the time the alterations were made on the east wall. The angle buttresses may have been built at the same time, although, strangely, at the points where they were least required.

Fig. 446.—St. Andrews Cathedral. Section of Piers.

The central aisle of the choir and nave is of the same width as the presbytery. Several of the piers of the choir still remain to a considerable height above the base. Their section, and also those of the nave piers, are shown in Fig. 446. The side aisles were vaulted, as is indicated by the bases of the vaulting shafts.

The presbytery floor is two steps up from the choir; the steps still exist between the two eastmost pillars. To the eastward of these there are foundations as if of a wall across the church. Adjoining this there is a large stone slab, measuring about 11 feet 4 inches by 7 feet 8 inches, with slight square depressions carefully wrought on its surface, as shown on the Plan. This large slab may have been the covering of a grave, and the depressions on the surface may have contained brasses. There is a similar slab in the choir, measuring 10 feet by 5 feet 5½ inches (see Plan).

The west wall of the south transept ([Fig. 447]) has an intersecting arcade in the lower story, with three round arched windows above, and graceful arcading between, resting on corbels having square abaci. Similar windows are continued along the south wall of the nave for four bays. Westwards of this the nave windows are pointed, and have very simple tracery ([Fig. 448]); otherwise there is very little difference in the design of the south wall of the nave throughout its whole length. The lower part seems to have been built as far west as the third bay from the west end during the Transition period. The plan of the wall shows the same flat buttresses with round angle shafts throughout its whole length, which are indications of early work. [Fig. 449] shows the cap of the angle shafts of the buttresses, and one of the corbels of the cornice. The springers of the groining of the south aisle still remain (see [Fig. 447]). The groining appears to have been late, and of rather coarse work. The ribs are struck from centres below the level of their springing. All the bays have wall ribs, except the two east bays, which rather indicates that the latter bays were not meant at first to be vaulted. The vaulting

Plan of Angle of Transept and Nave.

Fig. 447.—St. Andrews Cathedral. West Side of Transept and South Side of Nave.

shafts have all the same section, and are without caps, the ribs dying into the shafts, except in the case of the two eastmost and the westmost shaft and the angle one at the west wall, which latter does not come to the ground. These shafts have large caps, uniting the clustered section into one. The centre aisle of the nave was not vaulted.

Corbel of Cloister Roof, enlarged.

Fig. 448.—St. Andrews Cathedral. West End of Nave and Turret of West End.

The south wall of the nave extends considerably westwards beyond the present west end, and contains the remains of a vaulting shaft in the position it would naturally have occupied in the spacing of the bays. This seems to show that the cathedral was originally of greater length than it now is by at least 34 feet, while it may have extended westwards an unknown number of bays, each of which would measure 16 feet in width. The south side of this wall (which is partly built against with modern erections) shows traces of early arcading. The north wall of the nave also projects westwards from the present west end for a distance of about 7 feet. When the original west wall fell, it may have destroyed a few of the western bays, and this possibly induced Bishop Wishart, when he rebuilt the west end, to omit these bays, and shorten the cathedral by so much.

Fig. 449. St. Andrews Cathedral.
Cap of Angle Shafts of
Buttresses
and Corbel of Cornice.

There is a very puzzling feature in connection with this west front ([Fig. 450]) which has never been satisfactorily explained. On each side of the doorway there rises a vaulting shaft, a few feet higher than the level of the capitals of the doorway. A similar shaft will be observed at the angle of the west front and the south wall. Rising from these shafts are incomplete ragglets, indicating the form of vaults against the west façade, thus suggesting that there was a western porch. But such a feature is quite incompatible with the design of the west end, for had there been such a porch, it would have cut the arcade above the doorway in two, which is a most unlikely idea. The vaulting shafts and arches springing from them are a part of the original design and construction. The arcade also seems at first sight to be so, hence the difficulty of reconciling these features with the existence of a western porch. The marks of the arch rise to the apex in the south aisle, and the arch head might have been completed without interfering with the arcade. Over the central door the marks of the arch are carried up only as far as the string course beneath the first arcade. This fact, together with the later character of the upper part of the building, would seem to indicate that there has been a change in the design, and that the original intention of having a wide porch extending along the whole of the west end has been departed from after the first story was built up to the level of the above string course, all above that point being of later design and execution. The style of the architecture confirms this view. It may be mentioned that the arcade over the west door is very similar to that over the “Pends” (see [Fig. 456]), which is, undoubtedly, a late structure. The lower story of the west end, which is in the first pointed style, would thus appear to be all that remains of the façade erected by Bishop Wishart; while the upper portion above the first string course was rebuilt at a later date, as will be explained further on.

Fig. 450.—St. Andrews Cathedral. West Front.

Arch Mouldings.

Fig. 451.—St. Andrews Cathedral. North-East Angle of Cloister.

The usual east and west doorways open from the nave into the cloisters, the eastern one ([Fig. 451]) being of good transition design. Like all the openings on the ground level on the cloister side, it was, till recently, backed up with brick, so as to form a good wall for fruit trees; but this part of the building has now been opened up under the instructions of the Marquis of Bute.

A holy water stoup, in the angle of the transept, adjoins the eastern door to the cloister, and the corbels which supported the projecting upper part of the transept wall, and also carried the wall plate of the cloister roof, are likewise disclosed. A similar stoup exists in the corresponding position adjoining the cloister door at Melrose. Another doorway in the south wall, outside the west end, led to the conventual buildings. A doorway in the south transept aisle (see Plan) led to the south.

The chapter house was a room about 26 feet square. It was vaulted with four central pillars, and was about 15 feet high. The opening to the chapter house, from the cloisters, consisted of a central doorway with two side openings. These portions of the building ([Fig. 452]) are in the purest style of early pointed architecture, and, happily, they are in a fairly complete state of preservation, only the central pillars of the side openings, which had two lights, being wanting. These are shown as if restored in Fig. 453. The round caps and bases and the dog-tooth ornament are distinctive of the style. The round arched doorway on the north leads from the cloister to the slype. The chapter house appears to have been built before the middle of the thirteenth century. About a century later (1298-1328) Bishop Lamberton erected a new chapter house to the east (as shown on the Plan). Of this extension only the south wall remains, showing thirteen seats in arched recesses, the eastern seat being apart from the others. The return of the east wall remains, together with a portion of a continuous seat. The wall between the old and new chapter house is very much reduced in height. It contains an opening in the style of the entrance from the cloister, and has had a central doorway with side openings. The old chapter house then became the vestibule to the new one.

The size of the new chapter house was about 47 feet by 26 feet. It was groined in two bays, and probably the vault extended from wall to wall without central pillars.

Spottiswoode (page 34) says of Bishop Lamberton that he adorned the chapter house with “curious seats and ceeling,” and Fordun mentions that Joannes de Gourie, the twelfth prior, died in 1340, and was buried in “Novo Capitulo.”[19] Winton and Martine also state that on the completion of this addition to the chapter house, in 1318, the Cathedral of St. Andrews was dedicated by Bishop Lamberton, assisted by seven bishops and fifteen abbots, in presence of King Robert the Bruce and a great assembly of gentlemen. South of the original chapter house are the remains of what

Fig. 452.—St. Andrews Cathedral. Entrance to Chapter House.

Fig. 453.—St. Andrews Cathedral. Entrance to Chapter House. Plan and Elevation.

Fig. 454.—St. Andrews Cathedral. Plan showing Conventual and other Buildings.

was probably the fratry. On the upper floor, which formerly existed above this building and the chapter house, was the dormitory; the wheel stair leading to it from the south transept still exists in the south-west angle of the south transept. This dormitory was built by John Quhite, the seventh prior, between 1236 and 1258, being about the period to which the building of the original chapter house would, from its style, be assigned. This prior also built the refectory, which occupied the south side of the cloister. It was, according to Martine (p. 187), 108 feet long by 28 feet wide, and had, at the east end, “a four square room for copes and albs, &c., besides the common vestiarie.”

Fig. 455.—St. Andrews Cathedral. Doorways in West Wall of Fratery.

The Plan ([Fig. 454])[20] shows the conventual and other buildings attached to the cathedral. These have recently been excavated by instructions of the Marquis of Bute, and are found to correspond with the above figures given by Martine. Two doorways of first pointed style in the west wall of the fratry ([Fig. 455]) have also been opened up.

The west side of the cloister was occupied by the sub-prior’s house, known also as the Senzie house. To the south of it was the Senzie chamber, which appears to have been enlarged at the beginning of the sixteenth century into a room 80 feet by 20 feet, in order to form the library of the adjoining College of St. Leonards. The extending of this room blocked up the west windows of the refectory, and, doubtless, the existing arched cellars shown on the Plan were beneath this chamber.

The building seen on the Plan to the south-east of the chapter house seems, from Martine’s description, to be part of the remains of the prior’s house, called also the Hospitium Vetus, or the Old Inn. It was a large building, occupying the ground to the east of the fratry, and was sometimes the residence of the bishop.

To the west of the cathedral are the stately remains of the entrance gateway, called the “Pends” ([Fig. 456]). Only the shell of the building now remains, with the springers of the groined vaulting. It measures about 80 feet in length by 23 feet in width.

Fig. 456.—St. Andrews Cathedral. Entrance to the “Pends” or Gatehouse.

In continuation of the “Pends” is the enclosing wall of the priory grounds. This is a very extensive structure ([Fig. 457]), still in good preservation. It is about 22 feet high and 4 feet thick. As will be seen from the Plan, it circles round till it reaches the north-east corner of the cathedral, at which point it is seen in the view (see [Fig. 444]). The length of the wall is about 1150 yards. In Martine’s time it contained sixteen towers; at present thirteen are partly standing. There is a wide gate in the wall to the south ([Fig. 458]) defended by towers (see S, [Fig. 457]). It is the common “entrie for carts with the teynd sheaves of the prior aikers.” Close to it stood the “teynd barne and teynd yaird.”

Fig. 457.—St. Andrews Cathedral. Plan showing Enclosing Wall of Priory Grounds.

The gate in the east wall (see R, [Fig. 457]), which is close to the harbour, and is called the Harbour Gate, is shown in Fig. 459. This wall was built by Prior Hepburn, whose arms are to be seen on several of the towers, and one bears the date of 1520.

Martine informs us that amongst the other buildings scattered throughout the grounds were the following (most of which are shown in [Fig. 457]), viz.:—

The Guest House, within the precinct of St. Leonard’s College. It was built by John White, seventh prior, about the middle of the thirteenth century. Part of the wall is believed to be still standing.

The New Inn. “It is thought this was the last building about the abbacie before the Reformation,” and to have been built as a retreat for Magdalene, Queen of James V., who, however, did not live to visit it, as she died in 1537. Only the entrance gateway of this building now remains. It contains the Scottish arms and the arms of Prior Hepburn. The New Inn was afterwards the occasional residence of the archbishop.

Fig. 458.—St. Andrews Cathedral. Enclosing Wall, with Gateway and Towers.

The Granary stood to the north-east of the New Inn. Part of the east side wall is thought to be still standing, and on the east side of this is the monastery well, shown on the Plan.

The Abbey Mill, with the mill dam and mill lead, sluices, &c., are shown on the Plan ([Fig. 457]), and are still in use.

The Tiend Barn still stands in the neighbourhood of the mill, and is still utilised.

Numerous other buildings are mentioned by Martine, such as the Brew House (which stood near the mill), the Malt House, Bear Girnell, Promptwarium, Hortus Gladiatorius, Barnsdeall-Yaird, &c., of which no remains survived in his time.

Besides these buildings directly connected with the priory and cathedral there still exists, opposite the west end of the latter, the manse of the archdeacon, “commonlie called the archdeacon’s inns.”[21]

Fig. 459.—St. Andrews Cathedral. Priory. Harbour Gate.

Among other bishops who were builders of portions of the cathedral, not already mentioned, was William Malvoisine (1202-33). According to Spottiswoode, he “advanced the fabrick (which was then a-building) more than any that went before him.” It is probable that part of the nave (most of which Winton credits to Wishart) may have been built by him.

In the time of Bishop William de Landel (1341-85), in the year 1378, the cathedral suffered considerably from fire. The bishop and the prior, Stephen de Pay, repaired the damage. According to Winton they renewed all the woodwork of the roof of the transepts, choir, and aisles with “aiken werk of Tre,” and covered them with “Thak of Lide.” The two pillars in the north and south transepts appear to have been so much damaged that they had to be entirely renewed, the wall above having to be supported. According to Winton—

“Twa pillaris new on ilka syde
In that Corskyrk war made that tyde,
As yhe may se thaim apperand
Undyre the auld werk yhit standand.” (B. ix.)

The pillars are gone, only the foundations of the two south ones remaining; but it is interesting to observe on the spot that the respond still standing against the south transept wall is of the style one would expect to find in work of the fourteenth century. Winton further says that at the same time “a quartare of the stepil of stane wes made,” which probably means that the central tower was raised, but not the spire.

According to Winton,[22] the fire destroyed the south half of the nave, from the west end eastwards to, and including, the ninth pillar. As these nine pillars were renewed, with the help of certain lords whose arms were carved on them, possibly, as in the case of the transepts, the wall and roof above were supported during this operation.

“Lytil overe sevyn (7) years their gert wyrk
And mak all this werk of the kyrk.”

From the Exchequer Rolls[23] of 1381-84, we find that the Crown contributed to the rebuilding of the cathedral at this time. Perhaps the upper portion of the west front above referred to was rebuilt at this period. Although the work is much decayed, its character would lead to that belief. The restoration begun by Bishop Landel was completed by Bishop Wardlaw (1404-40). He improved the interior by the introduction of fine pavements in the choir, transept, and nave. He also filled the windows with stained glass.

Of the minor works of the cathedral almost nothing remains. There are a few flat tombstones with inscriptions[24] still legible, but of the tombs of Bishops Gameline, Lamberton, and Walter Trail not a vestige is left. Winton, who saw these tombs, the last having been built in his own time, thus refers to them in describing the death of Lamberton.

“ ... In the north half of the new kyrke-
Cathedral, an arch he gert men wyrke,
Now seen betwene Tombis twa,
Of Gamyle the eastmast is of tha.
And, in a space that was levyd (raised),
Be-twene the Pulpyte and his Hevyd (head).
Ane Arche of fayre werk and of fyne
The Byschape Waltyr gert make syne.
Under that tomb now lyis he.
Thus lyand ar thai Byshapys thre
On the north half of the Hey Kyrk (High Kirk)
In Tombys that themselves gert Wyrk.”—(B. VIII., cxxiii.)

On the north side of the nave, near the west end, there still remains a built tomb, empty and desecrated, with slight indications of what was a stately monument in the wall. Of seventeenth century flat stones a large collection is gathered and preserved in the chapter house. [Fig. 452] shows one of these. Against the north wall of the nave, on the outside, there are three square foundations (see Plan). Two of these may possibly be the foundations of a porch.

The cathedral was in a very ruinous state when Martine wrote (1685). Apparently the north half of the west gable fell in his time, and, considering the sudden wrench to the structure caused by this catastrophe, had the remaining half not been a good piece of masonry, it might easily have followed.

Fifty years before Martine wrote, when Spottiswoode was archbishop, in 1635, the restoration of the cathedral was provided for. The rents and fruits of the benefice, except a small sum reserved for the archbishop, were to be applied for “building and repairing the cathedrall,” until the same “be perfected and finisht.” “And the church being finished then and no sooner,” the archbishop and his successors were to have the full privilege of the use of the rents, but subject to the upholding of the fabric. The structure would thus appear not to have been in a very ruinous state at that time. Nothing appears, however, to have been done, and the work of destruction was continued, and soon reduced the church to nearly its present condition.

ST. MARY’S CHURCH, Kirkheugh, St. Andrews.

This church is situated between the cathedral wall on the north-east and the sea (see C, [Fig. 457]). It was entirely lost sight of till the year 1860, when the foundations were exposed. Little else remains except the foundations. The east wall rises about 3 feet above the ground, and the other walls run from nearly level with the surface to about 2 feet in height. The structure ([Fig. 460]) consisted of a nave, transepts, and chancel. The nave and chancel do not coincide in their orientation. There was probably a low central tower supported on four arches, with a stair to the tower at the north-west corner, where the foundation of what appears to have been the stair turret is traceable. The remains of a bench are visible in the north transept. The chancel is the best preserved portion, and is of the first pointed period. It has a base all round, including the buttresses, of which those at the north-east corner have disappeared. There has been a narrow splayed doorway on the north side. A projecting piece of masonry in the south wall may have been a sedilia. A large square of masonry, 11 feet by 4 feet 4 inches, at the east end suggests the position of an altar. There is an early slab in the chancel, carved with a cross, set on steps, and a sword beside it. Another monument, of a hog-backed type, lies to the north of the nave. The existence of other stones at further distances indicate this as the position of an ancient cemetery. The masonry of the chancel is finer than that of the nave and transept, but which is the earlier it is not possible to say with any confidence.

Fig. 460.—St. Mary’s Church. Plan.

The history of this chapel, with a descriptive account, will be found in the Proceedings of the Society of Antiquaries, Session 1860-61, Vol. IV. p. 82. The internal dimensions of the chapel are:—Length of nave, 27 feet; width, 18 feet 11 inches. Length of chancel, 46 feet 8½ inches; width, 20 feet 2 inches. Total length inside, 97 feet 11½ inches; outside, 105 feet.

ARBROATH ABBEY, Forfarshire.

The ancient town of Arbroath stands on the east coast of Forfarshire, and the massive ruins of its great abbey, as seen from the sea, rising above the houses of the town, present an image of decay and desolation.

The abbey was founded by King William the Lion towards the end of the twelfth century. It was richly endowed, and soon became one of the wealthiest and most powerful monasteries in the kingdom. The inmates were of the Tironensian order, and the first monks were brought to Arbroath from Kelso Abbey.

King William, having been taken prisoner at Alnwick in 1174, was confined at Falaise, in Normandy, but regained his liberty, and returned to Scotland, in 1176. Immediately on his return he proceeded to found the Abbey of Arbroath, which he dedicated to Saint Mary and St. Thomas à Becket. The latter had been murdered at Canterbury only four years before, and it is doubtful whether King William was attached to his memory by personal friendship or by sympathy with the saint in his opposition to the King of England.

By the year 1178 part of the church was ready for dedication. William the Lion died in 1214, and was buried in the east end of the edifice, which was then finished. Shortly afterwards the south transept was sufficiently well advanced to admit of the burial within it, before the altar of St. Catherine, of Gilchrist, Earl of Angus. On the 18th of March 1233, during the time of Abbot Ralph de Lamley, the church was dedicated. The time occupied in the erection and completion of the structure was thus a little over fifty-five years, and when its dimensions are considered, it will be found in comparison with other churches to have been carried on with great rapidity.

The above dates are useful as indicating the progress of the transition and pointed styles in Scotland. The choir and transept, although still retaining a few reminiscences of the transition in the round arches interspersed among the pointed arches, are essentially first pointed in style. The retention of the round arch here, as elsewhere in Scotland, is a common feature throughout the whole course of Gothic art. In the west doorway, and also in the gallery over it, there are distinct elements of transition work; but the external and internal windows of the gallery, and the main features of the towers, are decidedly first pointed in style. Possibly the west doorway and gallery were begun at an early stage of the building, and the west end, after being stopped for a time, was completed at a later date.

As showing the eagerness with which King William pushed on the buildings, Hollinshed mentions[25] that “the king came by the Abbey of Aberbrothoc to view the work of that house, how it went forward, commanding them that were overseers and masters of the works to spare for no cost, but to bring it up to perfection, and that with magnificence.”

The abbey church ([Fig. 461]) consisted of a choir of three bays, with side aisles and an aisleless presbytery; a nave of nine bays, with aisles and north and south transepts, with eastern aisles. There were two western towers, and one large tower over the crossing.

The following are the principal dimensions of the edifice:—

Length (external measurement from east to west, not including buttresses), 293 feet.

Breadth (external measurement from north to south, not including buttresses), 74 feet.

Length of transept (external measurement from north to south, not including buttresses), 147 feet.

Width of transept over walls (external measurement from east to west, not including buttresses), 54 feet.

Considerable portions of these different divisions of the edifice still remain, but the greater part of the north side of the choir, the north transept and nave, and almost all the piers and pillars have been swept

Fig. 461.—Arbroath Abbey. Plan.

Fig. 462.—Arbroath Abbey. Interior of East End.

away. Beginning at the east end, the eastern wall ([Fig. 462]) is entire for nearly half its height, having an arcade below, and three lancet windows above, with the lower portions of an upper row of similar windows. Somewhat less of the return wall of the south side of the presbytery, which comprises two bays, remains, and adjoining it is the sacristy ([Fig. 463]), a late building in a fair state of preservation. The end wall of the south transept is almost complete, together with a considerable portion of the west wall of the transept ([Fig. 464].) This, being the best preserved portion of the structure, gives a good idea of the grandeur of the church. The whole of the south wall of the nave remains, showing a row of windows and indications of the groining of the aisle ([Fig. 465]). The main or centre aisle was not vaulted, but covered with a wooden roof. Most of the bases of the pillars of the nave

Fig. 463.—Arbroath Abbey. View from South-East. (From a Drawing by the late Mr. Michie, artist.)

Fig. 464.—Arbroath Abbey. South Transept and Sacristy.

are in position, as are also the foundations of the north transept. The fragment of the west end with the two towers left standing ([Fig. 466]) is very striking, and impresses one with the sense of bold, vigorous work rather than of refinement of detail, although there is also a mixture of both, of which the west doorway ([Fig. 467]) is an example. It is round arched, and its outer order, if it may be so called, extends inwards for about five feet, unadorned as a bold and plain tunnel arch, having a

Fig. 465.—Arbroath Abbey. Interior of Nave and South Transept.

pointed arch in each ingoing. It then becomes shafted and richly moulded, after the transition manner. This arrangement, while it gives a fine shadow under the arch, has a feeling of rudeness, which, to a considerable extent, characterises the whole west front. There is a remarkable resemblance in the decoration of this doorway to that of the doorway in the porch of Lerida Cathedral, Spain, supposing the tunnel arch of Arbroath away, and the moulded part brought forward to the face of the wall ([Fig. 468]), as is the case at Lerida ([Fig. 469].) In both instances the outer enrichment of the zig-zag ornament is separated by a few mouldings from a large bead enriched at regular intervals by a ring

Fig. 466.—Arbroath Abbey. West End of Church and North-West Tower.

round the bead. The inner mouldings at Lerida are further enriched, while at Arbroath the orders are simply moulded; but the sequence of the first two orders of enrichment is interesting from its occurring in two buildings probably erected at about the same time and at such a great distance apart. A similar ring ornament, on a large scale, is also to be seen in a doorway at Lamington, Lanarkshire,[26] where it is likewise used along with the zig-zag, but there the ringed order is the outer enrichment.

Fig. 467.—Arbroath Abbey. West Doorway and Gallery over.

The rude appearance of the west front, to which we have referred, is increased by the removal of the outer part of a gallery which existed over this doorway. The inner part of this gallery still remains, and a

Fig. 468.—Arbroath Abbey.

Jamb and Arch Mouldings of West Doorway.

Fig. 469.—Larida Cathedral.

Doorway of Porch.

(From Street’s Spain.)

view and plan of it are given ([Figs. 470] and [471]). From these it will be seen that within the great thickness of the wall (20 feet 3 inches) a chamber of considerable size has been obtained, which opens into the nave by six pointed arches ([Fig. 472]), and to the outside over the doorway by three arches (see [Fig. 467]). As already stated, the original outer features are gone, and only the rugged skeleton remains. It is quite obvious from [Fig. 467] and from the Plan (see [Fig. 471]) that three gablets projected outwards from the wall for a distance of about 4 feet, supported on two intermediate shafts (marked X X), and that the gallery was closed in at each end with walls or haffits, both of which still in part remain. It is thus apparent that we now see the west front robbed of its most unique features, and the bare masonry exposed, which was never meant to be seen. This gallery was reached by a long passage at each end from stairs in the angle buttresses. It probably was a gallery for an orchestra, and it would also be suitable as a pulpit from which to address an audience in the open air. As above mentioned, it is probable that this part of the building was erected at two different times, the west doorway and some of the pillars of the gallery being in the early transition style, while the triple windows to the front and the six-light

Fig. 470.—Arbroath Abbey. Gallery over West Doorway.

arcade towards the interior are in the first pointed style. When the gallery was completed in the first pointed period, the floor space was enlarged by extending it to the front, hence the necessity for the deep tunnel arch over the west doorway. The pointed arches in the ingoing also indicate the first pointed period.

Above this gallery there was an immense circular window, of which only a portion survives.

The western towers opened with arches into the north and south and central aisles (see [Fig. 472]), but only the north tower retains its massive pier and arches. Of the south tower nothing but the foundation of the pier exists.

Fig. 471.—Arbroath Abbey. Plan of Gallery over West Doorway.

The south wall of the transept (see [Fig. 464]) is comparatively plain on the outside, merely the upper part being visible above the dormitory roof. The façade presents two plain lancet windows, one very much shorter than the other to admit of the before-mentioned roof, and above the lancets a large wheel window occupies the gable. The interior of the transept ([Fig. 473]) is a very grand design in the early pointed style. The lancets are splayed to a great width in the interior with banded nook shafts on the sconsions, and arched above in the simplest manner without any mouldings. Beneath the lancets there is a round arched open arcade having a passage behind it, and beneath this two tiers of wall arcades with pointed arches, the central arcade being very acutely pointed, and the lower one not so decidedly pointed, and with trefoil cusps in the arches. A staircase in the south-east angle of the transept gave access to the dormitory by the door which is seen built up on the outside (see [Fig. 464]). This staircase also leads to the various passages in the thickness of the walls shown in Fig. 473. The doorway leading from the church to this stair ([Fig. 474]) ranges with the lower pointed arcade, and is round arched. The west return wall of the transept is very bold and grand, as seen from the interior (see [Fig. 473]). The lower arcade of the south end is continued along the west wall, and above this two

Fig. 472.—Arbroath Abbey. Interior of West End.

(From a Sketch by Mr. T. S. Robertson, Dundee.)

windows widely splayed, and having nook shafts on the sconsions, rise to a great height and are finished with moulded circular arches in the interior and pointed lancets in the exterior. All the lofty windows in the south transept have passages on two floors. The upper passage running along this wall must have been connected with some kind of bridge thrown across the windows. There are indications of rests for beams doubtless connected with this arrangement, which would probably