ENCYCLOPEDIA OF
DIET

A Treatise on the Food Question

IN FIVE VOLUMES

Explaining, in Plain Language, the
Chemistry of Food and the Chemistry of
the Human Body, together with the Art of
Uniting these Two Branches of Science in the
Process of Eating so as to Establish Normal
Digestion and Assimilation of Food and
Normal Elimination of Waste, thereby
Removing the Causes of Stomach,
Intestinal, and All Other
Digestive Disorders

BY

Eugene Christian, F. S. D.

Volume I

NEW YORK CITY
CORRECTIVE EATING SOCIETY, Inc.
1917

Copyright 1914
BY
EUGENE CHRISTIAN

Entered at
Stationers Hall, London
September, 1914

BY

EUGENE CHRISTIAN, F. S. D.

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

Published August, 1914

TO THE

MOTHERS

AND TO THE NOBLE WORKERS
IN THE GREAT CAUSE OF HUMAN HEALTH
AND OF HUMAN SUFFERING
THESE VOLUMES ARE

Dedicated

BY

THE AUTHOR

PREFACE

Countless centuries have come and gone and have left on the earth myriad forms of life; but just what life is, from whence it came, whether or not there is purpose or design behind it, whether or not all the sacred books are mere conceptions of the infant mind, of the whence and whither, we do not know; but when we put life beneath the searchlight of science, we do know that it is a mere assembling of ionic matter into organic forms, and that this strange work is done in accordance with certain well-defined laws.

We know that these laws are a part of the great cosmic scheme. In harmony with them works evolution, which tends to lift to higher and higher degrees of perfection all forms of both animate and inanimate life. We believe that if all the natural laws governing life could be ascertained and obeyed, the number of disorders or interferences with Nature's scheme would be very greatly decreased.

Man's system of co-operating with his fellow-creatures, which we call civilization, has imposed certain restrictions, duties and limitations upon him, which make it impossible for him to live in strict accordance with these laws; therefore if he would have his birthright, which is health, he must employ science to fit him into his artificial environment.

Man has been brought to his present state of physical development on the rural, outdoor, close-to-nature plan, and since he must live in houses and pursue occupations foreign to those through which he was developed, he must make corresponding changes in the material from which his body is constantly being repaired and made; therefore, as the selections, combinations, and proportions of the various things he needs for nourishment are determined by his age, activity, and exposure to the open air, if he accurately or even approximately ascertains and observes these things, life will continually ascend in the scale of power and grandeur, and his endurance and period of longevity will be increased.

Nearly all forms of life on this globe, except man, live approximately eight times their period of maturity. Man matures at twenty-four; measured by this scale he should live about two hundred years. But the average life of civilized man, reckoning from the age of six, is only about forty years, while if we include the infant class, and reckon the average age from his birth, he scarcely gets his growth before his hair and teeth are disappearing, and his eyesight is being propped up by the lens of the oculist, and he quietly drops into his grave. One hundred and sixty years of life, then, is about what civilization has cost him up to date. This is very expensive, but of course he has something to show for it. He has aeroplanes, wireless communication, the mile-a-minute train, politics, several kinds of religion, rum and cocain, the tramp, the billionaire, and the bread line.

We cannot consistently leap over ten thousand years of heredity and habit, but we can recover some part of the one hundred and sixty years of life civilization has cost us. This can be done by feeding our bodies according to their requirements determined by age, temperature of environment, and work or activity; by cultivating mental tranquillity; by loving some one besides ourselves, and proving it; by breathing an abundance of fresh air, and by doing useful work. Of all these things food is the most important because it is the raw material that builds the temple wherein all other things dwell.

Civilization and science are doing but little real good for man if they cannot select for him the material necessary to develop his body and all its faculties to their highest degree, or at least free him from much of his disease and materially increase his "ease"; they have brought him but little, I say, if they cannot show him a way to live more than forty years. Science would have nothing of which to boast if it only pointed out a way by which man could exist for two hundred years, as this is his birthright. It can only boast when it has given him more than his natural heritage.

That man's general health and period of longevity have decreased, while all other branches of science have so vastly increased, is evidence sufficient to justify the assertion that he has not employed scientific methods to the art of living, or at least to those fundamental principles, such as nutrition, motion, and oxidation, which really govern his health and his life.

The difference between youth and age, between virility and senility, is in reality a chemical difference only. The difference between the flexible cartilage of youth, and the stiff cartilage of age is one of chemistry.

If, by the process of metabolism, the muscles, bones, tissues, and brain-cells can be made to multiply and to reproduce themselves at eighteen, it seems only logical that science should give us the secret by which this same thing could be done at eighty, and if at eighty, why not at a hundred and eighty? It is by no means extravagant to say that if science can teach us the actual demands of the body under the varied conditions of age, climate, and activity, and the means of supplying these demands with only such food elements as are needed, life can be prolonged to what seems to be our natural period of years.

Consider the human body as a machine that possesses the power of converting fuel or food into energy, using or expending that energy at will, reproducing itself piece by piece from the same fuel, and casting out the debris and ashes—if all this is done by the body automatically, and its power to act or to do these things depends so completely upon the fuel or the material with which the body has to work, then the question of the kind of fuel, the quantity, how to select it, how to combine it, how to proportion it, becomes at once the most important problem within the scope of human learning.

THE PURPOSE OF THIS WORK

When we compare man's longevity with other forms of life, and consider that he breathes the same air, drinks the same water, lives under the same sunshine, and that he differs from them chiefly in his habits of eating, the conviction is forced upon us that in his food is found the secret, or the causes of most of his physical ills and his shortened life. All elements composing the human body are well known. Its daily needs are matters of common knowledge. Science has separated the human body into all its various chemical elements or parts, and weighed and named them; it has also analyzed and separated his food or fuel into its various chemical elements or parts, and named these. It would seem, therefore, a most logical step to unite these two branches of science, and to give to the world the dual science of Physio-food Chemistry, or, what I have named Applied Food Chemistry.

The sciences of physiological chemistry and of food chemistry can be made useful only by uniting them—putting them together—fitting one into the other for the betterment of the human species. These two branches of science can be of use in no other possible way except by ascertaining the demands of the human body through physiological chemistry, and by learning how to supply these demands through the science of food chemistry. In the union of these hitherto separate branches of science I can see the most useful, the most important, and the most powerful department of human knowledge. It is this union that these volumes are designed to make.

The Author.
New York, August, 1914.

CONTENTS

Volume I

Volume II

Volume III

Volume IV

Volume V

A chest of miracles,

Close-packed and all secure, the unstable mass

Supported from a ruinous collapse

Or helpless flexion, by a spinous pile

Rigid as oak, yet flexile as the stem of the nodding flower.

Within, a nest of wonders, separate tasks

Each organ faithfully performing, still

From day to day harmoniously smooth

And uncomplaining, but for hindrances

Or ruinous urgence. Thou hast wisely said,

Melodious singer of old Israel,

"I am fearfully and wonderfully made."

E. C.

[Lesson I]

THE INTERRELATION

OF

FOOD CHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGICAL

CHEMISTRY

FOOD CHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGICAL CHEMISTRY UNITED

The human body is composed of fifteen well-defined chemical elements. A normal body weighing 150 pounds contains these elements in about the following proportions:

There are a number of other body-elements, but they are so remote that they have not been clearly defined by physiological chemists. All these body-elements are nourished separately, or, as it were, individually. They must be replenished in the body as rapidly as they are consumed by the vital processes, and this can be accomplished only through the action of the elements, in the forms of food, air, and water, received into the body and assimilated by it.

Where 91 per cent of human ills originate

From my professional experience I have estimated that about 91 per cent of all human ills have their origin in the stomach and the intestines, and are caused directly by incorrect habits in eating and drinking. If this is true, or even approximately true, it shows that, in its relation to health and the pursuit of happiness, food is the most important matter with which we have to deal; yet the average person devotes far less consideration to it than he does to the gossip of the neighborhood, or to the accumulating of a few surplus dollars.

Eminent writers agree as to importance of diet

Profs. Pavloff, Metchnikoff and Chittenden; Hon. R. Russell; Drs. Rabagliati, and Wiley, Ex-Chief of our Federal Bureau of Chemistry, and many other profound thinkers and writers have given in their various books an array of facts which prove beyond doubt that food is the controlling factor in life, strength, and health; yet they have given us but few practical suggestions as to how it should be selected, combined, and proportioned, so as to produce normal health, and especially how to make it remedial and curative, or to make it counteract the appalling increase in disease.

I have endeavored to begin where the great theorists left off—

1 By becoming familiar with the chemistry of food

2 By becoming familiar with the chemistry of the body

Food chemistry useless without body chemistry

Until my work began these two great sciences had been taught as distinct and separate branches of learning, while in reality physiological chemistry is but half of a science, and food chemistry is, in fact, the other half of the same science. The energy in food cannot be developed without the body—the body cannot develop energy without food. Each branch is worthless, therefore, without the other. In this work I have endeavored to unite them and to make of the two one practical, provable, and usable science.

RELATION OF SUPERACIDITY TO OTHER DISEASES

Nearly all stomach and intestinal troubles begin with superacidity. This is caused by the wrong combinations of food, or overeating. Food passing from the stomach, thus supercharged with Superacidity a primary cause acid, causes irritation of the mucous lining of the alimentary tract. This results in nervousness, insomnia, intestinal congestion (constipation), fermentation, and intestinal gas, while the excess of acid in the stomach causes irritation of the mucous surface of that much-abused organ, which develops first into catarrh, then ulceration, and sometimes into cancer. The accumulation of gas from the fermenting mass in the intestines causes irregular heart action, and sometimes heart failure. The great number of sudden deaths from this cause is pronounced by physicians "heart failure." In this the doctors and the writer agree—I know of no other way to die except for the heart to fail. The primary purpose of this work, however, is to ascertain why the heart fails, and, if possible, to remove the causes. From the fermenting food toxic (poisonous) substances, such as carbon dioxid, are generated, which, when taken into the circulation, become a most prolific source of autointoxication (self-poisoning).

From long experience gained by scientific feeding, in treating stomach and intestinal trouble, it became apparent that a great many disorders, very remote from the stomach, completely disappear when perfect digestion and assimilation of food, and thorough elimination of waste are effected. This has led to a very searching investigation of causes, and to the preparation of the following chart, which is designed to show how a great many so-called diseases can be traced back to one original cause—superacidity.

CHART, SHOWING THE NUMBER OF SO CALLED
DISEASES CAUSED BY SUPERACIDITY

Power to resist disease depends upon correct feeding

Aside from emotional storms, great nervous shocks, inoculation (vaccination), and violent exposure, nearly all diseases can be traced back to the stomach, or errors in eating. Even in cases of exposure, vaccination, or contagion, if the digestion and the assimilation of food, and the elimination of waste are perfect, the body will have the power to resist nearly all these causes of disease. Curing disease, therefore, by scientific feeding, is merely a method of removing causes and giving Nature a chance to restore normality.

Foods that ferment make inferior flesh

Food that sours, ferments, or that does not digest within Nature's time-limit, cannot make good bone and brain. A defective digestion that converts food into poisonous gases in the intestinal canal will make inferior flesh and blood, just as any other defective machine will turn out inferior work. This is the natural law governing all animal life.

Millions of learned people admit that good specimens of men and women can be constructed only out of good building material. They admit that the quality of a man, like that of a house, or a machine, depends upon the kind of material used in his construction; and yet Nature's protest against unsuitable building material they allow this important material to be selected and prepared by the most ignorant and unlearned, and they take it into their bodies with a childish thoughtlessness that is amazing; and when Nature imposes her penalty for violating her laws, they seek a remedy in drugs and medicines, and these are applied only to the symptoms which are merely the protest Nature is uttering. Thus a powerful drug silences or kills the friendly messenger who brought the timely warning, but the cause still remains. Suppose houses, ships, and machinery were constructed and repaired after this plan!

NATURAL LAWS DEMAND OBEDIENCE

Recompense for obedience to natural law, and punishment for its violation, are the invariable order of the universe, and are nowhere so effectively and emphatically demonstrated as in the cause and cure of the condition called disease.

There are certain laws which, if obeyed, will build the human body to its highest efficiency of energy, vitality and strength; but in order to obey these laws, one must know them, and in order to know them one must pass through the long and arduous mill of experience, or else learn from one who has done so.

Pain is a warning that something is wrong with the human mechanism, and he who tries to silence this signal with medicine will be punished for two wrongs instead of one. Nature tolerates no trifling, no deception; her laws are inexorable, her penalties inevitable.

Treating symptoms instead of causes

Multitudes of people are convinced that there is something wrong with their eating. Instead of food giving them the highest degree of mental and physical strength, which it should do, it actually produces ills and bodily disorders; moreover, not knowing the cause, people have no conception of a remedy other than drugs. It is amazing when one thinks how man, for two thousand years, has treated disease. Instead of studying causes and endeavoring to remove them, he has treated symptoms and symptoms only. It is generally known that the practise of medicine consists in treating symptoms rather than causes. For example, nearly all headaches—one of our common afflictions—are caused indirectly by impaired digestion, faulty secretion and excretion, yet the drug stores and Materia Medica (the Bible of the profession), are laden with "headache cures," all of which act only upon the symptoms. The whole system of drugging people when they are sick is merely a method of quieting the signals—of killing or paralyzing the messengers. Most drugs, taken into the human body, are merely diminutive explosives, the effect of which is destructive. They are like a lash cruelly applied to a willing servant who lags from sheer exhaustion.

"Ease" and "Dis-ease"

Since symptoms are really the language of Nature, if we learn to interpret them, we need never err in diagnosis, and consequently never err in getting directly at the causes, as we must do in order to "cure." A drug that could cure a disorder caused by wrong feeding would perform a miracle. It would reverse one of the fixed laws of the universe. It would produce an effect without a cause. Nature works along the lines of least resistance, and points out with unerring certainty the best, the cheapest, and the easiest way to live. Health was originally called "ease." People who did not have health were in disgrace or "dis-eased."

HOW TO MAKE HUMAN NUTRITION A SCIENCE

Human nutrition cannot be made a science under the conventional methods of omnivorous eating—eating anything and everything without thought or reason. Nutrition can only be made a science by limiting the articles of food to such things as will reproduce all the chemical elements of the human body, mentioned at the beginning of this lesson.

The further we remove foods from their natural state, the more difficult becomes their analysis, their reliability, and a knowledge of their chemistry, therefore the menus that appear in this work include only the foods that will give to the body the best elements of nutrition.

Prepared foods unscientific

There is but little difficulty in ascertaining the chemistry of natural foods, but when they have been preserved, pickled, canned, smoked, evaporated, milled, roasted, toasted, oiled, boiled, baked, mixed, flavored, sweetened, salted, soured and put into the popular commercial forms, it becomes very difficult, if not impossible, to know what we are eating, or to estimate the results.

Man is the net product of what he eats and drinks. Food bears very much the same relation to him that soil does to vegetation. The following questions, therefore, should be solved by every one who believes that success and happiness depend upon health and vitality:

1 How to select and how to combine foods which will give to the body a natural result, which is health

2 How to select and how to combine foods so that they will counteract and remove the causes of dis-ease

3 How to select foods which contain all the chemical elements of the body, and how to combine and proportion them at each meal so that they will chemically harmonize

4 How to determine the quantity of food to be taken each day, or at each meal, that will give to the body all the nourishment it is capable of assimilating

Note: Too much food, even of the right kind, defeats this purpose and produces just the opposite result.

Upon this knowledge hinges the building of a natural body, the cure of a vast majority of dis-eases, our ability to reach the highest state of physical and mental vitality, the prolongation of youth and longevity.

OUR FOOD MUST FIT INTO OUR CIVILIZATION

We must make our diet fit into our civilized requirements. Civilization has imposed many customs, habits, and duties upon us that have not been properly met by nutrition or diet. This is why nearly 91 per cent of our ills are caused by errors in eating.

Effect of sedative occupations upon nutrition

Under continued physical exertion, the body will thrive for a time on an unbalanced diet. It will cast off surplus nutrition, and convert one element into another, a problem unknown to modern science, but under sedative or modern business habits and occupations, it will not continue to cast off a surplus, or to reconvert nutritive elements. As a result of an unbalanced bill of fare, the nutrients taken in excess of the daily needs undergo a form of decomposition, producing what is called autointoxication, and become a most prolific source of dis-ease.

WHY THE SCIENCE OF HUMAN NUTRITION IS IN ITS INFANCY

The reader may inquire why it is that all other branches of science have advanced so rapidly, and the science of human nutrition has just begun. The reasons are:

1 Our ancestors, for many thousand years, were taught that dis-ease was a visitation of Divine Providence, therefore to combat it was to tempt the Almighty.

2 Doctors of medicine who have been custodians of the people's health for many centuries have seldom been food scientists. Most of them attempt to combat disease with drugs.

Now we are beginning to learn the truth about the origin of disease and in considering the body as a human engine, to take into consideration the all-important question of fuel.

Tendency of the modern physician toward food science

That the most learned physicians are drifting more and more toward scientific feeding and natural remedies is a matter of common knowledge. This splendid army of laborers in the great field of human suffering is made up largely of what is termed the Modern Doctor—the man who is brave enough to think and to act according to his better judgment.

Just to the extent that we understand the origin of drugs, and the drugging system of treating dis-ease, we turn instinctively from them, and instinctively toward food, for in drugs we find an ancient system of guesswork, while in food we find fundamental principles and primary causes. The majority of causes are removed when the diet is made to fit our physical condition and environment, and we then become normal by the process of animal evolution, Nature merely bestowing upon us our birthright because we have obeyed her laws.

3 The true science of human nutrition can be evolved only from an accurate knowledge of both food chemistry and of physiological chemistry.

Why food chemistry and physiological chemistry have not been united

The science of physiological chemistry has been known and taught for more than one hundred years, while the science of food chemistry is of recent origin. These two branches have been kept separate because they grew up at different periods of time. United they constitute the greatest science known to mankind, because they affect his health, his happiness, his life, and above all they measure the period of time he will live.

Physiological chemistry tells what the body is and its needs—food chemistry tells how to supply these needs. Recognizing these facts, I have merely united these hitherto unapplied branches of science, and have made of the union the science of Applied Food Chemistry, which makes practical that which has heretofore been confined mainly to theory.

[LESSON II]

SIMPLE PRINCIPLES OF GENERAL CHEMISTRY

Relation of chemistry to food science

If the student is versed in chemistry, this lesson will serve merely as a review; if not, somewhat close attention must be given to facts which at first may seem uninteresting. Patience should be exercised, for, while all the information herein given does not, taken as a whole, bear directly upon the subjects of health and dis-ease, yet with this knowledge it will be much less difficult to understand the principles which are applied later when we take up the chemistry of the body and the chemistry of food.

Chemistry is not, as popularly supposed, a science far removed from everyday life. Everyone has some knowledge of chemistry, but the chemist has observed things more minutely and therefore more accurately understands the composition of substances and the changes that are everywhere taking place. For illustration:

A cook starts a fire in a stove. She knows that the fire must have "air" or it will not burn; that when the fire is first lighted, it "smokes" heavily, but as it burns more, it smokes less; further, that if the damper in the pipe is closed the "gas" will escape in to the room.

Fire, gas, and smoke the result of chemical changes

The chemist also knows this, but because he has compared his observations with similar events elsewhere, he is enabled to express his knowledge in the language of science. To the chemist, fire is the process of combustion—the union of the oxygen of the air with the carbon and hydrogen compounds of the wood or of the coal. The heat of the fire is generated by this chemical union. To the chemist, the smoke is a natural phenomenon occasioned by particles of carbon which fail to unite with the oxygen gas. The gas, which to the woman suggests suffocation if enough of it escapes into the room, to the chemist suggests a compound resulting from combination of the oxygen with the carbon.

CHEMICAL ELEMENTS

To the chemist, all forms of matter are mere combinations of elements. Chemical analysis is a process of separating, dividing, and subdividing matter. When the chemist separates or analyzes compounds, until he can no longer simplify or subdivide them, he calls these simple products "chemical elements."

Common elements

Many of the chemical elements are well known, such as copper, iron, and gold. Other elements that are still more common are unknown in their elementary form, because they combine with other elements so readily that they exist in nature only as compounds. For example: Hydrogen, united with oxygen, forms water; the elements chlorin and sodium, combined or united, form common salt.

Number of elements

Altogether chemists have discovered about eighty-four elements, many of which are rare, and do not occur in common substances.

All substances of the earth, whether dead or living, are formed of chemical elements. These elements may be found in the pure or elementary state, or they may be mixed with other substances, or they may be combined chemically. Copper, iron, and gold are elements in the pure state. If we should take iron and copper filings and mix them together, we would still have copper and iron. Were we to take copper and gold and melt them together, we would have a metal that would be neither copper nor gold. It would be harder than one and softer than the other. But this substance would still be a mixture, and its properties half way between copper and gold.

Examples of chemical changes

If a piece of iron be exposed to dampness it will soon become covered with a reddish powder called "rust." The rusting of iron is a process of chemical changes in which the original substance was wholly changed by chemically uniting with the oxygen and the moisture of the atmosphere, which is really a process of combustion. The burning of wood, the rusting of iron, the souring of milk, and the digestion of food are, in a way, all mere examples of chemical changes.

Difference between chemical compounds and simple mixtures

Care should be exercised to distinguish chemical compounds from simple mixtures. Air is not a compound, but a mixture of oxygen, hydrogen and nitrogen gases. Water, however, is a compound of oxygen and hydrogen. Both salt and sugar are compounds, but if we grind them together, we do not have a new compound, but a mixture of two compounds. Most of the common things around us are mixtures of different compounds or substances. Rocks are mixtures of many different compounds. Wood is, likewise, formed of many different substances. Wheat contains water, starch, cellulose, and many other compounds. Grinding the wheat into flour does not change it chemically, but if we heat the flour in an oven, some of the starch is changed into dextrin. The starch has disappeared, and dextrin, a new substance, appears in its place. Whenever elements are combined into compounds, or compounds broken up into elements, or changed into other compounds, we have true chemical action.

The names of the elements are formed in many different ways. The name chlorin is derived from a Greek word meaning greenish-yellow, as this is the color of chlorin. Bromin comes from a Greek word meaning a stench, a prominent characteristic of bromin being its bad odor. Names of elements—how derived Hydrogen is formed from two Greek words, one of which means water and the other to produce, signifying that it enters into the composition of water. Potassium is an element found in potash, and sodium in soda, etc.

Symbols of elements—how derived

For convenience, abbreviations are used for the names of elements and compounds. Thus, instead of oxygen, we may write simply "O"; for hydrogen, "H"; for nitrogen, "N," etc. Very frequently the first letter of the name of the element is used as the symbol. If the names of two or more elements begin with the same letter, some other letter of the name is added. In some cases the symbols are derived from the Latin names of the elements. Thus, the symbol of iron is Fe, from ferrum; of copper, Cu, from cuprum.

The following table gives the names of the elements which it will be necessary to understand in pursuing this work.

AIR AND OXYGEN

Composition of air

Air—The air consists chiefly of two substances, only one of which can keep up the process of burning. This substance is known as oxygen. The other, in which nothing can burn, is known as nitrogen. Besides these the air contains smaller quantities of other substances, particularly water vapor, carbonic acid (carbon dioxid), ammonia, and carburetted hydrogen.

Distribution of oxygen

Oxygen—Oxygen is the most common element in nature. It forms between forty and fifty per cent of the solid crust of the earth, eight-ninths of all the water on the globe, and one-fifth of all the air around the globe.

We have oxygen around us in great abundance, but it is mixed with nitrogen, and it is difficult to separate the two so as to secure the oxygen for any practical or commercial use.

MANUFACTURE OF OXYGEN

There are three methods of obtaining oxygen:

1 From potassium chlorate, or, as it is commonly called, chlorate of potash.

When potassium chlorate (KCLO₃) is heated in a closed vessel (closed vessel means "closed at one end"), it breaks up into potassium chlorid and oxygen; that is, KCLO₃ + heat = KCL + O₃.

Potassium chlorate is used in fireworks because it gives up its oxygen readily. Potassium nitrate serves the same purpose in gunpowder, which is a mixture of sulfur (S), charcoal (C), and salt-peter or potassium nitrate (KNO₃). The explosion of gunpowder, after a certain temperature has been reached, is due to the formation of oxygen, which, combined with the potassium nitrate, is set free by the very rapid burning of the charcoal and the sulfur. Other gases formed by the explosion are nitrogen, and probably sulfur dioxid (SO₂), and oxids of nitrogen, N₂O, NO₂, etc. Carbon monoxid and carbon dioxid are sometimes formed. Potassium nitrate, however, is the most active agent in gunpowder.

2 By the electrolysis of water.

By this method the oxygen and the hydrogen are separated by electricity.

3 By the liquefaction of air, which is a very recent and a very scientific method.

By this method the air is cooled down until it liquefies. At normal atmospheric pressure it liquefies at a temperature of —312.6°F., but under pressure of about 585 pounds it liquefies at a temperature of —220°F. After the air has been liquefied, it is allowed to go back to vapor by exposing it to the surrounding heat of the atmosphere, and this vaporization separates the nitrogen from the oxygen, as the nitrogen boils at a temperature of —318°F., while the oxygen boils at a temperature of —294°F. There is a difference of about 24° in the boiling points of these two gases, which at this low point amounts to more than the difference between the boiling points of alcohol and water, and this difference is sufficient to separate the oxygen from the nitrogen.

Production of oxygen by the liquefaction of air is the latest, cheapest, and most approved method, and is now becoming extensively used in obtaining both oxygen and nitrogen for commercial use.

Properties of oxygen

Oxygen is tasteless and odorless. It is slightly heavier than air. When subjected to an extremely high pressure and low temperature it becomes liquid.

CHEMICAL ACTION OF OXYGEN

(a) Upon Substances

Effect of air upon iron and wood

Upon some substances oxygen acts at ordinary temperature. Iron becomes covered with rust when exposed to air and moisture. Wood and other vegetable and animal substances undergo slow decomposition when exposed to the air. This is partly due to the action of oxygen at ordinary temperature.

Pure oxygen aids combustion

A splinter of wood will burn brilliantly in a jar of pure oxygen, and much more rapidly than in common air. Pure oxygen gas will cause many substances to burn which will not burn in air. Iron can be burned in pure oxygen, leaving only a reddish powder.

Formation of iron-rust

When iron rusts the carbon dioxid and water vapor combine chemically with the iron, and form what is known as a basic hydroxid or carbonate of iron. The process is somewhat complex. When iron burns in oxygen a red powder is formed—ferric oxid, Fe₂O₃. Iron dissolves in water, or moisture from the air containing carbonic acid, forming acid ferrous carbonate—

Fe + 2H₂CO₃ = FeH₂(CO₃)₂ + H₂
Iron + Carbonic acid = Acid ferrous carbonate + Hydrogen

This acid ferrous carbonate, on drying or further oxidation, is converted into iron-rust. If we represent iron-rust by the formula Fe₂O₃. 2Fe(OH)₃, the equation is as follows:

4FeH₂(CO₃)₂ + O₂ = Fe₂O₃. 2Fe(OH)₃ + H₂O + 8CO₂
Acid ferrous carbonate + Oxygen = Iron-rust + Water + Carbon dioxid

(b) In Living Bodies

The most interesting action of oxygen at ordinary temperature, however, is that which takes place in our bodies and the bodies of all other animals.

By the constant action or beating of the heart all the blood in the body is brought to the lungs every two or three minutes. The actual time has not been determined in man. In large arteries the Rate of blood circulation blood flows ten times as fast as in very small ones. The usual time through a capillary is one second. The time has been determined, however, in lower animals. In a horse the blood travels one foot a second in the largest artery. At present the accepted theory is that in the circuit the blood makes throughout the body, it picks up the waste matter Oxidation of waste matter from tissue that has been torn down by work or effort, and brings it to the lungs, where it meets with the oxygen we breathe and is oxidized or burned.

If the body undergoes excessive effort or exercise, it tears down an excessive amount of tissue, and there is created, therefore, an excessive amount of waste or carbon dioxid. Nature very wisely provides for this contingency by increasing the heart action, thereby sending the blood through the body at greater velocity, forcing more blood to the lungs, thus increasing the demand for oxygen, which is expressed by deep and rapid breathing.

Generation of heat and light

When a substance burns it gives off heat, and generally light. The heat is the result of chemical change or combination, and the light is the result of heat. Whenever oxidation takes place, no matter in what form, heat is produced.

Amount of heat determined by amount of oxygen

The amount of heat given off by the combination of a given amount of oxygen with some other substance is always the same. If it takes place at a very high temperature, as in explosives, the heat is all given off at once, but if it takes place more slowly, the heat passes away, and we may not observe it, but careful experiments prove that heat is always present in oxidation, and the amount of heat is always measured by the amount of oxygen.

Law governing oxidation of given quantity of food

That the combination of oxygen with other substances always produces a certain amount of heat is a very important fact to the food scientist, as this law enables him to determine in the laboratory the exact amount of heat that is produced in the oxidation of a pound, or of any given quantity of food; this food will also produce exactly the same amount of heat if oxidized in the human body.

Heat and motion

We know that by means of heat we can produce motion. The steam-engine is the best example of this law. We build a fire under the boiler; the oxygen of the air unites with the carbon in the coal; the combustion converts the water into steam; the steam is conveyed to a cylinder; the pressure pushes a piston; the motion of the piston causes motion in the engine, and the train or ship moves.

Determination of body-heat and energy

From such facts we know that not only the amount of heat, but the amount of work or energy that food or fuel will yield can be determined with reasonable accuracy. Many conditions obtain in the body, however, that do not occur in the laboratory, hence we must study these conditions before we can fully understand the natural laws that govern the production of heat, and energy or work, by oxidation in the living body.

HYDROGEN AND WATER

Distribution and production of hydrogen

Hydrogen—Hydrogen is found in nature very widely distributed and in large quantities. It forms one-ninth of the weight of water, and is contained in all the principal substances which enter into the composition of plants and animals. It may be obtained by decomposition of water by means of the electric current, or by the action of substances known as acids on metals. The latter method is more commonly used in the laboratory. Acids contain hydrogen, give it off easily, and take up other elements in its place. Among the common acids found in every laboratory are hydrochloric, sulfuric, and nitric.

Physical properties of hydrogen

Pure hydrogen is a colorless, odorless, tasteless gas. It is not poisonous, and may therefore be inhaled without harm. It is the lightest known substance, being about 14.4 times lighter than air, 16 times lighter than oxygen, and 11,000 times lighter than water.

Chemical properties of hydrogen

Hydrogen does not unite with oxygen at ordinary temperatures, but, like wood and most other fuel substances, needs to be heated up to the kindling temperature before it will burn. Hydrogen burns if a lighted match be applied to it. The flame is colorless, or very slightly blue.

Decomposition of water

Water—Water is a compound and not an element, as can be shown by passing an electric current through it. If the ends of two wires, each connected with an electric battery, be put a short distance apart, in acidulated water, it will be noticed that bubbles of gas rise from each wire. As these gases cannot come from, or through the wires, they must be formed from the water. If they be analyzed, we will find that oxygen gas comes from one wire and hydrogen from the other.

Proportion of hydrogen and oxygen in water

This experiment shows that when an electric current is passed through water, hydrogen and oxygen are obtained, and also that there is obtained twice as much hydrogen as oxygen by volume. This proves that water is not an element, but a compound of two atoms of hydrogen and one of oxygen. The chemist therefore writes the symbol for water H₂O.

We have just learned that with electricity we could decompose the compound water into its elements, hydrogen and oxygen. Now we can prove by another experiment that water contains these two elements. If we burn hydrogen gas, or any substance containing hydrogen, water is formed. This can be illustrated by inverting a cool, dry tumbler over a gas flame, which is composed chiefly of hydrogen, and water vapor will collect on the inside.

Properties of water

Though water is widely distributed over the earth, we never find it absolutely pure in nature. All natural waters contain foreign substances in solution. These substances are taken up from the air, or from the earth. Pure water is colorless, tasteless, and odorless.

Why ice floats

On cooling, water contracts until it reaches the temperature of 4° Centigrade (39° Fahrenheit). When cooled from 4° to 0° C. it expands, and the specific gravity, or weight compared with the space occupied by ice, is somewhat less than that of water; hence ice floats.

Rain-water

Mineral water

The purest water found in nature is rain-water, particularly that which falls after it has rained for some time; that which first falls always contains impurities from the air. As soon as rain-water comes in contact with the earth and begins its course toward the sea, it also begins to take up various substances according to the character of the soil with which it comes in contact. Mountain streams which flow over rocky beds, particularly beds of sandstone, contain very pure water. Hard water Streams which flow over limestone dissolve some of the stone, and the water becomes "hard." The many varieties of mineral water from the various springs throughout the country, take their properties from soluble substances with which they come in contact.

Salt water

Common salt is deposited in large quantities in different parts of the earth. Since salt is readily soluble in water, many streams pick up large quantities of it, and as all water courses ultimately find their way to the ocean, the latter becomes a repository for salt with which the earth-water is laden.

Effervescent waters

Effervescent waters all contain some gas, usually carbonic acid gas in solution, and they merely give up or set free a part of it when placed in open vessels.

Sulfur water

Sulfur water contains a compound of hydrogen and sulfur, called hydrogen sulfid or sulfureted hydrogen, which we will refer to in its order later in this lesson.

Distilled water

Water may be purified by means of distillation. This consists in boiling the water and condensing the vapor by passing it through a tube which is kept cool by surrounding it with cold water. By means of distillation most substances in solution in water can be eliminated. Substances, however, which evaporate like water, will, of course, pass off with the water vapor. Aboard ship salt water is distilled and thus made fit for drinking. In chemical laboratories ordinary water is distilled in order to purify it for chemical work.

USES OF WATER IN CHEMISTRY

Action of water in physiological chemistry

Water is termed by the chemist a stable compound. This means that it is difficult to get it to act chemically. Being thus inactive chemically, we find that water does not combine with most substances. There are exceptions to this, however, especially in physiological chemistry, an instance being that starch combines with water when it is changed to sugar in the process of digestion.

Water as a solvent

Water is the universal solvent. A greater number of substances dissolve in it than in any other liquid. Chemical operations are frequently carried on in solution, that is to say, the substances which are to act chemically upon each other are first dissolved in water. The object of this is to get the substances into as close contact as possible. If we rub two solids together, the particles remain slightly separated, no matter how finely the mixture may be powdered. If, however, the substances are dissolved and the solutions poured together, the particles of the liquid move so freely among each other that they come in direct contact, thus aiding chemical action. In some cases substances which do not act on each other at all when brought together in dry condition, act readily when brought together in solution.

There is a limit to the amount of any substance which can be held in solution at a given temperature.

Chemical meaning of solution

The question will probably arise in the mind of the student as to whether a substance dissolved in water has chemically united with the water, or is merely mixed. Solution is in reality a process about half way between mixing dry substances and forming chemical combinations. The chemist considers that the water does not form a compound with the substance dissolved, when he can, by evaporating the water, get the substance back into its original form.

IMPORTANCE OF SOLUTION TO THE FOOD SCIENTIST

Solution is very important in the study of foods and human nutrition. Only substances which can be dissolved can be assimilated. Many substances which Relation of solution to assimilation will not dissolve in pure water will dissolve in water which contains something else in solution. The blood is water containing many things in solution. The salts of the blood keep the other food elements in solution, many of which would not dissolve if the blood did not contain these salts. The chief work of the digestive juices is to reduce foods to a soluble form so that they can be taken into the circulation by absorption; otherwise they would pass through the alimentary canal practically unchanged.

Milk as an example of both "Solution" and "Mixture"

We must learn to distinguish carefully between chemical solution and merely mixing things with water. A good example is milk. In addition to water, milk contains principally fat, sugar, and casein. The sugar is truly dissolved in the water. The fat and the casein are fine particles held in suspension. If the milk stands for a while, the fat particles rise to the top as cream. If it stands long enough, the casein particles adhere to each other and settle to the bottom, leaving the water with the dissolved sugar or whey in the middle.

IMPORTANCE OF WATER IN THE HUMAN BODY

Proportion of water and solids in the human body

Water, which forms about sixty-six per cent of the human body, is by far the most important substance therein. It comprises the major part of the blood serum and every tissue and organ. If a normal human body weighing 150 pounds were put into an oven and thoroughly dried, there would be left only about 50 pounds of solid matter, all the rest being water. The proportion of water in animal and vegetable substances is also very great. As water is also a conspicuous factor in all foods, either in chemical combination, or in solution with other elements mechanically mixed, it is obvious that water is an important factor in food science.

USES OF WATER IN THE BODY

The uses of water in the body may be roughly grouped into three divisions, as follows:

1 Water in small quantities enters into the actual chemical composition of the body.

As we will notice in the discussion of carbohydrates, water combines chemically with cane-sugar when it is digested and transformed into glucose. (See Lesson IV, "Cane-sugar," page [112.])

2 Water forms a portion of the tissues and acts as a solvent in the body-fluids.

What blood carries in solution

In this function the water is not changed chemically, but is only mixed with other substances; thus the blood is in reality water with glucose, peptone, etc., in solution, and carrying along with them red blood-corpuscles and fatty globules.

3 Water is a most important factor in the digestion, and the assimilation of food, and the elimination of waste.

Drinking with meals

Inasmuch as the body is nearly two-thirds water, it follows that the diet should be composed of about 66 per cent moisture. The old theory of dietitians that no water should be taken with meals was based upon the hypothesis that the water diluted the gastric juice, and that this diluted form of the gastric juice weakened its digestive power. Actual practise has proved this thesis to be untrue. Water is the great universal solvent, and the hydrochloric acid of the stomach is only a helper, as it were, in the dissolution or the preparation of food for digestion.

Water is also a valuable agent in the elimination of body-poisons.

Value of water to blood

The liberal use of water keeps the blood supplied with the necessary moisture, and that excess which is eliminated through the kidneys carries away poisons that would reside in the body very much to the detriment of health. There is little danger, therefore, in drinking too much pure water, but much care should be exercised that it be pure, or at least free from lime and mineral deposits. The best water is pure water, free from all mineral substances.

If a meal consists of watery food, such as fresh vegetables, salads, etc., then the drinking of water becomes unnecessary; but When water drinking is unnecessary where the meal is composed chiefly of solids, then an amount of water should be taken sufficient to make up 66 per cent of the total. If more water is taken than is necessary for this purpose, the excess will pass off and the stomach will only retain the necessary amount; but if the quantity of moisture is insufficient, the stomach calls to its aid an excess of hydrochloric acid, the strength of which has a tendency to crystallize the starch atom (especially cereal starch), thereby causing the blood-crystal, which is one of the primary causes of rheumatism, gout, Disorders caused by insufficient moisture lumbago, arterial sclerosis (hardening of the arteries), and all disorders caused by congestion throughout the capillary and the arterial systems. The most common disorder among civilized people is hydrochloric acid fermentation. Copious water drinking at meals is the logical remedy for this disorder.

The proper amount of pure non-mineral water taken with food will do much to remove the causes of superacidity and the long train of ills that follow this disorder. (See "Chart," Lesson I, page [9.])

In this work I shall constantly refer to these various uses of water, especially as a solvent (an aid to digestion), and as a remedial and curative agent.

Man's source of water

Theories have been promulgated by hygienic teachers in the past few years that man should get his supply of water wholly from the juices of fruits, and not drink ground-waters, which are contaminated with mineral substances. While it may be true that water in certain localities, such as in the alkali deserts, is unfit for drinking, yet the writer believes that the promulgators of the theory that man is not a drinking animal never did a hard day's work in a harvest field. In the dry winds of the western plains water evaporates from the surface of the body at the rate of twelve or fifteen pounds a day. The theory of deriving one's water supply wholly from fruits would not stand the test of such facts.

NITROGEN AND NITROGEN COMPOUNDS

Sources of nitrogen

We have learned that the air is composed chiefly of oxygen and nitrogen. These are not combined as oxygen and hydrogen are in water, but are simply mixed together, four-fifths of the mixture being nitrogen. Nitrogen is also found in combination in a large number of substances in nature. It is found in the nitrates, as salt-peter or potassium nitrate, KNO₃, and Chili salt-peter or sodium nitrate, NaNO₃. It is also found in the form of ammonia, which is a compound of nitrogen and hydrogen of the formula NH₃, and exists in that form in a limited quantity of the air. In most foods, especially in those of animal origin, nitrogen occurs in chemical combination.

Properties of nitrogen

Nitrogen is a colorless, tasteless, odorless gas which does not burn, and does not combine readily with oxygen, or with any other element except at a very high temperature, and except in the formation of living plants, or in animal life. Just as nitrogen does not support combustion, so also it does not support life. An animal would die confined in a tank of nitrogen, not on account of any active poisonous properties in the nitrogen, but for lack of oxygen.

Compounds of nitrogen

When a compound containing carbon, hydrogen and nitrogen is heated in a closed vessel, so that the air is excluded, and so that it cannot burn, the nitrogen passes out of the compound, not as nitrogen, but in combination with hydrogen, which forms ammonia. Nearly all animal substances contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen, and many of them give off ammonia when heated as above described.

Why ammonia is used in making artificial ice

Ammonia is written by the chemist NH₃, or one part of nitrogen gas to three parts of hydrogen. It is a colorless, transparent gas with a very penetrating, characteristic odor. In concentrated form it causes suffocation. It is but little more than half as heavy as air. It is easily converted into liquid form by pressure and cold. When pressure is removed from the liquefied ammonia, it passes back very rapidly into gaseous form, and in so doing it absorbs heat. Investigators have taken advantage of these facts and are employing liquid ammonia in the manufacture of artificial ice.

While air is merely a mixture of oxygen and nitrogen, this does not prove that these two elements cannot unite. In fact they do unite in five different proportions so as to form five different substances. These are given below to illustrate how different substances can be formed from Importance of proportioning food the same things, by merely combining them in different proportions. This example is also given to impress upon the mind of the practitioner the great importance of proportioning nutritive elements in diet so that the patient will not be overfed on some elements while underfed on others. It is absolutely essential, in order to know what effect a substance will have in the laboratory, or in the body, to know not only of what it is composed, but with what substances and in what proportions it is combined.

To further illustrate the wonders of chemical combinations, we give the properties of two of these oxygen and nitrogen compounds:

Properties and uses of nitrous oxid

Nitrous oxid, N₂O, is colorless, transparent, and has a slightly sweetish taste. When inhaled it causes a kind of intoxication which manifests itself in the form of hysterical laughing, hence it is commonly called "laughing gas." Inhaled in larger quantities it causes unconsciousness and insensibility to pain. It is, therefore, used in many surgical operations, particularly by dentists in extracting teeth.

Nitrogen peroxid, NO₂, is a reddish-brown gas. It has an extremely disagreeable odor and is very poisonous.

Composition of nitric acid

By oxidation the nitrogen of animal substances is converted into nitric acid, HNO₃. Furthermore, the silent, continuous action of minute living organisms in the cell is always tending to transform the waste-products of animal life into compounds closely related to nitric acid. This acid, as its chemical formula indicates, is formed by the combination of the three elements we have just studied, namely, hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen. Pure nitric acid is a colorless liquid. It gives off colorless, irritating fumes, when exposed to the air. Strong nitric acid acts violently upon many substances, particularly those of animal and Properties of nitric acid vegetable origin, decomposing them very rapidly. Nitric acid burns the flesh, eats through clothing, disintegrates wood, and dissolves metals. It is one of the most active of chemical substances.

The compounds of nitrogen that occur in food are very numerous and of complex composition. They will be discussed in Lessons III and IV, pages [99] and [125] respectively.

CHLORIN

Sources of chlorin

Chlorin, though widely distributed in nature, does not occur in very large quantities as compared with oxygen and hydrogen. It is found chiefly in combination with the element sodium, as common salt or sodium chlorid, which is represented by the symbol NaCl.

Properties of chlorin

Chlorin is a greenish-yellow gas. It has a disagreeable smell and acts upon the passages of the throat and nose, causing irritation and inflammation. The feeling produced is much like that of a cold in the head. Inhaled in concentrated form, that is, not diluted with a great deal of air, it would cause death. It is much heavier than air, combines readily with other substances, and possesses the property of bleaching or destroying colors.

HYDROCHLORIC ACID

Just as hydrogen burns in the air, so it burns in chlorin. The burning of hydrogen in air or oxygen is, as we have seen, simply the combination of hydrogen and oxygen, the product being water in the form of vapor, and therefore invisible. Hydrogen and chlorin combined When hydrogen burns in chlorin, the action consists in the union of the two gases, the product being hydrochloric acid, HCl, which forms clouds in the air. The two gases, hydrogen and chlorin, may be mixed together and allowed to stand together indefinitely in the dark, and no action will take place. If, however, the mixture be put into a room lighted by the sun, but where the sun does not shine directly upon it, combination takes place gradually; but if the sun be allowed to shine directly upon the mixture for an instant, explosion occurs, this being the result of the combination of the two gases. The same result can be caused by applying a flame or spark to the mixture. In this case light causes chemical action. The art of photography depends upon the fact that light has the power to cause chemical changes.

Importance and preparation of hydrochloric acid

I will here consider hydrochloric acid somewhat in detail, because it is very important in the digestion of food, being the principal fluid composing the gastric juice of the stomach. Hydrochloric acid is always made by treating common salt (one afflicted with acid fermentation should omit the use of salt and soda), under high temperature, with sulfuric acid. This product is given off as a gas, which dissolved in water forms hydrochloric acid, sodium sulfate remaining behind as a result of this process. The chemist describes the action that takes place by writing what is called a chemical equation, as follows:

2NaCl + H₂SO₄ = Na₂SO₄ + 2HCl
Sodium chlorid + Sulphuric acid = Sodium + Hydrochloric acid
(common salt) Sulfate