TRANSCRIBER'S NOTES:

—Obvious print and punctuation errors were corrected.

—The transcriber of this project created the book cover image using the title page of the original book. The image is placed in the public domain.

MECHANICAL DEVICES
IN THE HOME

by

EDITH ALLEN, M. A.
Assistant Editor, U. S. Department of Agriculture
Formerly
Specialist in Home Economics in Kansas State Agricultural
College, University of Texas, and Oklahoma
Agricultural and Mechanical College

THE MANUAL ARTS PRESS

PEORIA, ILLINOIS

Copyright 1922
Edith Allen
12C22

Printed in the United States of America

PREFACE

In writing this book, my aim has been (1) to give information which will guide householders in selecting and installing the best cooking and heating devices, and in using them with the greatest economy of fuel and safety against accidents; (2) to explain the construction of lighting fixtures and how to determine the amount of light for health needed in various places; (3) to explain the principles of cooling; (4) to show how to make small repairs which save plumbers' bills; (5) to guide in the choice and care of laundry appliances and cooking utensils; (6) to familiarize women with the construction of electric, acetylene and gas plants and engines, and (7) to furnish tables of measure often needed for reference.

There is a lack of material of this type which is non-technical enough for the use of home economics students and housewives. The material which I have organized applies directly to the appliances with which women work and is of a nature to fill their need in this field.

The book is designed as a text for senior-high school and junior-college classes, as well as for the needs of home-demonstration agents, housewives and other women.

Edith Allen

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The author is particularly indebted in the preparation of this book to John G. Thompson, professor of economics, University of Illinois; J. K. T. Ekblaw, instructor of farm mechanics, University of Illinois, and editor of Farm Power; Andrey A. Potter, professor of steam and gas engineering, Kansas State Agricultural College; J. M. Bryant, professor of electrical engineering, University of Texas; Harrison E. Howe, National Council of Research; Miss Minna C. Denton, home economics specialist, United States Department of Agriculture; Miss Marie Dallas, Washington, D. C.; F. F. Good, instructor in applied physics, Teachers' College, Columbia University, New York.

The following is a list of companies furnishing illustrations, data and other information:

American Blower Company.
American Ironing Machine Co.
American Lava Co.
American Radiator Co.
American Stove Co.
Automatic Electric Washer Co.
Baltimore Gas Appliance Co.
Bates & Edmonds Motor Co.
Bissel's Carpet Sweeper Co.
Blake Mfg. Co.
C. Brown Mfg. Co.
B. Bryan Co.
Central Construction & Supply Co.
Central Oil & Gas Stove Co.
Chambers Fireless Cooker Stove Co.
Geo. M. Clark & Co.
Cleveland Metal Products Co.
Coleman Lamp Co.
Consolidated Gas, Electric Light
and Power Co.
Cyphers Incubator Co.
Dangler Stove Co.
Davis Acetylene Co.
The DeLaval Separator Co.
Delco Motor Co.
The Deming Co.
Detroit Heating & Lighting Co.
Detroit Stove Works.
Detroit Vapor Stove Co.
A. B. Dick Co.
W. S. Dickey Clay Mfg. Co.
The Durham Mfg. Co.
Eagle Generator Co.
Fuller, Warren & Co.
General Electric Co.
Hammond Typewriter Co.
Hart & Crouse Co.
Herrick Refrigerator Co.
Huenfield Co.
Humphrey Co.
Hurley Machine Co.
Kalamazoo Stove Co.
Kewanee Water Supply Co.
Klau-Van Pietersom-Dunlap.
Landers, Frary, Clark & Co.
Laundryette Mfg. Co.
Manning, Bowman & Co.
Mantle Lamp Co. of America.
H. G. McFadden & Co.
The Monitor Stove Co.
National Electric Supply Co.
Northwestern Steel & Iron Works.
Pacific Flush Tank Co.
Potomac Power & Lighting Co.
Rathbone, Sard & Co.
Reliable Stove Co.
Remnert Mfg. Co.
Rhinelander Refrigerator Co.
Ringen Stove Co.
Rochester Rotary Washer Co.
Rochester Stamping Co.
Sears, Roebuck & Co.
Sharples Separator Co.
Singer Sewing Machine Co.
L. C. Smith & Bros. Typewriting Company.
Standard Oil Co.
Edward L. Stock.
Thatcher Furnace Co.
The Torrington Co.
Toledo Cooker Co.
Trenton Potteries Co.
United Electric Co.
United Pump & Power Co.
United States Dept. of Agriculture.
United States Radiator Co.
Voss Bros. Mfg. Co.
Walker Bros. Co.
Welsbach Co.
Western Electric Co.
White Frost Refrigerator Co.
White Mop and Wringer Co.
Wilcox & Gibbs Sewing Machine Co.
The Yale & Towne Mfg. Co.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

PART I. COOKING STOVES

PART II. HEATING DEVICES

PART III. LIGHTING DEVICES

PART IV. COOLING DEVICES

PART V. WATER SUPPLY AND SEWAGE DISPOSAL

PART VI. LAUNDRY EQUIPMENT

PART VII. HOUSE-CLEANING EQUIPMENT

PART VIII. DEVICES FOR PREPARATION AND
CONSERVATION OF FOOD

PART IX. SUNDRY DEVICES

PART X. MOTORS, FUELS AND GAS PLANTS

PART XI. MEASURING DEVICES

PART I

Cooking Stoves

CHAPTER I

Wood and Coal Stoves

A brief explanation of stoves is given in this chapter to help the woman with a new stove or with an old one which she does not understand so that she may manage it without wasting fuel and nervous energy.

Fig. 1. Cross-section of cooking stove.

Cooking stoves (Fig. 1) were invented as a convenient means for holding pots and pans in close proximity to the fire. They include a device for regulating the supply of air to the burning fuel.

1. Air Supply for Fire. A proper amount of air must be supplied to the fuel to produce a hot fire. A smoky or yellow flame indicates a lack of sufficient air to produce complete combustion of the fuel. Smoke is unburnt fuel. A smoky fire does not produce as much heat as one which burns with a blue or almost colorless flame. It is usually not the fault of the fuel, but the way it is being used that causes a smoky fire.

2. The Grate. Cooking stoves may be constructed for burning either wood or coal. In both cases, the operation is similar, except that more air should be passing thru the stove while wood is being burnt. For burning coal, the grate should be less open in order to prevent the coal from falling thru. Some modern stoves are made with double grates. These may be turned so that the more open part of them is used for supporting the wood, and the less open part for coal.

Fig. 1-a. Grate.

These grates are usually reversed by a stove shaker. (Fig. 1-a) shows a detailed drawing of a grate.) The housekeeper must understand how this is done in order to avoid reversing them when she shakes down the ashes. Two difficulties arise in reversing the grate when the stove is filled with fuel. The coal may be wasted by falling thru the part intended for wood, or pieces of fuel may fall between the parts so that they cannot be moved. When this happens, it is best to let the fire go out, take out the fuel, adjust the grates as they should be and rebuild the fire.

3. Drafts or Dampers. There are from three to six dampers on a stove (Figs. 1 and 2), as follows:

1) The draft below the fire box, found on all stoves, is to let in air to the burning fire.

2) The draft above the fire box, not found on all stoves, when slightly opened, lets in air which completes the combustion of the gases arising from the top of the fire. When opened too wide, it checks the burning of the fire.

3) The oven damper, found on all cook stoves, is placed at the point where the flame naturally enters the stove pipe. When this damper is closed, the flame must go around the oven instead of directly up the chimney.

To see the oven damper, take off the lid nearest the stove pipe and watch the direction of the flame. The handle to the oven damper may be at the side of the pipe on top of the stove or at the front of the stove under the top near the reservoir. Closing this damper causes the hot gases from the fire to go back over the top of the stove down behind the oven, turn under the oven and come up the chimney. Good stoves are constructed so that the hot gases come in contact with every part of the oven. This makes a longer journey for the gases, but, if the drafts in the front of the stove and chimney are properly adjusted, the gases will make the circuit without forming soot.

Fig. 2. Drafts and dampers
in stove-pipe.

4) A damper in the stove pipe (Fig. 2) for letting air from the room into the pipe serves to check the burning of the fire by taking the place of the draft thru the stove.

5) A damper, or shutter, found in the pipe or chimney of most stoves, when closed, checks the draft up the chimney, and, when open, lets it pass freely.

6) The reservoir damper, found on some stoves having reservoirs, lets the hot gases pass next to the reservoir when open and prevents this when closed.

4. Starting the Fire. If the stove has a reversible grate, see that it is adjusted to suit the fuel before building the fire; then adjust the drafts. Open the draft below the fire box, the oven damper, and the shutter in the chimney; close the draft above the fire box, and the draft which lets air from the room into the pipe, so that the air may pass up thru the fire box and directly up the chimney. Some chimneys produce such strong drafts that the shutter in the chimney has to be kept closed most of the time, even when starting the fire. After the fuel has become ignited, the draft below the fire may be partly closed so that it burns less rapidly. If the fire is to be used for heating water or food on top of the stove, it is now ready for use. If it is still burning too rapidly, the draft may be entirely closed, or the shutter in the chimney partly closed. If at any time the stove smokes, the shutter or drafts above the fire may be closed too much and should be opened enough to let all the smoke pass. Adding too much fuel at one time and not spreading it in a thin layer over the entire surface of the fire may cause the stove to smoke.

5. Keeping a Fire. If, after a fire has been used, it is wanted for use later, close the draft below the fire box, open the one above the fire box, or, if there chances to be no draft here, tilt the lids on the stove to let in the air; close the shutter in the chimney and open the draft in the pipe that lets in air from the room. With the drafts so adjusted, the fire should keep a long time, as it will burn very slowly.

6. Heating the Oven. When baking is to be done, wait until the fire is well started; then close the oven damper. The eveness of heat in the oven depends upon the even distribution of the hot gases below and on the sides of it. This is provided for in the manufacture of the stove itself. The heat in the oven may be regulated by the intensity of the heat from the fire as well as by the damper. Whenever a cooler oven is wanted, the flame may be permitted to go directly up the chimney. Since hot air is always seeking a higher level than cold air, opening the oven door cools the oven, but it will not prevent food set on the bottom of the oven from burning on the bottom. In a closed oven, the greatest degree of heat is at the top, excepting sometimes the surface of the bottom of the oven. Many stoves require the placing of a thin grating on the bottom of the oven to prevent food from burning on the bottom. If food does not brown sufficiently on the bottom, remove the grating so that the dish comes in closer contact with the heating unit.

The insulation of the oven door helps to hold heat in the oven, but the amount lost here is so small that many housekeepers prefer the convenience of the glass door, which, in turn, saves heat by doing away with the necessity of opening the oven door to watch the cooking food.

Some housewives adjust the dampers for heating the oven and then never change them. They heat the kitchen in summer more than is necessary and use more fuel than they need for cooking. It has been estimated that where the careful manager of a stove uses one pound of fuel, the careless manager uses three and a half pounds.

One experiment station estimated that the household coal range is used on an average of six hours a day, and, if used carefully, seven pounds of coal is consumed. Careless management, then, makes the waste of coal quite an item in the course of a year, as it is not unusual for the careless manager to use twenty-four pounds of coal per six-hour day.

There is always some soot formed, even in the best-managed stoves, and the flame often carries ashes with it. These in time fill the narrow space about the oven and cut off or check the passage of the hot gases about the oven. When this happens and the oven damper is closed, the stove will smoke and not bake well. No stove should be allowed to get in this condition. The housewife can watch the accumulation of ashes in the stove and remove them before they become one-fourth inch thick. If this is not done, the oven will not heat well and some parts may be considerably cooler than others.

7. Ashes. Ashes allowed to accumulate in the fire box will cause the lining of the stove to burn out. Ashes will also interfere with the heating of the rest of the stove. To lengthen the life of a stove, keep the ash pan empty. If a full pan of ashes becomes hot, it will keep the grate of the stove so hot that it will warp and burn out, and sometimes cause the oven to warp.

If a housewife tries to build a fresh fire in a stove with a full ash pan, she will have to wait for the ashes to become heated thru before she can get satisfactory use of the oven. She will be unable to regulate the temperature of the oven if it becomes too hot. It is a great waste of fuel to heat a large pan full of ashes.

Fig. 3. Ash chute.

8. Ash Chutes. In some modern houses, there are ash chutes which carry the ashes directly from the kitchen stove to a receptacle in the basement (Fig. 3). These have to be installed with care. If there is a draft of air which cannot be regulated from the basement up thru the fire box, the fire will burn too fast. There should be a damper to regulate drafts here. An ash chute saves much dirt in the kitchen.

CHAPTER II

Gas Stoves

The gas stove is the simplest stove made. It consists of a burner or burners of different shapes mounted on a suitable frame. The best example of a gas burner is a pipe with holes punched in it, where the gas flows out and is set on fire. This pipe may be coiled into a circle and make a round burner, or the holes may all come at the end, which is arranged to spread the gas into a disc shape.

9. Burners. Stoves are usually made with different sizes of burners. One manufacturer states that the gas stoves made by his firm consume per top burner per hour fourteen to eighteen feet of gas, and the oven burners consume eighteen to twenty feet when the gas is turned on full. Simmerers consume much less than this.

10. Simmerers. Every gas range should have a simmerer on it. This is a small burner, usually about an inch in diameter. After a large kettle full of food has been heated to boiling, this burner may keep it simmering for hours, using very little gas. This burner will keep small kettles of food boiling.

11. Air Mixer. Gas escaping from any pipe will burn, but it will burn with a yellow flame. To make gas burn with a blue flame—that is, to secure complete combustion—air must be mixed with it. This is done in the air mixer (Fig. 4). The blue flame is desirable for cooking because it is hotter than the yellow flame and does not blacken the cooking utensils.

Gas passes thru the air mixer before entering the burner. Sometimes the air inlet is only a hole put in the under side of the pipe. The opening for entrance of air is shielded so that the gas will not escape from the mixer, but will go on into the burner. A gas pipe looks about half an inch in diameter, but the stream of gas which is allowed to flow into the burner is very small, in some cases being about the diameter of a darning needle. The opening for air is so large, that a person's finger may be put into it.

Too much air interferes with the burning of the gas; in fact, there can be so much air mixed with gas that it will not burn. The air mixer regulates the amount of air which flows into the pipe. Once this is adjusted for the kind of gas to be used, it seldom needs to be changed. The air shutter has to be changed, however, if the gas pressure varies markedly from time to time. Readjustment may be required if the stove is moved and connected with a different supply of gas. When adjusting the mixer for high pressure, artificial or natural gas, close the shutter until the flame will not blow away from the cone, but will burn with a blue, almost colorless, flame.

Fig. 4. Part of gas stove
showing air mixers.

12. Regulating the Gas. The amount of gas which passes into the stove is also regulated, first, by adjustment of the size of the small opening thru which the gas must flow. Once this is adjusted, it does not need to be changed so long as the gas comes from the same source. Second, the flow of gas is regulated by the lever valve. As the valve is turned, the flow of gas is restricted so that it flows less swiftly. The size of the stream of gas going into the stove always looks the same regardless of its speed. When the rate is not so fast, the fire burns lower because less gas comes to it during every unit of time.

13. Lighting the Stove. Light the top burners by first striking a match, and then turning on the burner so that there will be an unrestricted flow of gas. Count three before applying the match. This gives time for the burner to fill with gas. If the match goes out, shut off the gas and try again. If it burns back into the air hole, also turn off the gas and begin again. Probably the match was applied too soon. Gas stoves get out of order because of carelessness in lighting them. The force of the explosions caused in burning back loosens connections and may disturb the adjustment of the mixer and valve.

Fig. 5. Cleaning gas stove.

14. Cleaning the Stove. Housekeepers should keep their gas stoves clean. Dirt interferes with the passage of the gas thru the burners. Gas stoves should be cleaned thoroly once a month. Scrub the burners with a stiff brush (Fig. 5), and wash all greasy parts with soap and water. If the holes should be clogged, remove the stoppage with a wire hair-pin (Fig. 6). Clean the drip sheet every day, or as often as it becomes soiled. (Fig. 4.)

15. Accidents with Gas Stove. Accidents with gas stoves are the result of mismanagement. The odor of gas in a room indicates a leak in the gas fixtures, such as stoves or pipes. When such an odor is noticed, open windows and extinguish all fires in the room or building. Next search for the leak. It may be due to an open valve. See that these are all shut tight. If no valves are open, send for a plumber who looks after gas fixtures. Leave the windows open and do not carry lighted matches or lamps into the room until the leak has been stopped.

Fig. 6. Cleaning burner of gas stove.

Many accidents happen at the time the oven is being lighted. Sometimes gas escapes into a closed oven, so that its odor is not noticed in the kitchen. This gas catches fire or explodes when the oven burner is lighted, blowing the oven door open or off the hinges, flashing out of the oven, and burning any person near the stove. To avoid such accidents, always open the oven and broiler doors a few minutes before lighting the oven. Fig. 7 shows construction of gas-stove oven. If any odor of gas is noticed on opening the doors, fan this out. Leave the oven and broiler doors open a while after extinguishing the fire and removing the cooked food. Gas may get into the oven at the time the flame is extinguished.

Fig. 7. Gas ovens.

16. Pilot Light. Most stoves are constructed so that there is a pilot light for the oven. Always use it when lighting the oven. It is put there for the safety of those using the stove. There is no need for alarm when a pilot burns back, no matter how much noise it makes, since so little gas flows thru the opening. One of the functions of a pilot light is to prevent people from being burnt in case of an explosion in the oven. For this reason, they should be at the side of the stove.

If the pilot burns back, close it; wait a minute, and then try lighting it again. The regular burners of the stove should not burn back if properly lighted by the pilot. Be careful to see that every part of the oven burner becomes lighted. Turn the burners on full while lighting them. After they are once lighted, turn them as low as desired.

Fig. 8. Pilot light for gas stove.

17. Pilot for Top Burners. A pilot made for top burners (Fig. 8) burns continuously with a very tiny flame. Its purpose is to save gas, patience, dirt and matches. The saving comes because the housekeeper can so easily re-light the burners that she will turn them out whenever she is not needing the fire. Sometimes when the gas pressure is low, the pilot light will go out. It can be re-lighted by pressing the valve as for lighting the burners and touching a match to it. If the pilot goes out, the odor of gas will be noticed in the kitchen until it is re-lighted.

Fig. 9. Top view of gas stove,
showing lighter.

18. Gas-Stove Lighter. There are two kinds of gas-stove lighters. These differ from the pilot in that they do not burn constantly. One of these is so constructed that it is first necessary to apply a match to any one of the top burners. The other burners can then be lighted by opening the valve in the regular manner and pressing down on the lighter knob. As soon as pressure on the lighter knob is removed, the gas supply to the lighter is automatically cut off (Fig. 9). The other lighter is made of metal which gives sparks easily when subjected to friction. The lighter is held over the stove, the gas turned on and the friction produced by rubbing one part of the lighter across the other, making a spark which ignites the gas.

19. Amount of Gas Used. It is claimed that 1,000 feet of illuminating gas produce as much heat as 50 or 60 pounds of anthracite coal or 4-1/2 gallons of kerosene oil. (See table on page 219.)

The difference in gas bills, due to management of gas stoves, is considerable. It is very easy for one woman to use three times as much gas as another in doing the same amount of work. Some women do not realize when they are wasting gas.

Water boils in an uncovered vessel at 212 degrees Fahrenheit, and no amount of heat applied to it will make it any hotter. When a pot of food has reached the boiling point, a smaller flame will keep it boiling. Turn the gas as low as it may be safely turned and still keep the pot boiling, and the food will cook as rapidly as when the gas is turned on full.

Fig. 10. Single top burner
and valve.

Gas is a safe fuel in most hands; it saves the housekeeper much labor because it makes so little dirt. When properly managed, it is the cheapest fuel to be had at the present time.

20. Cold-Process Gasoline Gas Stoves. Cold-process gasoline stoves require a burner fitted with valves in which the gas orifice can be enlarged or diminished. The best of these for using cold-process gasoline gas can be adjusted by a turn of the finger.

Fig. 10-a. Oven burner.

The adjustment of the valve is to compensate for the neglect upon the part of users of these plants. Very frequently they will allow the supply of gasoline in the carburetor to run nearly out before they replenish it, in which case the gas comes to the burners in a thinner quality, and in order to provide the same volume of heat, it is necessary to adjust the burner valves and throw a larger stream of gas into the burner. They are sometimes fitted with burners having side-sawed caps (Figs. 10 and 10-a). These seem to expose the burning gas to the air in a way to make it burn better than in other burners built for gas forced into them by greater pressure than is this gas. The opening for air must be adjusted from time to time so as to keep the proportion of gas and air such that it will produce a blue flame.

21. Acetylene Stoves. Stoves for the burning of acetylene are similar in construction to gas stoves. The acetylene furnishes a satisfactory and economical light, it is not an economical fuel when compared with kerosene, gas, wood or coal. For this reason, it is not much used. It requires two and three-tenths units of acetylene gas to equal one unit of natural gas for heating.

CHAPTER III

Oil Stoves

Fig. 11. Parts of oil stove burner.

22. Purpose of Oil Stoves. Oil stoves are designed for the comfort of the woman who cannot have a gas or an electric stove. They consist of tank, feed pipe and burners (Figs. 11-a and 11-b). As they are portable, they can be moved to a summer kitchen or sheltered back porch on hot summer days.

Oil stoves are not fool-proof and should never be used by those who are afraid of them and who do not understand them. Manufacturers have done much to make accidents avoidable, and they send detailed instructions with each stove. These should be followed exactly.

23. Mechanical Parts of Kerosene Stove. The kerosene oil stove consists of a tank of oil with a pipe leading to a hollow ring-like cup below the burner (A, Fig. 11). When the burner is lighted, the oil passes down this pipe into the ring, where it becomes heated and is vaporized. As the vapor rises, it is mixed with air and burns with a blue flame. The small holes in the chimney of the burner and at the base of the burner are to admit air. They must be kept open.

Fig. 11-a. Large oil stove with oven.

If the burner is dirty or not properly adjusted, the right amount of air may not reach the vaporized oil to mix with it and the stove will burn with a yellow flame, making soot and smoke.

24. The Burner. The burner consists of a chimney, a wick or ring of asbestos, a valve or a lever, and a ring-like cup at the base of the burner. There are three distinct types of burners known as long chimney, short chimney and wickless. The wickless stoves are equipped with a ring of asbestos which serves the purpose of a wick.

Fig. 11-b. Oil stove
without oven.

Fig. 12. Oil stove burner,
showing fire close to utensil.

————

The burners on one oil stove are usually all alike. The burners on various makes differ. Those in which the flame comes nearest the kettle or cooking food produce the most heat for cooking (Fig. 12). Those with the blaze farther away from the food seem to be easier for the excitable woman to manage (Fig. 13).

25. The Chimney. Kerosene stoves are furnished with metal chimneys. A device for mixing air with the burning fuel forms a part of short chimneys (B, Fig. 11). The chimney must set on the burner properly, or the stove will not burn with a blue flame. After lighting a burner, give the chimney a turn or two to make sure that it is in place. There is usually a groove into which it fits.

Fig. 13. Burner for
oil stove.

26. Lighting the Stove. When lighting a stove, turn the valve which permits the oil to flow (C, Fig. 11) into the cup below the burner, or lower the lighter into the oil. Wait a moment, if need be, for the wick or ring to become saturated with oil. Raise the chimney and touch the lighted match to the ring or wick at several places. (Fig. 14, and Fig. 11, also, show the position of the chimney and wick for lighting.) Lower the chimney, seeing that it fits back into place. Adjust the wick to the proper height to get a blue flame (Fig. 15). Do not turn very high at first, for, while the stove is becoming heated, the flame burns higher and higher, and may begin to smoke.

Fig. 14. Lighting oil stove.

————

27. Management of the Flame. Turn the flame no higher than is needed to keep the pot boiling. Some stoves do not burn well when turned very low. Do not have the flame so high or so low that it gives off smoke or gas. When turning out the fire, be sure to turn the wick clear down, or turn the valve or lever (Fig. 12) to the point indicated as out on stoves which lift the ring above the oil. If this precaution is not taken, most stoves leak oil when not in use, because the wick or rings carry oil to the upper part of the burner where it spreads over the stove.

28. Adjustment and Care of the Stove. To prevent trouble with uneven flames, set the stove perfectly level, particularly the wickless one. Keep the tank filled, but not too full. Stoves are made so that it is difficult to fill them too full. An oil stove cannot explode unless gas has formed in some part, like the tank, and becomes ignited by heat or a spark. Gas is more likely to collect in the tank when it is almost empty.

Fig. 15. Different types of flames.

When the tank is removed for filling, any gas forming passes out into the room and mixes with so much air that it is harmless. If it is filled before the oil burns out of the pipe above the level of the burners, no gas will be formed.

Stoves must be kept clean. A clean stove means one with a clean framework, clean burners, clean chimney, clean oil and a clean wick or ring.

If a stove has not been in use for some time, replace the old wick with a fresh one (Fig. 16). Clean the stove by wiping off all the parts with a cloth. Keep the charred edges of the wick trimmed level. The wick with a crust of char on top does not burn well. Use a match or small stick in removing the char. Light the wick to see if it is even. If any point burns with a yellow flame, trim this place until the wick burns even. The tank can easily and quickly be lifted off modern oil stoves. Do not refill near a lighted stove.

29. When the Stove Gives Trouble. In case the stove begins to blaze and cannot be controlled by the valves, remove the tank and carry it to some safe place where the kerosene in it cannot catch fire. When this is done, there is less than a pint of oil left in most stoves, and this will soon burn out without doing much harm, if clothing and water are kept away from the blaze. Open windows and doors to let out gases and smoke. If necessary, move the stove away from walls or furniture. Do not attempt to smother out the flame. There is too much danger of clothing catching fire when this is done. It is far safer to let the small amount of oil left in the stove burn up. Oil stoves cannot explode when the tank is removed.

Fig. 16. Inserting new wick.

As soon as the oil has burnt out of the pipes and the wicks are burning with a dull glow, extinguish the smoldering fire on the wicks by patting them with the blade of a knife or a piece of woolen cloth.

If a burner has been blazing beyond control, remove the chimney. Brush out any soot which has formed. Examine the burner, taking it apart, if possible. Blazing may come from wicks not fitting, or from their getting so short that the screw on the lever fails to move them up or down. The ring in wickless stoves may not be thick enough, or they may have slipped out of place, or become broken. Replace with new wicks or rings.

Notice if any part of the burner shows evidence of melting. If it does, do not use this burner until inspected and mended by an expert. If the lever has become worn so that it fails to work, it must be replaced or a new burner put on the stove.

30. Construction of Gasoline Stoves. The gasoline stoves consist of a burner and an oil tank connected by a pipe (Fig. 17). The tank is elevated for the purpose of forcing the gasoline into the burner. The pipe may be any length. The danger from a gasoline stove comes from the fact that gasoline vaporizes at a low temperature. If the tank becomes heated, producing gas, and then becomes mixed with the proper proportion of air, it may explode if it comes in contact with a spark. (Fig. 17-a is an illustration of the cross-section of the Red Star gasoline or vapor stove. See page 38.)

Fig. 17. Simple
gasoline burner.

From the pipe to the burner is a very small opening, so that a stream of gasoline little larger than the diameter of a needle flows into the burner proper, when the valve is open. The valve may be partly closed so that the stream will not flow so fast.

Below the burner is a small cup. When the stove is cold, the gasoline flowing into the burner collects here.

31. To Light the Stove. The way to light the stove is to turn on the gasoline until it fills the cup below the burner. When this is full, close the valve. Set this gasoline on fire. As it burns, it will heat the burner.

The burner is heated so that when more gasoline is turned on, this heat will change the gasoline to gas. If the burner is not hot enough to do this, the gasoline flowing from the pipe will flow down into the cup and the stove will burn with a smoky flame which becomes higher and higher and looks very alarming.

When this happens, the valve should be closed, and the fire permitted to burn all the gasoline which has collected in the cup. This may be sufficient to heat the burner. Test after the fire has gone out, by lighting a match, turning on the gasoline and touching the lighted match to the burner. If all right, it will burn with a blue flame; if not, it will burn with a yellow flame. If the yellow flame is noticed, turn out the fire by closing the valve, and let the burner get cold before attempting again to light it. See that the burner has not become clogged with soot or dirt. Then proceed to re-light the stove.

Fig. 17-a. Cross-section of gasoline stove showing burner.

Air must be mixed with the gasoline to make it burn with a blue flame. The air enters the burner through the same tube that the gasoline flows into the cups when the burner is cold. In the burner are small holes for the escape of the gas mixed with air, and here the blue flame should appear, and nowhere else. If it appears elsewhere, the burner is not working properly. Sometimes the gas ignites at the point where the air is mixed with it. The fire should then be turned out and the stove re-lighted immediately.

If the little holes where the flames should be, or if any other part of the stove is clogged with soot, it will not burn as it should. It must be cleaned. A dirty gasoline stove is dangerous.

32. Filling the Gasoline Stove. Never get oil on the tank or any part of the stove while filling it. If oil is spilled, wipe it up before igniting the stove. Do not fill the tank when the stove is lighted or when there is a fire anywhere near the tank. If the fire has been burning, close all the valves and wait until it goes out before opening the tank. Close the valve from tank to pipe before filling. Fill the tank and cover it before lighting the stove again.

Keep the tank filled. As soon as the indicator, which is attached to a cork which floats on top of the gasoline, shows that the oil is low, turn out the fire and refill the tank. Do not fill the tank to overflowing. Gases from the stove can only get into the tank when it is empty and while there is gasoline in the pipe to feed the stove. Gasoline gas is very inflammable and will cause an explosion if it becomes ignited. The tanks from gasoline stoves cannot be removed, as all the joints must be tight to prevent the escape of gasoline fumes as well as the oil itself. The opening to the tank must never be left uncovered, except for the few minutes while the tank is being filled. The greatest care is required in using a gasoline stove; in fact, they are so dangerous, that they should not be highly recommended for household use. The description and care of them are given here because some persons persist in using them when they desire a quick, hot fire in cases where fuel gas is not available.

33. When a Burner Blazes and Cannot Be Controlled. When a gasoline stove burner blazes and cannot be controlled, first close the valve leading from the tank into the pipe. There will then be little gasoline to burn, and no gases can get back into the tank.

Keep clothing and water away from the blaze. Remember that the stove is set on a metal frame which is not inflammable. Shield walls and other objects so that the burner may blaze high without doing damage. Clothing catches fire easily, but the metal stove will not be consumed.

If the valves are shut, the blaze will cease when the gasoline has burnt out of the burner and pipe. If the gasoline continues to flow out of the burner in spite of turning the valve and there is a danger of its spreading to the floor or table, set a shallow pan under the stove to catch the gasoline. It can burn in this way with considerable safety. Do not attempt to carry a burning stove. Simply protect floor, walls and furniture from catching fire, and let the gasoline burn.

34. Changing Fuel in Vapor Stoves. There are some stoves which are interchangeable, in that they may be adjusted to burn kerosene, gasoline or distillate. These are of the type called "vapor" because they change the oil to gas before it is ignited. A change from one kind of fuel to another should never be made without thoroly cleaning the stove and adjusting it to the fuel that is to be used.

35. Operation of Vapor Stoves. It is safest to use kerosene in these stoves. Distillate is a name given to a different mineral oil product from kerosene or gasoline. To work well, these burners must be kept clean. (Fig. 17-a.)

The operation of the stove is simple. Put enough fuel, such as alcohol, into a burner to heat it hot enough to change the oil to be used to gas and ignite it.

After the burner has heated for three or four minutes, turn on the fuel valve in the pipe which leads from the tank to the burner. The fuel will light from the burning alcohol already in the burner. Adjust the height of the flame by valve, which regulates the amount of fuel flowing into the burner.

If anything boils over, put out the fire. Close the valve. Remove the parts of the burner. Clean and wipe them dry. Replace the parts of the burner, and, if not cool, turn on the fuel and light. If cool, heat as for first lighting, and turn on the fuel.

Extinguish the fire by closing the valve which stops the flow of oil to the burner.

CHAPTER IV

Electric Stoves

Electric stoves consist of frame, heating unit and switches to regulate the flow of current. Some are equipped with oven, thermometers and special utensils (Fig. 18).

Fig. 18. Stove equipped with utensils.

36. Heating Unit of Electric Stove. The heating unit consists of coils of wire or a plate of metal thru which the current flows, meeting resistance and producing heat. If the current flowed freely thru the wires, little heat would be generated (Figs. 19 and 20).

Fig. 19. Heating unit of electric stove.

37. Wiring of Stoves. It is advocated that a separate circuit of heavy wire be put into all houses where current is used for purposes other than lighting, to provide for cooking and power connections.

Too heavy loading of wires with electric appliances causes the burning of fuses and sometimes damages the electric system. Find out how much current the wiring of the house will carry before attaching new devices. There is danger of fire if too much current is allowed to pass over a wire of too small size.

38. Operation of Electric Stoves. Many stoves are equipped with a switch which permits different amounts of current to pass thru the stove according to the way the device is set. At one point it gives low heat; another, medium, and a third, high heat, and, lastly, no heat.

Fig. 20. Heating unit of electric stove.

The cooking of food on an open burner should be started with high heat turned on so that the food may cook quickly. If a large amount of food is cooking, there will be so much radiation from the vessel that it may require all the current to keep it cooking. After food has started cooking, the switch can be turned to medium, and, later, to low, depending upon the amount of food and the temperature desired. Low will keep an ordinary pan of water boiling, once it has started.

A few minutes before the food is to be removed from the open burner, the current should be turned off, as the heat in the stove will continue the cooking for several minutes. From tests of electric stoves, it appears that in most of them the food will continue to cook after the switch is turned off for about the same number of minutes that it requires to raise the heating unit to a temperature sufficient to boil water in a small shallow pan. A housekeeper who is using electricity for cooking can soon learn how long the open burners and oven of her stove will keep food cooking after the current is turned off, and by putting this information to use, she can save many dollars in a year.

39. Care of Electric Stoves. When thru with a stove, always turn off the current. Great care should be taken that the stoves do not become overheated. This shortens the life of the stove.

Sudden cooling of the coils of wire caused by liquids spilling on them, and corrosion of the wires caused by dampness, wear out stoves faster than need be. Do not wash or brush dirt from burners having open coils of wire. Burn all dirt from the burners.

40. Utensils for Electric Stoves. The most economical use of electricity can be secured with utensils built around the heating units (Figs. 20 and 21), and the next most economical use with utensils built especially to fit the heating units. This means that there would be a heating unit for each utensil, or size of utensil, and the expense of equipment would be considerable. Also, more care would be needed in washing the utensils and in preventing them from becoming bent. Such facts must be considered in choosing between stoves with special devices and those on which any pan may be set. After installing an electric stove, start with new utensils because they will not blacken on an electric stove, and so can be washed with the other dishes.

Fig. 21. Utensil with heating unit.

When ordinary household utensils are used, they should be of such shape that they stand flat, as they also should on a coal range. The most economical use of heat is secured when the area of heat is smaller than the area of the bottom of the kettle and is concentrated on the utensil. Care should be taken when stoves are installed, that they are properly grounded so that they cannot burn any one. A light bulb is attached to some stoves so that when the current is on the light burns, and when it is off, the light goes out. Such a light should be on all large stoves.

41. Detachable Cooking Devices. Cooking and heating devices should have larger wires than those for lighting alone. Consequently, the attachment of a heating device in a common light socket may cause burning out of fuses or other damage.

One danger in using detachable electric devices occurs in not turning off the current when the stove is not in use, thus permitting it to become overheated. This shortens the life of the stove.

Any tendency of a stove or other electric device to give people a shock when being used should be taken as a warning to have the device examined by an expert and the trouble corrected. Have the wires repaired as soon as the insulation breaks or burns off. Uninsulated wires, such as cables and cords, are unsafe.

CHAPTER V

Alcohol, Acetylene, and Canned Heat

42. Alcohol Stoves. Alcohol stoves are made only in small sizes for light housekeeping. There are three general types of these—those which burn with a wick, those which generate gas, and those which permit the alcohol to burn off of the top surface of the container.

Alcohol does not produce much smoke in burning, even when no provision is made for mixing air with it. The ordinary alcohol lamp, having a wick, may be used as a heating stove. Stoves with wicks draw the alcohol up by capillary attraction to the point of ignition, and the metal jacket about the wick prevents the fire burning back into the bowl containing the alcohol. The char from the top of the wick must be brushed off from time to time. No other care is needed for these stoves or lamps. Some of them are provided with devices for checking the burning of the alcohol in order to regulate the heat. This is desirable since a small flame of alcohol produces much heat.

Extinguish the fire by covering the wick with a metal cup.

43. Vapor Stoves. Alcohol vapor stoves which generate gas hold the alcohol in a tank slightly raised above the level of the burner. A pipe leads from this to the burner, where a small stream of alcohol is permitted to enter when the valve is open.

When starting these stoves, the valve is first opened and enough alcohol allowed to flow out to fill a cup which is below the burner. This generally holds about a tablespoonful of alcohol. When the cup is full, the valve is closed and the alcohol in the cup ignited.

This heats the burner enough to vaporize the alcohol. When the burner is heated, open the valve and ignite the gas. If all the alcohol is not vaporized, the burner has not been heated hot enough. Close the valve until all the alcohol in the cup is burnt.

44. Wickless Stoves. Wickless alcohol stoves are used commonly on chafing dishes. The burner of one type consists of a metal dish packed with a porous material which is non-inflammable, but a good conductor of liquids by capillary attraction, and the top is covered over by a wire screen. The alcohol is poured into the dish. The packing and screen prevent air from entering the bowl with sufficient rapidity to let the fire burn below the screen so the flame stays above it, burning off any alcohol which is conducted to the surface.

The only possible way to control these stoves is by a device which can cut off air. One of these is a plate-like device with a handle. This fits over the stove and only that portion of the top burns which is exposed to air through the hole in the plate. Making the hole larger or smaller makes the burning surface larger or smaller.

To extinguish the fire, cover the entire top with a solid plate to cut off all air.

45. Canned Heat. Canned heat is alcohol combined with other substances into a cake about the consistency of hard soap. The cover to the can is used to extinguish the fire. It should not be fitted into the top of the can until the flame has been extinguished for two or three seconds. Then it should be fitted on as tight as possible to prevent waste alcohol by vaporization.

46. Acetylene Gas Stoves. By adjustment of the amount of air that enters the burner, acetylene may be burnt in a gas stove. Usually a cap is placed over the air hole while the gas is being ignited. This is removed as soon as the gas is lighted, so that it will burn with a blue flame. The use of the cap prevents burning back. It is best, however, to use stoves especially designed for burning acetylene.

CHAPTER VI

Fireless and Steam Cookers

47. The Fireless Cooker. The fireless cooker is a box or can having a diameter somewhat larger than that of the largest vessel to be placed in it. The space left around the vessel is packed with some insulating material to keep in the heat (Fig. 22). In home-made cookers, this material may be hay, feathers, pillows, shredded newspapers, wood shavings or sawdust. In commercially-made cookers, it is felt, asbestos wool, cork, or other insulating material. Because most insulating material will not stay in place and readily absorbs moisture and odors, some kind of lining is put between it and the vessel holding the food. This makes a little nest, into which the vessel fits. In the better made cookers, this lining is made of metal, and the seams are water-tight.

The steam from the cooking food is absorbed by the insulating material if this lining is not impervious to water. Enameled or earthen linings, if well glazed, would also serve this purpose as long as they did not chip or crack.

The cover, as well as the sides, of the fireless cooker has to be padded with the insulating material. The cover must also fit well so that the steam and heat will not escape thru cracks between it and the body of the cooker.

48. The Stones of Fireless Cookers. The stones for fireless cookers are usually made of soapstone or some composite which will absorb considerable heat. They should be slightly smaller in diameter than the nest. They can only be used with safety in cookers which are metal-lined and insulated with material which will not ignite at a low temperature. Stones should not be put in home-made cookers which are not insulated with asbestos or other fireproof material. Hot stones can be used with safety in any of the commercial cookers which come fitted with them.

Fig. 22. Section of fireless cooker.

The temperature in a fireless cooker is below boiling most of the time. It is, therefore, a device for simmering food, and should be used for cooking meats, fruits, vegetables and cereal dishes which require or are improved by long, slow cooking.

Since the food has to be shut in a fireless cooker to keep in the heat, fireless cookery is a method of steaming of food. For this reason, it has a slightly different flavor from food baked in the oven, much as fried food differs from roasted food. Hot stones (Fig. 22) are put in most fireless cookers. The heat from these brown the food and give to the otherwise steamed food a flavor similar to that developed in baking, roasting and frying.

49. Heating the Stones. Moisture given off by the cooking food is absorbed by the stones. They must be dried or heated very slowly to prevent this moisture from cracking them. When the stones have been removed from the cooker, wash them, because they absorb odors from the food. Keep them in some warm, dry place while they are not in use, such as in the warming oven of the cook stove or on a radiator. When wanted for use, they will then be dry enough to be placed over the gas-stove burner if it is not turned too high at first. Drying thus saves time when the stones are needed.

50. Care of the Cooker. The cooker should be left open to air while not in use. As soon as the food and stones are removed from it, the moisture should be wiped out and the inside washed with soap and water, wiped dry and left to air. Such care is needed to prevent the cooker from taking on the odor of dishes previously cooked and transmitting some of them to those cooked later.

51. Other Devices Belonging to Cookers. In most commercial cookers there are wire devices to raise the dishes of food from the stone (Fig. 23). This prevents scorching and boiling over when the stones are heated very hot. These devices are also used to hold a hot stone above the food to make a brown crust on it. Some cookers are furnished with valves, permitting the escape of steam when it becomes too abundant. The pressure of the steam automatically opens the valve. This device insures the cooking of certain vegetables, cereals or doughs without their becoming too soggy to be palatable (A, Fig. 23).

52. Directions for Using the Cooker. Put the stones on to heat. Prepare the food as for cooking in any other way. Then heat it, either in the oven or on top of the stove. It is preferable to heat the food in the same vessel in which it is to be cooked in the fireless cooker. Transferring food to a cold vessel entails a loss of heat, since the first vessel is already heated.

Fig. 23. Devices for fireless cooker.

When the stones and food are hot, place the stone in the bottom of the cooker. Put in any asbestos mats or other devices which are needed to protect the food. The stone should be hot enough to respond to the test for flat irons. It should make the snappy noise of a good hot iron when the finger is moistened and touched to it. Place the food in the cooker. Place another stone above the utensil if it is desirable to have the food brown on top. Close the fireless cooker, and let it stand until ready for use.

Fig. 24. Gas cookers.

53. Time of Cooking Food. Six hours or over night should be allowed for the cooking of cereals. Stews should be given two to three hours' time for cooking.

Large roasts and hams require five to six hours. It is sometimes necessary, when they are large, to remove them and heat the food and the stones on the stove once during the process of cooking. Dumplings and angel cakes cook well in a fireless cooker. So do all dried peas and beans.

Fig. 25. Steam cooker.

It is profitable to cook foods requiring more than forty minutes' heating in a fireless cooker. The heating unit is a part of some cookers.

Electric cookers, instead of being furnished with stones to be put inside the nest, have a heating unit and plate for holding heat in the cooker. Cold food may be put into this cooker, the current turned on, and the heating and cooking all be done inside the cooker. The electric oven which is well insulated answers the purpose of a fireless cooker when the current is disconnected. Either a thermometer, which the housewife may watch, or thermostat, which controls the current, must be attached to electric cookers to prevent burning the food or injuring the cooker with too much heat.

54. Gas Cookers. Since heated air rises, special cookers in the form of insulated caps are made to put over dishes of food heated on gas burners (Fig. 24).

The inside of the cap must be kept clean. Get the dishes hot with the cap suspended over the food, but leaving about an inch space for the escape of gases from the heating unit. As soon as the food and cap have been sufficiently heated over the fire, turn off the gas and lower the cap so that it will retain the heat. After the cooker has been used, it should be wiped out clean; otherwise it will retain some of the odors of the cooked food.

55. Steam Cookers. There are several steam cookers in use in homes. The simplest of these is a covered pan which has a perforated bottom, which is set over another pan (A, Fig. 25), in which water is placed for forming steam. One of the difficulties of this cooker is that the water in the lower pan cannot be watched and may boil dry. On the more improved cookers a whistling device (B, Fig. 25) is attached to the pan, and when the water becomes low and steam ceases to flow through it, air begins to come in, and the device makes a whistling noise.

Questions for Part I

1. What is smoke? Under what conditions is the greatest amount of heat for cooking or other household purposes produced from fuel?

2. How is an oven made to heat evenly?

3. Explain the purpose of each draft and damper on a stove.

4. Observe the amount of fuel used in a coal stove from day to day. Make the same kind of observation for a gas or electric stove. How was the stove managed when the least fuel was used?

5. Describe the construction of a gas stove. Find the vent thru which the gas enters the burner. Is this large or small?

6. Where is the air regulator? For what is it used?

7. What has happened when the gas in a burner "burns back"?

8. How should a kerosene stove be regulated? How should it be cared for?

9. What precautions should you take against fire from kerosene and gasoline stoves?

10. Describe the heating unit of an electric stove.

11. How may electric current be saved in the operation of an electric stove?

12. How does a fireless cooker cook food?

13. How may one determine when it is economical to use a fireless cooker?

PART II

Heating Devices

CHAPTER VII

Warm-Air Furnaces

56. Principle Upon Which a Furnace Works. The success of warm-air heating depends on a natural circulation of air thruout all the rooms which are to be heated. The air is the vehicle of transmission of the heat from the fire to the rooms to be warmed.

A warm-air furnace is simply a large stove encased in a sheet-metal jacket (Figs. 26 and 27). The jacket is usually insulated with asbestos, since the stove is set in the basement where radiation of heat is not desired. The air entering the casing is warmed by the stove. As the air is warmed, it expands and becomes lighter, so rises to the top of the furnace; from here it is conducted to the rooms above. The warm air which has passed upward must be replaced by cooler air entering at the bottom of the jacket. In the rooms above, there must be outlets for the cold air, already in them, so that it may be replaced by the incoming warm air. Cold-air shafts from the floor leading downward serve as outlets. Sometimes they return the cooled air to the base of the furnace jacket.