LESSONS
IN THE
SHANGHAI DIALECT

BY

Rev. F. L. HAWKS POTT, d.d.

REVISED EDITION

Printed at the Commercial Press, Ltd.

Shanghai, China

1924

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

PREFACE

At a time when there is much discussion in China as to the desirability and possibility of the adoption of a uniform language all over the Empire, it may seem strange to put forth a book on the Shanghai Dialect.

The writer sympathizes fully with the aims of those who would make Mandarin the Medium of Communication throughout China, but at the same time feels very strongly that a great many years must pass before this can be accomplished.

Local Dialects die hard, as witness the still existing varieties of speech found in Great Britain. Even more perfect means of communication binding the parts of a country closely together, and even the introduction of a common language into the School System, are not able of themselves to do away with the speaking of the old local dialect. Men cling persistently to the speech of their forefathers.

When we reflect that the so-called Shanghai Dialect is in reality the ancient language of the Wu Kingdom, and is perhaps more closely akin to the original language of the Chinese people than Mandarin, we can understand why it will last for many years.

Further, it has a very wide range. Although local varieties occur every few miles, yet in the main the Shanghai Dialect is understood by at least 20,000,000 of people.

For the missionary working is the Kiangsu Province a knowledge of the local dialect is indispensable, and the acquisition of it would be most useful for all those whose lot is cast to this part of China. Foreigners living in Shanghai would find it a great advantage to speak the native language, and in their business relations with the Chinese would be greatly helped if they could converse is something better than the jargon known as “Pidgin” English.

It is for the purpose of making the attainment of a speaking knowledge of the language somewhat less difficult that the writing of this book has been undertaken.

It has seemed to the writer that the acquisition of a knowledge of the written characters, and of the spoken language are two distinct things. It is possible for one to learn to speak the language without being able to read the characters.

By the use of the clear and simple System of Romanization, adopted by missionaries in Shanghai, it is possible to represent approximately all the sounds employed in the dialect.

In these lessons this system is adopted, and the student is urged to master it thoroughly. If he will do so, he can use these lessons and learn to speak the language even without knowing the characters.

The characters of all the words and sentences employed are given, but they are put in the book for the benefit of the Chinese teacher. It would be unwise to trust entirely to the Romanization. The student in using the book should have a teacher by his side, who by reading the Chinese corresponding to the romanized sounds can give him a clearer idea of the pronunciation.

Although in a sense the book is a short cut to learning the spoken language, of course it is not meant to discourage the student from mastering the written language. This is however, a distinct study, and should be undertaken in a different way. The best method for this will be to use a primer in vernacular containing the most familiar characters, and then to advance from it to the reading of the New Testament or other books in the vernacular. Vernacular books should be read first, for the reading of them will be a great assistance in learning the spoken language. After the first year, books in the literary style (Wên-li) should be begun.

In using this book, the first thing to be mastered thoroughly is the introductory matter. The student must get this first, for it is the key to the rest of the book. He must also learn to distinguish the tones, and the inflections of the voice which they imply. Then he will be ready to go on with the lessons.

Although the book is divided into thirty lessons, it is not expected that the student will be able to master a lesson a day. Some of the lessons will require three or four days’ work.

In putting the English sentences into Chinese, the best plan would be to write out in the Romanization what the student thinks the proper way of translating them would be. Then these sentences may be read to the teacher, who will correct them, and from the Chinese text will be able to tell the right way to say them.

At present only thirty lessons are published. The writer hopes, however, if the method proves to be useful, to extend these lessons still further in the future.

In preparing these lessons, many books have been consulted, especially the lessons by Dr. Yates, which contain a most useful collection of words and sentences, and have long been the standard book for learning the Dialect, the Grammar by Dr. Edkins which contains a mass of useful information in regard to the structure of the language, and the Mandarin Lessons by Dr. Mateer, a most exhaustive work on spoken Chinese.

The writer’s thanks are due especially to Rev. J. A. Silsby for the permission to make use of his clear statement of the Shanghai System of Romanization, and to Prof. F. C. Cooper for many suggestions and the trouble he has taken in reading the proofs.

The unfailing courtesy of Rev. G. F. Fitch, D.D., Messrs. Gilbert McIntosh and C. W. Douglass has been much appreciated, in the care they have taken in seeing the book through the Press.

F. L. H. P.

January 1st, 1907.

THE REVISED EDITION

The compiler of these lessons is gratified to find that they have proved useful to students of the Shanghai Dialect. He regrets that he has been too much occupied to prepare additional lessons.

In reprinting them care has been taken to make the necessary corrections. The copy used by the late Prof. W. O’B. Harding has been of great service in the work of revision, as in it almost all the errors in tone marks, punctuation, and typography had been noted. Dr. A. W. Tucker has very kindly compiled the vocabularies at the end of the book, and in this way has enhanced its value.

The author’s thanks are due to all those who have given him suggestions and pointed out mistakes.

F. L. H. P.

April 28th, 1909.

NEW EDITION

In preparing the new edition, the author has received most valuable help from his colleague, Prof. F. C. Cooper. The two new lessons were suggested by him, and the one containing more useful words and phrases is the result of his experience, gained through teaching the book to a class of beginners.

My thanks are also due to him for the time and care he has spent in correcting the proofs, and seeing the book through the press.

The author hopes the book will continue to be a useful stepping-stone in the acquisition of a knowledge of the Shanghai Dialect.

Inasmuch as Davis’s Shanghai Dialect Exercises may be used as a second book after the completion of this, it has not been deemed necessary to add many new lessons.

F. L. H. P.

October 29th, 1913.

In putting out this new edition, the author has made necessary corrections, and added a few new terms. The Chinese language is changing rapidly at the present time. Some expressions and terms formerly used have become obsolete and new ones have taken their place.

The French Fathers at Siccawei, with the author’s permission, have published a French edition, and it is gratifying to think that the influence of this book has in this way been further extended.

Attention is called to a very good little book, “Conversational Lessons in the Shanghai Dialect,” prepared by Dr. Frank Rawlinson and Rev. J. W. Crofoot, which has as its subtitle “A Supplement to Dr. Pott’s Lessons.” The author would recommend it as a second book in the course on the study of the Shanghai dialect.

F. L. H. P.

November 18th, 1924.

DESCRIPTION OF THE SHANGHAI ROMANIZED SYSTEM

Nearly all the syllables are represented by the combination of an initial and a final, a system which has been found to be well adapted to the Chinese language.

INITIALS

Chinese sounds are divided into upper and lower series. The initials to represent the Upper Series are—p, ’m, ’v, t, ts, s, ’l, ’n, ’ny, ’ng, k, ky, kw, i and ’w. These initials are pronounced in most cases much the same as in English, but without aspiration, higher in pitch and with very little vibration of the larynx. The apostrophe before a letter indicates that the letter belongs to the “higher series.” Pure vowel initials also belong to this series.

ny has a sound similar to that of ni in spaniel

ky ＝ ch in chuk with all aspiration eliminated.

i as an initial has the sounds of i in dahlia.

The Aspirates are—ph, f, th, tsh, ky, ch, khw, h, hy, and hw (th as in Thomson—not as in thing).

ch ＝ ch in church.

hy is nearly like ti in Portia.

The other aspirates are like the corresponding initials of the higher series with the addition of a strong aspiration (indicated by h).

The initials to represent the Lower Series are—b, m, v, d, dz, z, l, n, ny, ng, g, j, gw, y, and w. Their pronunciation is much the same as in English. They are lower in pitch than corresponding initials of the “higher series,” and have more “voice,” being pronounced with more decided vibration of the larynx. The lower vowel initials, indicated by an inverted comma (‘) and attended with a slight aspiration, belong to this series. It will be noted that this sign differs from that employed to indicate that a consonant initial belongs to the upper series, an apostrophe being used to denote the “upper initial.” This inverted comma is used only before vowels, and if, by mistake, this sign is used before a consonant instead of the apostrophe, this need not confuse the reader, for the sign of the upper series is properly used only before the initial consonants m, v, l, n, ny, ng, w, and r.

It should be noted well that the difference between the corresponding initials of the upper and lower series is not so much a difference in consonantal quality as a difference in pitch, but there is a real consonantal difference. The higher series may be classified as surd and the lower as sonant.

FINALS

1. The Vowel Endings are—a, e, i, au, o, oo, eu, u, ui, ia, iau, ieu, and ie.
2. The Nasal Endings are—(a) an, en, ien and oen, in which the n is not sounded, but lengthens out and imparts a nasal quality to the preceding vowel; (b) ang, aung, oong, ung and iang, in which ng has the value of ng in song; (c) uin, in which n is sonant and has a value varying between n and ng.
3. The Abrupt Vowel Endings are—ak, ah, eh, ih, auh, ok, oeh, uh, and iak, in which h and k are the signs of the zeh-sung (人聲), and the vowel is pronounced in a short, abrupt manner.

• The sounds of the vowels are—
• a as in far, except when followed by n or h, when it has the sound of a is man or mat.
• e as in prey; before h it has the sound of e as in met.
• i as in caprice; before h or ng it is shortened to i as in mit or sing.
• au as in August.
• o as in so.
• oo as in oo in too.
• oe as in œ Goethe (German ö).
• eu as in French Monsieur.
• u as in oo in foot (always preceded by an s sound).
• ui as in fruit (or rather, French ü).

In ia, iau, ieu and ie, we have short i followed closely by a, au, eu, and e, as described above.

Of course it is understood that the Chinese sounds in a majority of cases vary somewhat from the English sounds which are given as the nearest equivalent. The true pronunciation of Chinese sounds should be learned from a Chinese teacher, and the student should always bear it in mind that any Romanization used does not represent English sounds, but Chinese sounds. This fact can not be too strongly emphasized.

The Dok-yoong Z-moo—“Initials used alone,” i.e., without vowels, are—ts, tsh, dz, s, z, m, ng, and r. The first five are followed by the vowel sound in the second syllable of able—prolonged. Mateer and Baller use ï for this sound and the new Mandarin Romanized uses i [C0]. It is not written, but understood in the Shanghai system. m has the sound of m in chasm and ng the sound of ng in hanger. r is a sound between final r and l.

TONES

The tones are four in number, each occurring in the upper and lower series. As has been stated, the upper and lower series can be distinguished by the initials. Sounds in the upper series are of higher pitch and those in the lower series of a lower pitch.

The names of the tones are:—

TONE SIGNS

° to the left of a word indicates the tone to be °zang-sung.

° to the right indicates the chui-sung. Final h or k indicate the zeh-sung. All other words are in the bing-sung.

SOUNDS OF THE TONES

The sounds of the tones of course can only be learnt from the Chinese teacher.

The Bing-sung is an even tone, the voice being level, with a slight falling inflection, as when we say “Come,” “Hear,” in our imperatives.

The Zang-sung in the upper series is a twanging sound, and sounds something like the vibration of a string of a musical instrument.

In the lower series it has a wave sound which can be symbolized to the eye by the curve

; the voice first falls and then rises.

The Chui-sung has the same sound in both the upper and lower series. The voice rises much as it does when we ask a question.

The students should practise with the teacher on the following table of sounds, and in time will be able to distinguish the tones clearly and to make the proper inflection himself. Foreigners are seldom able to perfect themselves in the use of tones, but this is due not so much to inability as to the lack of attention paid to the matter at the beginning of the study of the language.

It should be understood that the names of the tones are those of the original tones and often bear no relation to the inflection now used, which varies in different localities.

COMPLETE LIST OF INITIALS AND FINALS USED IN THE SHANGHAI DIALECT

ZAUNG-HE LOO-MO Z

The student should practise repeating after the teacher the pronunciation of the characters in which these sounds occur.

EXERCISE IN TONES

The student should practise upon the sounds illustrating the different tones. The columns should be read from the top down. The teacher can guide him by first pronouncing the Chinese characters.

LESSONS IN THE SHANGHAI DIALECT

LESSON I
The Classifier

A or an is translated into Chinese by the numeral ih (一) one, and a classifier placed between the numeral and the noun. There are over forty classifiers, different nouns taking different ones, according to the class to which they belong. Nouns being generally used with classifiers accounts for the fact that in Pidgin English we have the oft recurring expression, “one piecee.”

Most concrete nouns take classifiers, but not all. Exceptions will be pointed out later on. Sometimes when the object spoken of is quite definitely known, the noun is used without the classifier.

In this lesson, the two most common classifiers will be introduced, and in succeeding lessons the others will appear gradually.

It must be remarked that some nouns may take more than one classifier, sometimes one being used and sometimes another.

The most common classifier is kuh (個). “It is applied to such nouns as have no special classifier, and may upon occasion be applied to almost any noun as a substitute for the special classifier” (Mateer).

The classifier tsak (隻) is used with animals, birds, fowls, insects; also with articles of furniture having legs or resting on a base; also with vessels, boats, etc.

VOCABULARY

• A man, ih kuh nyung 一個人.
• A woman, ih kuh °nyui-nyung (lit. female human being) 一個女人.
• A teacher, ih kuh sien-sang (lit. born before) 一個先生.
• A child, ih kuh °siau-noen 一個小囝.
• An egg, ih kuh dan° 一個蛋.
• A cash, ih kuh doong-dien 一個銅錢.
  (See second note at end of lesson.)
• A dollar, ih kuh yang-dien 一個洋錢.
• A servant, ih kuh yoong°-nyung 一個用人.
• A table, ih tsak de-°ts 一隻檯子.
• A chair, ih tsak iui°-°ts 一隻椅子.
• An orange, ih tsak kyoeh-°ts 一隻橘子.
• A pupil, ih kuh ‘auh-sang-°ts 一個學生子.
• To want, to wish, iau° 要. Also used in forming the future tense of verbs, as will be explained later.

EXERCISES

(Translate into English)

• (1) Ih kuh nyung iau° ih tsak de-°ts.
• (2) Ih kuh °nyui-nyung iau° ih tsak iui°-°ts.
• (3) Ih kuh °siau-noen iau° ih kuh doong-dien.
• (4) Ih kuh ‘auh-sang-°ts iau° ih kuh sien-sang.
• (5) Ih kuh yoong°-nyung iau° ih kuh dan°.
• (6) Ih kuh yoong°-nyung iau° ih kuh yang-dien.
• (7) Ih kuh °siau-noen iau° ih tsak kyoeh-°ts.

• (一) 一個人要一隻檯子.
• (二) 一個女人要一隻椅子.
• (三) 一個小囝要一個銅錢.
• (四) 一個學生子要一個先生.
• (五) 一個用人要一個蛋.
• (六) 一個用人要一個洋錢.
• (七) 一個小囝要一隻橘子.

(Translate into Chinese)

• (1) A pupil wants an orange.
• (2) A woman wants a dollar.
• (3) A servant wants a cash.
• (4) A teacher wants a table.
• (5) A man wants an egg.
• (6) A pupil wants a chair.
• (7) A teacher wants a pupil.

• (一) 一個學生子要一隻橘子.
• (二) 一個女人要一個洋錢.
• (三) 一個用人要一個銅錢.
• (四) 一個先生要一隻檯子.
• (五) 一個人要一個蛋.
• (六) 一個學生子要一隻椅子.
• (七) 一個先生要一個學生子.

Notes.

• (1) It is difficult to form idiomatic sentences in Chinese until a larger vocabulary has been given.
• (2) With yang-dien (洋錢) the classifier generally used is kwhe° (塊), a piece or slice.
• (3) It will be noticed how many words are formed from the combination of two or more words. This is a characteristic of the Chinese language; for instance the word yoong°-nyung (用人) is composed of the verb yoong° (用) use, and the word nyung (人) man, and means the man whom you use or employ.
• (4) With sien-sang (先生), the classifier we° (位) is generally used.
• (5) Nouns take no change in form for the plural, but the classifier is omitted.
• (6) With iui°-ts° (椅子), the classifier °po (把) is sometimes used.

LESSON II
Demonstrative, and Personal Pronouns.

The definite article the is not expressed directly in Chinese, but the demonstrative pronoun takes its place.

The demonstrative pronouns are:

The demonstrative pronouns change their forms with different nouns, being formed by the di° (第) or i (伊) and the classifier belonging to the noun. Thus “this table” is not di°-kuh de-°ts but di°-tsak de-°ts (第隻檯子).

When the demonstrative is used with a numeral it retains the form di°-kuh (第個) or i-kuh (伊個) and the classifier of the noun comes between the numeral and the noun. Thus “this one table” is di°-kuh ih tsak de-°ts (第個一隻檯子).

The personal pronouns are as follows:

SINGULAR NUMBER

PLURAL NUMBER

The use of kuh (個) in the possessive case must be noted. Kuh (個) serves to form the possessive case of nouns as it does of pronouns. Thus to say “a man’s table” would be ih kuh nyung kuh de-°ts (一個人個檯子). Exercises in possessive case formation will be found in this lesson.

VOCABULARY

• A son, ih kuh ‘eu-°ts or ih kuh nyi-°ts 一個兒子.
• A daughter, ih kuh noen° 一個囡.
• A friend, ih kuh bang-°yeu 一個朋友.
• A sheep, ih tsak yang 一隻羊.
• A bird, ih tsak °tiau 一隻鳥.
• A bed, ih tsak zaung 一隻牀.

°Po (把) is the classifier used with tools, instruments or articles grasped in the hand.

• A knife or sword, ih °po tau 一把刀.
• A fork, ih °po tsho 一把叉.
• A spoon, ih °po tshau 一把匙.
• An umbrella, ih °po san° 一把傘.
• To have, or has, °yeu 有.

EXERCISES

(Translate into English)

• (1) °Ngoo iau° ih °po tau.
• (2) Di°-kuh nyung °yeu ih kuh yang-dien.
• (3) Noong°-kuh bang-°yeu kuh ‘eu-°ts °yeu ih tsak yang.
• (4) I-kuh °nyui-nyung kuk noen° iau° ih tsak °tiau.
• (5) Yi iau° ih °po san°.
• (6) °Ngoo iau° ih °po tsho.
• (7) Nyi° iau° ih tsak zaung.
• (8) Na° °yeu ih kwhe° yang-dien.
• (9) Di°-kuh sien-sang °yeu ih tsak kyoeh-°ts.
• (10) I-kuh yoong°-nyung °yeu ih kuh dan°.

• (一) 我要一把刀.
• (二) 第個人有一個洋錢.
• (三) 儂個朋友個兒子有一隻羊.
• (四) 伊個女人個囡要一隻鳥.
• (五) 伊要一把傘.
• (六) 我要一把叉.
• (七) 伲要一隻床.
• (八) 㑚有一塊洋錢.
• (九) 第個先生有一隻橘子.
• (十) 伊個用人有一個蛋.

(Translate into Chinese)

• (1) Your teacher has a table.
• (2) My friend has a son.
• (3) Their daughter has an umbrella.
• (4) They want a bed.
• (5) That servant wants a knife.
• (6) This pupil’s teacher has a chair.
• (7) My son wants a dollar.
• (8) He wants a fork.
• (9) She wants a spoon.
• (10) The woman’s daughter has an orange.
• (11) He has mine.
• (12) He has yours.

• (一) 儂個先生有一隻檯子.
• (二) 我個朋友有一個兒子.
• (三) 伊拉個囡有一把傘.
• (四) 伊拉要一隻床.
• (五) 伊個用人要一把刀.
• (六) 第個學生子個先生有一隻椅子.
• (七) 我個兒子要一塊洋錢.
• (八) 伊要一把叉.
• (九) 伊要一把匙.
• (十) 一個女人個囡有一隻橘子.
• (十一) 伊有我個.
• (十二) 伊有儂個.

Notes.

• （1) Verbs undergo no change in form for the singular and plural number. Tense formation will be explained later.
• （2) The verb °yeu is often used for the expression “there is.” Thus, °yeu ih-kuh nyung iau° doong-dien (有一個人要銅錢) means, “There is a man who wants cash.”
• （3) °yeu kuh (有個) means “some.” Thus °yeu kuh nyung (有個人) is “some men.”
• （4) Sometimes the kuh is omitted and we have °yeu nyung. Thus °yeu nyung iau° yang-dien (有人要洋錢) means, “some man want dollars.”

LESSON III
The Numerals up to one Hundred

• One, ih 一.
• Two, nyi° or °liang 二, 兩.
• Three, san 三.
• Four, s° 四.
• Five, °ng 五.
• Six, lok 六.
• Seven, tshih 七.
• Eight, pah 八.
• Nine, °kyeu 九.
• Ten, zeh 十.

From ten to twenty the numerals are formed by adding the digits after ten.

• Eleven, zeh-ih 十一.
• Twelve, zeh-nyi° 十二, etc.
• Fifteen, zeh-°ng, pronounced °se-°ng 十五.
• Twenty, nyan° 念. (In speaking of the day of the month nyi°-seh is used) 二十.
• Thirty, san-seh 三十. (Lit. three tens. The Z sound in zeh becomes S when preceded by another word.)
• Forty, s°-seh 四十.
• Fifty, °ng-seh 五十.
• Sixty, lok-seh 六十.
• Seventy, tshih-seh 七十.
• Eighty, pah seh 八十.
• Ninety, °kyeu-seh 九十.
• One Hundred, ih pak 一百.

The intervening numbers between twenty and thirty, etc., are formed regularly by adding the digits to the decimals. Thus twenty-one is nyan°-ih. Thirty-one, is san-seh-ih, etc.

Thirty-five is pronounced san-°so-°ng.

In using the numeral with the noun, the classifier of the noun is introduced between the numeral and the noun. Thus “Four men” is s° kuh nyung (四個人) not s° nyung. “Six chairs” is lok tsak iui°-°ts (六隻椅子) not lok iui°-°ts.

In speaking of a thing well understood the noun is often omitted, and we have simply the numeral with the classifier, as lok kuh, tshih tsak, etc.

VOCABULARY

• A cow, ih tsak nyeu 一隻牛.
• A native, ih kuh °pung-di°-nyung 一個本地人.
• A foreigner, ih kuh °nga-kok-nyung 一個外國人. (Literally, outside kingdom man).
• Children, °siau-noen 小囝.
• A large box or trunk, ih tsak siang-°ts 一隻箱子.
• A small box, ih tsak ‘ah-°ts 一隻匣子.
• A fan, ih °po sen°-°ts 一把扇子.
• A broom, ih °po °sau °tseu 一把掃箒.
• A tea pot, ih °po dzo-‘oo 一把茶壺.
• To be, is, are, °z 是.

EXERCISES

(Translate into English)

• (1) °Ngoo iau° san tsak siang-°ts.
• (2) °Di °po sen°-°ts °z noong°-kuh.
• (3) I-kuh ‘eu-°ts °yeu ih tsak ‘ah-°ts.
• (4) °Ngoo-kuh sien-sang iau° ih °po dzo-‘oo.
• (5) San-seh-ih tsak yang °z i-kuh.
• (6) Nyan°-tshih tsak nyeu °z i-kuh.
• (7) I-kuh °nga-kok-nyung °yeu °liang tsak iui°-°ts.
• (8) San-seh, °z san kuh zeh.
• (9) Ih pak, °z zeh kuh zeh.
• (10) °So-°ng kuh nyung °yeu °so-°ng tsak de-°ts.
• (11) Sien-sang °z °pung-di°-nyung, °ngoo °z °nga-kok-nyung.
• (12) Yoong°-nyung iau° ih °po °sau-°tseu.

• (一) 我要三隻箱子.
• (二) 第把扇子是儂個.
• (三) 伊個兒子有一隻匣子.
• (四) 我個先生要一把茶壺.
• (五) 三十一隻羊是伊個.
• (六) 念七隻牛是伊個.
• (七) 伊個外國人有两隻椅子.
• (八) 三十是三個十.
• (九) 一百是十個十.
• (十) 十五個人有十五隻檯子.
• (十一) 先生是本地人我是外國人.
• (十二) 用人要一把掃箒.

(Translate into Chinese)

• (1) He wants three tea pots.
• (2) Four pupils want four fans.
• (3) This large box is my friends.
• (4) He has thirty knives.
• (5) These five dollars are the pupils’.
• (6) The teacher has twenty-five pupils.
• (7) These two fans are his.
• (8) That small box is the foreigner’s.
• (9) Six tens are sixty.
• (10) My friend has five children, three sons and two daughters.

• (一) 伊要三把茶壺.
• (二) 四個學生子要四把扇子.
• (三) 第隻箱子是我個朋友個.
• (四) 伊有三十把刀.
• (五) 第個五塊洋錢是學生子個.
• (六) 先生有念五個學生子.
• (七) 第個兩把扇子是伊個.
• (八) 伊隻匣子是外國人個.
• (九) 六個十是六十.
• (十) 我個朋友有五個小囝三個兒子兩個囡.

Note.

‘Ah-°ts is a small box in distinction from Siang-°ts, a large box, but as will be seen later the adjectives for large and small may also be used with both of these words.

LESSON IV
Adjectives

Certain words in Chinese are distinctly used as adjectives, but many other words, such as nouns, verbs and adverbs may be used to qualify nouns. In the expression dok su-nyung (讀書人), meaning “a scholar,” we have the verb dok (讀), “to read,” and the noun su (書), “book,” qualifying nyung (人) “man;” the whole expression being literally “the reading-book-man.”

Adjectives may be compared as follows: °tien (點) is added after the adjective to make the comparative degree, and °ting (頂) is placed before the adjective to form the superlative degree. Thus, Positive Degree, “Good,” is °hau (好). Comparative Degree, “Better,” is °hau °tien (好點). Superlative Degree, “Best,” is °ting °hau (頂好).

There are, however, many other ways of expressing the Superlative. Thus we may have °hau-le-°si (好來死), which is literally “good-come death” that is, “good to the death.” This is a very frequent expression.

We have also tsoe °hau (最好) or juh °hau (極好). Very good is usually ’man °hau (蠻好). °Hau-tuh-juh (好得極) means superlatively good.

The adjective °hau (好) has a very wide use. Everything that is good, suitable, correct, or proper, may be said to be °hau (好).

VOCABULARY

• Good, °hau 好.
• Bad, cheu (恘). More often ’veh °hau (勿好), ’Veh means “not.”
• Cold, °lang 冷.
• Hot, nyih 熱.
• White, bak 白.
• Black, huh 黒.
• Large, doo° 大.
• Small, °siau 小.
• A scholar, ih kuh dok-su-nyung 一個讀書人.
• A dog, ih tsak °keu 一隻狗.
• Water, °s 水, (Generally used without a classifier).
• A horse, ih tsak °mo (一隻馬). 匹 phih is sometimes used as the classifier of horses.

°Pung (本) is the classifier for book.

• A book, ih °pung su 一本書.

Diau (條) is the classifier with long, winding or limber objects.

• A bridge, ih diau jau 一條橋.
• A street, ih diau ka 一條街.
• A road, ih diau loo° 一条路.
• To read, to study, dok 讀.
• To come, le 來.
• To go, chi° 去.

EXERCISES

(Translate into English)

• (1) Di°-tsak °keu °z °hau kuh.
• (2) °Ngoo iau° dok su.
• (3) °Ngoo iau° °lang °s.
• (4) Di°-tsak yang °z huh kuh.
• (5) I-tsak nyeu °z bak kuh.
• (6) I-kuh °pung-di°-nyung °yeu °liang tsak huh kuh °mo.
• (7) °Ngoo °yeu ih kuh bang-°yeu iau° le.
• (8) Yi kuh sien-sang iau° chi°.
• (9) Di°-kuh °s °z nyih kuh.
• (10) Di°-diau jau °z doo° kuh.
• (11) Di°-kuh ih diau ka °z °siau kuh.
• (12) Di°-kuh ih diau loo° °z ’veh °hau.
• (13) I-°pung su °z sien-sang kuh, di°-°pung su °z °ngoo kuh.
• (14) Di°-tsak de-°ts °z °siau °tien.
• (15) Di°-tsak zaung °z °ting doo°.

• (一) 第隻狗是好個.
• (二) 我要讀書.
• (三) 我要冷水.
• (四) 第隻羊是黑個.
• (五) 伊隻牛是白個.
• (六) 伊個本地人有兩隻黑個馬.
• (七) 我有一個朋友要來.
• (八) 伊個先生要去.
• (九) 第個水是熱個.
• (十) 第條橋是大個.
• (十一) 第個一條街是小個.
• (十二) 第個一條路是勿好.
• (十三) 伊本書是先生個第本書是我個.
• (十四) 第隻檯子是小點.
• (十五) 第隻牀是頂大.

(Translate into Chinese)

• (1) These five oranges are bad.
• (2) The teacher wishes me to study.
• (3) The native’s cows are good.
• (4) I have a white bird.
• (5) I want warm water.
• (6) The dog is very black.
• (7) That bed is smaller.
• (8) This box is larger.
• (9) The tea pot is very white.
• (10) My teacher will come.
• (11) The foreigner will go.
• (12) I want a large dog.

• (一) 第個五隻橘子是勿好.
• (二) 先生要我讀書.
• (三) 本地人個牛是好個.
• (四) 我有一隻白個鳥.
• (五) 我要熱水.
• (六) 一隻狗是黑得極.
• (七) 一隻牀是小點.
• (八) 第隻箱子是大點.
• (九) 一把茶壺是蠻白.
• (十) 我個先生要來.
• (十一) 一個外國人要去.
• (十二) 我要大個一隻狗.

Notes.

• （1) Adjectives generally take kuh after them; the kuh 個 standing between the adjective and the noun. In some cases the kuh is omitted, as in the expression °lang °s (冷水), “cold water.” We do not say °lang kuh °s.
• （2) Dok-su (讀書) is the common expression for “to study.”
• （3) In such a sentence as “I want warm water” the °ngoo (我) may be omitted. In speaking to a servant one would say iau° nyih °s (要熱水), “I want hot water.”

LESSON V
Interrogatives, and Negatives

Va° (否) is used as the sign of a direct question, expecting the answer “yes” or “no.” It is added at the end of the sentence. Thus di°-kuh °z noong° kuh va°? (第個是儂個否) means, “is this yours?” Di°-kuh °hau va°? (第個好否) means, “is this good?” (the verb °z being omitted). The Chinese do not use a rising inflection of the voice to indicate that a question is being asked.

Meh (末) is used for asking a question when the action is presumed to have been completed. Thus van° chuh meh? (飯吃末) means, “have you eaten your rice?” or “have you dined?” Sien-sang chi° meh? (先生去末) means, “has the teacher gone?”

Nyi (呢) is used for asking a question implying the alternative. Thus noong° chi° nyi ’veh chi°? (儂去呢勿去) means, “are you going or not going?” noong° le nyi ’veh le? (儂來呢勿來) means, “are you coming or not coming?”

Nyi (呢) is also used in a question expecting a negative answer, but the explanation of this must be reserved until later.

“Who” is sa° (啥). In this sense it is always joined to the noun nyung (人). Thus sa° nyung? (啥人) means, “who?” Pidgin English, “who man?”

Sa° (啥) is also used in the sense of “what.” It sometimes precedes the noun as sa° sang-i°? (啥生意). “what business?” In a sentence like “what do you want,” it follows the verb. Thus noong° iau° sa° (儂要啥). Literally, “you want what?”

Sa° is also used with va° in the sense of “any,” in asking a question, Thus noong° iau° sa° va°? (儂要啥否) means, “do you want anything?” °Yeu sa° nyung iau° chi° va°? (有啥人要去否) means, “does any one wish to go?” Noong° °yeu sa° doong-dien va°? (儂有啥銅錢否) means, “have you any cash?”

Which is °‘a-°li (那裏). It is always used with numeral and classifier. Thus °‘a-°li ih kuh nyung? (那裏一個人) means, “which man?” °‘A-°li ih diau loo°? (那裏一條路) means, “which road?” °‘A-°li ih °pung su? (那裏一本書 ) means, “which book?” °‘A-°li °liang °po tau? (那裏兩把刀) means, “which two knives?” When the subject is understood about which you are conversing, the noun may be omitted, and °‘a-°li with the numeral and the classifier are sufficient. Thus in speaking of roads °‘a-°li ih diao? would be enough.

“No” or “not”, is expressed by ’veh (勿). Thus yi ’veh iau° chi° (伊勿要去) means, “he does not wish to go.”

M-meh (無末) is used in the sense of “not any” in answering a question asking whether you have any, thus noong° °yeu sa° yang-dien va°? (儂有啥洋錢否) “have you any dollars?”, the answer might be m-meh.

Sometimes m-sa° (無啥) is used in answering questions in the negative. Thus noong° °yeu sa° tsoo° va°? (儂有啥做否) “have you anything to do?” (Have you any employment?) The answer might be m-sa° tsoo° (無啥做) “not anything to do.”

No one is m-sa°-nyung (無啥人). Thus °yeu sa° nyung le va°? (有啥人來否), “has any one come?” The answer might be m-sa° nyung (無啥人).

VOCABULARY

• Rice (growing), °dau 稻.
• Rice (uncooked), °mi 米.
• Rice (cooked), van° 飯.
• A hat, cap or bonnet. ih °ting mau°-°ts 一頂帽子 or ih tsak mau°-°ts 一隻帽子.
• A carpenter, ih kuh mok-ziang° 一個木匠. Lit. Wood worker.
• A hand, ih tsak °seu 一隻手.
• A foot, ih tsak kyak 一隻脚.

Kung (根) Is the classifier denoting objects long and generally stiff.

• A cane or stick, ih kung °baung 一根棒.

Zoo° (座) is the classifier for hills and buildings.

• A house, ih zoo° vaung-°ts 一座房子. (Sometimes ih zak vaung-°ts 一宅)

Sen° (扇) is the classifier for broad objects.

• A door, ih sen° mung 一扇門.
• To eat, eats, eat, chuh 吃.
• To invite, invites, invite, °tshing 請. (Also used in the sense of please, when making a request of any one).
• To take, tan (擔) or nau (拿).
• To call, calls, call, kyau° 叫.
• To open, opens, open, khe 開.
• To shut, shuts, shut, kwan 關.
• To do, does, perform, make, tsoo° 做.
• To enter, enters, come in, tsing° 進.

EXERCISES

(Translated into English)

• (1) I-kuh sien-sang van° chuh meh?
• (2) °Ngoo iau° °tshing ih we° sien-sang.
• (3) Khe khe mung.
• (4) Di°-kuh kyau° sa°?
• (5) Kwan mung.
• (6) Di°-°pung su sa° nyung tan-le kuh?
• (7) °‘A-°li kung °baung °z noong°-kuh?
• (8) °‘A-°li ih zoo° vaung-°ts °z i-kuh?
• (9) Sa° nyung tan-chi° kuh?
• (10) Nyung °yeu °liang tsak °seu, °liang tsak kyak.
• (11) Noong° °yeu sa° sang-i° tsoo° va°?
• (12) Ngoo m-sa° sang-i° tsoo°.
• (13) Noong° kyau° sa°?
• (14) °Yeu sa° nyung tsing°-le va°?  M-sa° nyung.
• (15) Noong° mau°-°ts °yeu va°?  M-meh.

• (一) 伊個先生飯吃末?
• (二) 我要請一位先生.
• (三) 開開門.
• (四) 第個叫啥?
• (五) 關門.
• (六) 第本書啥人担來個?
• (七) 那裡一根棒是儂個?
• (八) 那裡一座房子是伊個?
• (九) 啥人擔去個?
• (十) 人有兩隻手兩隻脚.
• (十一) 儂有啥生意做否?
• (十二) 我無啥生意做.
• (十三) 儂叫啥?
• (十四) 有啥人進來啥? 無啥人.
• (十五) 儂帽子有否? 無末.

(Translated into Chinese)

• (1) Have the children eaten their rice?
• (2) Which cow is yours?
• (3) Which bird is black?
• (4) Bring the hot water.
• (5) Bring the boiling water.
• (6) Please come in.
• (7) Who did it?
• (8) Who brought it?
• (9) Who took it away?
• (10) Who wants it?
• (11) Who entered?
• (12) Who opened the door?
• (13) Who shut the door?
• (14) Which table is yours?
• (15) What do you want?
• (16) Have you anything to eat?
• (17) I have nothing to eat.
• (18) Have you any oranges?
• (19) I have.
• (20) I have none.

• (一) 小囝飯吃末?
• (二) 那裡一隻牛是儂個?
• (三) 那裡一隻鳥是黑個?
• (四) 担熱水來.
• (五) 担開水來.
• (六) 請進來.
• (七) 啥人做個?
• (八) 啥人擔來個?
• (九) 啥人擔去個?
• (十) 啥人要個?
• (十一) 啥人進來個?
• (十二) 啥人開門?
• (十三) 啥人關門?
• (十四) 那裡一隻檯子是儂個?
• (十五) 儂要啥?
• (十六) 儂有啥吃否?
• (十七) 無啥吃
• (十八) 儂有啥橘子否?
• (十九) 有個
• (二十) 無末

Notes.

• （1) Note the difference between °tshing (請), kyau° (叫) and han° (喊). °Tshing is used in speaking to an equal or to a superior. Kyau° in speaking to a servant. Han° in even more curt than kyau°. Thus °tshing yi le (請伊來) means, “invite him to come,” and is the polite form of speech if you wish an equal to come to you. Kyau° yi le (叫伊來) or han° yi le (喊伊來) would be used if you tell some one to call your servant or a workman to you.
• （2) Notice the repetition of the khe (開) in the third sentence of the first exercise. This makes it more emphatic.
• （3) The verbs tan (擔) “take” and le (來) “come” are often used together in the sense of “bring.” Literally “take-come.” So also with tan (擔) and chi° (去); this means, “Take away.” Literally “Take-go.” Sometimes the tan and the le, and the tan and the chi° are separated from one another by other words in the sentence. Thus tan su le (擔書來) means “bring the books.” The above remarks also hold true of nau.
• （4) In the sixth sentence of the first exercise the words °di-°pung su stand first. This is because they are emphatic. It is difficult to give any hard and fast rule in regard to the order of words in a Chinese sentence, but generally speaking, we may say that the most emphatic word is placed first. In this sentence it is the book which is being talked about, and so it occurs first.
• （5) The words in the thirteenth sentence of the first exercise would only be addressed to a servant or to a child. “What are you called?” means, “what is your name?” not “what is your surname?”
  
• (5) In polite phraseology, in speaking to a person the pronoun noong° is never employed. The third person is used instead of the second. To ask your teacher his name, you would say Tsung sing°? (尊姓), which means, “what is your honorable name?” (surname). If you wish to inquire further as to his other name, you would say °tshing kyau° da° ‘au? (請叫大號) which means, “please tell me your great official name?” The requirements of etiquette as to the use of words will be explained later somewhat fully.
• （6) In the fifth sentence of the second exercise, the expression boiling water is used. For this the words khe (開) “open,” and °s (水) “water” are used. It signifies that boiling water is open water on account of the bubbles which proceed from it.

LESSON VI
Some Remarks on the Verb

In a monosyllabic language like the Chinese the words themselves are never inflected, and therefore the Moods and Tenses of the Verbs are formed by the addition of auxiliary words to mark the change of meaning.

We will take the verb chuh (吃) to illustrate.

INDICATIVE MOOD

• Present Tense, Simple Form, I eat, °ngoo chuh 我吃.
• Present Tense, Continuous, I am eating, °ngoo leh-°li chuh 我拉裏吃, °ngoo la° chuh 我拉吃.
• Past Tense, Simple Form, I ate, °ngoo chuh kuh 我吃個.
• Past Tense, Continuous, I was eating, °ngoo leh-la° chuh 我拉拉吃.
• Past Tense, Emphatic Form, I did eat, °ngoo °z chuh kuh 我是吃個.
• Perfect Tense, I have eaten, °ngoo chuh tse 我吃哉. °ngoo chuh° la° tse 我吃拉哉, °ngoo chuh koo° tse 我吃過哉.
• Past Perfect, I had eaten. °ngoo °i-kyung chuh tse 我已經吃哉, °ngoo °i-kyung chuh la° tse 我已經吃拉哉, °ngoo °i-kyung chuh koo° hyih tse 我已經吃過歇哉.
• Future Tense, I will or shall eat, °ngoo iau° chuh 我要吃.
• The Future Perfect Tense cannot be expressed directly.

The only change for the different persons is the above will be in the use of the pronouns of the different persons.

IMPERATIVE MOOD

• Eat, chuh (吃), chuh meh tse (吃末哉).

PARTICIPLES

• Present, Eating, chuh (吃), Past, Having eaten, chuh-°ts (吃仔).

A few words of explanation are necessary. The use of leh-°li and leh-la° are a little difficult to understand at first. As stated °ngoo leh-°li chuh (我拉裏吃) means, “I am eating.” If, however, a third person asked your servant Sien-sang van° chuh meh? (先生飯吃 末), “Has the Teacher eaten his rice?”, the servant would answer, if you were still eating, yi leh-la° chuh (伊拉拉吃) meaning “he is eating.” If you yourself said °ngoo leh-la° chuh, it would mean, “I was eating.” In the Perfect Tense the word koo° (過) means literally ”to pass over.” In the Past Perfect the words °i-kyung (已經) mean “already.”

The real force of leh-°li (拉裏) is “here,” and the real force of leh-la° (拉拉) is “there.”

There are a great many ways of expressing completed action in Chinese. These will be explained later. In this lesson one of the most common will be explained. It is by the use of the adjective °hau after the verb. Thus chuh °hau tse (吃好哉) means, “I have finished eating.” Dok °hau tse (讀好哉) means, “I have finished reading.”

°Hau (好), “good,” is also used before the verb to qualify it. Thus we have the expressions °hau chuh kuh (好吃個) meaning “good to eat.” °Hau dok kuh (好讀個), “Easy to read.” °Hau tsoo° kuh (好做個), “Easy to do,” etc.

VOCABULARY

• To arrive, tau° 到.
• To give by hand, peh 撥.
• To buy, °ma 買.
• To speak, wo° 話.
• To burn or cook, sau 燒.
• To learn, ‘auh 學.
• A table boy, ih kuh si°-tse° 一個細崽.
• A horse boy or coachman, ih kuh °mo-foo 一個馬夫.
• A pear, ih tsak sang-li 一隻生梨.
• A peach, ih tsak dau-°ts 一隻桃子.
• A tailor, ih kuh ze-voong 一個裁縫.
• China or Chinese, Tsoong-kok (中國), Lit. Middle Kingdom.
• Shanghai, °Zaung-°he 上海.

Jien° is the classifier denoting garments, pieces of baggage and merchandize, and also an affair.

• A garment, ih jien° i-zaung 一件衣裳.

Saung (雙) is the classifier denoting pairs.

• A pair of shoes, ih saung ‘a-°ts 一雙鞋子.
• A pair of socks or stockings, ih saung mah 一雙襪.
• New, sing 新.
• Old, °jeu 舊, or °lau 老. (Of persons, only °lau is used.) °Lau is old as to time. °Jeu generally means worn out, in bad condition. (°Lau is often used as a title of respect, meaning venerable).

EXERCISES

(Translate into English)

• (1) °Ngoo iau° ‘auh wo° tsoong-kok wo°.
• (2) °Ngoo iau° ‘auh dok tsoong-kok su.
• (3) Noong° iau° dok su va°?
• (4) I-tsak siang-°ts tan-chi° meh?
• (5) Kyau° yi chi° meh tse.
• (6) I-kuh °mo-foo iau° °ma san tsak °mo.
• (7) °Ngoo peh yi °ng kwhe° yang-dien kyau° yi chi° °ma ih tsak yang.
• (8) °Ngoo °i-kyung wo° koo° tse.
• (9) °Zaung-°he tau° koo° hyih meh?
• (10) Tau° koo° hyih tse.
• (11) °Ngoo-kuh i-zaung ze-voong tsoo° °hau meh?
• (12) Yi leh-la° tsoo°.
• (13) Noong° chuh-°hau-°ts van° iau° tsoo° sa°?
• (14) Chuh-°hau-°ts van° iau° dok su.
• (15) °Ngoo iau° chi° °ma ih saung sing kuh ‘a-°ts.
• (16) Van° sau °hau meh?
• (17) Sau °hau tse.
• (18) °Lau sien-sang kyau° si°-tse° chi° °ma sang-li.
• (19) Kyau° yi le tsoo° meh tse.
• (20) Di°-kuh tsoo° koo° hyih meh? Tsoo° koo° hyih tse.

• (一) 我要學話中國話.
• (二) 我要學讀中國書.
• (三) 儂要讀書否?
• (四) 伊隻箱子擔去末?
• (五) 叫伊去末哉.
• (六) 伊個馬夫要買三隻馬.
• (七) 我撥伊五塊洋錢叫伊去買一隻羊.
• (八) 我已經話過哉.
• (九) 上海到過歇末?
• (十) 到過歇哉.
• (十一) 我個衣裳裁縫做好末?
• (十二) 伊拉拉做.
• (十三) 儂吃好之飯要做啥?
• (十四) 吃好之飯要讀書.
• (十五) 我耍去買一雙新個鞋子.
• (十六) 飯燒好末?
• (十七) 燒好哉.
• (十八) 老先生叫細崽去買生梨.
• (十九) 叫伊來做末哉.
• (二十) 第個做過歇末? 做過歇哉.

(Translate into Chinese)

• (1) I have already read this book.
• (2) Do you want to buy a dog?
• (3) When I arrive at Shanghai, I wish to buy an umbrella.
• (4) Has my friend come?
• (5) I gave him four dollars and told him to buy a table.
• (6) The teacher is eating his dinner.
• (7) I have already given him ten dollars.
• (8) Come along.
• (9) When the teacher has come, call me.
• (10) Have you ever eaten Chinese peaches?
• (11) I have eaten them.
• (12) Those pupils are studying Chinese.
• (13) The foreign teacher is learning to speak Chinese.

• (一) 第本書我已輕讀過哉.
• (二) 一隻狗要買否?
• (三) 到之上海我要買把洋傘.
• (四) 我個朋友來末?
• (五) 我撥伊四塊洋錢叫伊去買一隻擡子.
• (六) 先生垃拉吃飯.
• (七) 我已經撥伊十塊洋錢.
• (八) 來末哉.
• (九) 先生來之末來叫我.
• (十) 中國桃子儂吃過歇末?
• (十一) 吃過歇哉.
• (十二) 伊個學生子拉拉讀中國書.
• (十三) 外國先生拉拉學中國話.

Notes.

• （1) China is known by many different names. The most common is Tsoong-kok (中國). We also have Da° tshing kok (大淸國), “the great pure kingdom,” Tsoong-wo (中華), “the middle civilized kingdom,” and Zeh pah °sang (十八省) “the eighteen provinces” (used of China Proper, without its dependencies). A modern name is Ts-na (支那). It represents the sound of China, and was much used by the reform party. The name adopted for The Republic of China is Tsoong-wo ming kok (中國民國) “The middle civilized people’s kingdom.”
• （2) In the ninth sentence of the first exercise the force of the Tau° (到) is visiting the place for the first time.
• （3) In the twentieth sentence of the first exercise the meaning is, “Have you ever done this before?”
• （4) In the ninth sentence of the second exercise, you use the past participle, le-°ts (來仔). After it meh (末) is often used for euphony, thus the sentence would be Sien-sang le-ts meh, le kyau° °ngoo (先生來之末來叫我).
• （5) In the twelfth sentence of the second exercise su (書) is added after tsoong-kok (中國). The meaning is “The pupils are studying Chinese books.”
• （6) In the thirteenth sentence of the second exercise, the foreign teacher would be nga°-kok sien sang (外國先生). Nga°-kok is used as an adjective.

LESSON VII
Prepositions and Postpositions, and Common Connectives

The words expressing the relations of nouns to one another are placed, some of them before and some of them after the governed substantive. ‘At’ or ‘to’ is expressed by la° (拉). Thus °ngoo peh la° yi (我撥拉伊), “I gave it to him.”

‘To’ or ‘towards’ in the sense of direction is expressed by tau° (到). Thus: °ngoo iau° tau° °Zaung-°he chi° (我要到上海去), “I wish to go to Shanghai.” ‘To’ or ‘towards’ is also expressed by te° (對), as in the expression to speak to a person. Thus: °ngoo te° yi wo° (我對伊話), “I said to him.” ‘From’ is expressed by dzoong (從). Thus: °ngoo dzoong °Zaung-°he le (我從上海來), “I came from Shanghai.”

‘With’ is expressed by tah 搭 or doong 同. Thus: °ngoo tah yi bak wo° (我搭伊白話) or °ngoo doong yi bak wo° (我同伊白話), “I talked with him.”

‘Instead of’ is thi° (替) or °de thi° (代替). Thus: °ngoo °de thi° yi tsoo° (我代替伊做), “I do it instead of him.” The idea of doing it for a person is expressed by theh (忒). Thus: °ngoo theh yi tsoo° (我忒伊做), “I will do it for him.”

‘In’ is expressed by placing la° (拉) or leh-la° (拉拉) before the noun and °li (裏) or °li-hyang° (裏向) after the noun. Thus: la° vaung-°ts °li (拉房子裏) means, “In the house.” La° siang-°ts °li (拉箱子裏) means “In the box.”

‘On’ is expressed by placing la° or leh-la° before the noun and laung° (上) after it. Thus: la° loo° laung° (拉路上) means, “On the road.” La° de-°ts laung° (拉擡子上) means, “On the table.”

Nga° (外) means “out.” The usual expression is nga°-deu (外頭) “outside.” It follows the noun.

Other prepositions will be introduced later.

The most common connective is °lau (佬) and corresponds quite closely to our use of “and.” Thus °ngoo iau° °ma ‘a-°ts °lau mah (我要買鞋子佬襪) means, “I wish to buy shoes and stockings.” Nouns are often placed beside one another without any connective between them. Tah-ts (搭之) is used much in the same sense as °lau (佬).

‘Also’ is °‘a-°z (也是) or °‘a (也). Thus: di°-kuh °‘a-°z hau kuh (第個也是好個) means, “This also is good.” °Ngoo °‘a iau° °ma (我也要買) means, “I also wish to buy.” °Ngoo wan iau° °ma (我還要買) means, “I still wish to buy.”

VOCABULARY

• A city, ih zoo° dzung 一座城.
• A school, ih kuh ‘auh-daung 一個學堂.
• A hat, ih °ting mau°-°ts 一頂帽子.
• A head, ih kuh deu 一個頭.
• A foot, ih tsak kyak 一隻脚.
• A hand, ih tsak °seu 一隻手.
• A heart, ih kuh sing 一個心.
• Father, ya 爺.
• Mother, nyang 娘.
• A body, ih kuh sung-°thi 一個身體.
• Home, ok-°li 屋裏.
• To sit, °zoo 坐.
• To live, dwell, dzu° 住.
• To wear, tsak 着.
• To place, faung° 放, °pa 擺.
• To use, yoong° 用.
• To wear on the head, ta° 戴.

EXERCISES

(Translate into English)

• (1) Sa° nyung peh la° yi kuh?
• (2) I-kuh ya peh la° yi kuh.
• (3) Di°-kuh iau° tan tau° ok-°li chi°.
• (4) Mau°-°ts iau° ta° la° deu laung°.
• (5) ‘A-°ts iau° tsak la° kyak laung°.
• (6) I-zaung iau° tsak la° sung laung°.
• (7) Sien-sang dzu° la° dzung° °li va°?
• (8) ‘Auh-sang-°ts iau° tau° ‘auh-daung °li chi°.
• (9) °Ngoo kyau° si°-tse° °pa °ngoo-kuh i-zaung la° siang-°ts °li.
• (10) Sien-sang dzoong nga°-kok tau° Tsoong-kok le.
• (11) Sien-sang kyau° °siau-noen yoong° sing dok su.
• (12) ’Veh iau° °zoo la° zaung laung°, iau° °zoo la° iui°-°ts laung°.
• (13) Su faung° la° de-°ts laung°.
• (14) Bang-°yeu i°-kyung le koo°-°ts °lau chi° tse.
• (15) Sang-li °z °hau chuh kuh, dau-°ts °‘a-°z °hau chuh kuh.
• (16) Di°-kuh °siau noen ’m ya nyang kuh.
• (17), Sa° nyung la° ‘auh-daung °li? Sien-sang tah-ts ‘auh-sang-°ts.
• (18) Noong° wan iau° °ma sa° va°? ’Veh iau°.

• (一) 啥人撥拉伊個?
• (二) 伊個爺撥拉伊個.
• (三) 第個要擔到屋裏去.
• (四) 帽子要戴拉頭上.
• (五) 鞋子要着拉脚上.
• (六) 衣裳要着拉身上.
• (七) 先生住拉城裏否?
• (八) 學生子要到學堂裏去.
• (九) 我叫細崽擺我個衣裳拉箱子裏.
• (十) 先生從外國到中國來.
• (十一) 先生叫小囡用心讀書.
• (十二) 勿要坐拉床上要坐拉椅子上.
• (十三) 書放拉檯子上.
• (十四) 朋友已經來過之佬去哉.
• (十五) 生梨是好吃個桃子也是好吃個.
• (十六) 第個小囝無爺娘個.
• (十七) 啥人拉學堂裏? 先生搭之學生子.
• (十八) 儂還要買啥否? 勿要.

(Translate into Chinese)

• (1) I placed the knives and the forks on the table.
• (2) Who lives in this house? Mr. Tsang.
• (3) The father and mother wish the child to study.
• (4) Do you live in the city or out of the city?
• (5) The cat is on the table.
• (6) Take it in your hand.
• (7) Keep it in mind (place it on your heart).
• (8) The heart is in the body.
• (9) That child has no shoes on his feet
• (10) That man has no hat on his head.
• (11) To whom do the cows and sheep belong?
• (12) When you have put on your clothes, come and eat.
• (13) The horse boy wishes to feed the horse also.
• (14) You and I are friends.
• (15) Have you ever been to foreign countries?

• (一) 刀叉我放拉檯子上.
• (二) 啥人住拉第個房子裏? 張先生.
• (三) 爺娘要第個小囡讀書.
• (四) 儂住拉城裏呢城外?
• (五) 貓拉檯子上.
• (六) 擔拉手裏.
• (七) 放拉心上.
• (八) 心拉拉身體裏.
• (九) 伊個小囝脚上無沒鞋子.
• (十) 伊個人頭上無末帽子.
• (十一) 牛佬羊是啥人個?
• (十二) 着好之衣裳佬來吃.
• (十三) 馬夫也要撥馬吃.
• (十四) 儂搭之我是朋友.
• (十五) 外國去過歇末.

Notes.

• （1) There are many different ways of saying “father” and “mother,” but these will have to be explained later.
• （2) Laung° is really the character °Zaung. It has the latter sound when used in the adverb “above,” which is °Zaung-deu, 上頭.
• （3) The seventh sentence of the first exercise is correct grammatically, but would not be used in polite speech. The usual way of asking a gentleman where he lives is to say Sien-sang °foo laung° la° °‘a-°li, 先生府上拉那裏.
• （4) In the eleventh sentence of the first exercise the expression yoong° sing means “to be diligent” or “to pay attention.”
• （5) In the second sentence of the second exercise Mr. Tsang is translated Tsang Sien-sang. Tsang is a common surname in Chinese. The Sien-sang follows the surname.
• （6) Doong (同) is generally used with ih-dau (一淘), Doong coming before the noun, and ih-dau after it. Thus °Ngoo doong °ngoo kuh bang-yeu ih-dau tau° °Zaung-°he chi°.

LESSON VIII
Potential and Subjunctive Moods, and some Interrogative Adverbs

“May” or “can” is expressed by °khau-°i (可以). Thus “I may or can eat” is °ngoo °khau-°i chuh (我可以吃). When physical ability is implied nung-keu° (能彀) is frequently used. Thus “I have the physical ability to do,” is °ngoo nung-keu° tsoo° (我能彀做). When acquired ability is to be expressed we° (會) is generally used. Thus: “I have the ability to speak Chinese” is °ngoo we° wo° Tsoong-kok wo° (我會話中國話).

The Subjunctive Mood is expressed exactly like the Indicative Mood except that some word meaning “If” is placed at the beginning of the clause, and that the particle meh (末) is generally placed at the end of the clause.

“If” is zak (若), zak-s° (若使), zak-zen (若然), °thaung-zen (倘然), °thaung-s° (倘使). Thus “If I go, I will call you,” is expressed zak-zen °ngoo chi° meh, °ngoo iau° kyau° noong° (若然我去末我要叫儂).

Very often the word implying “If” is omitted at the beginning of the clause, and the condition is implied simply by the use of the meh (末) the end of the clause. Thus: “When he has finished it, come and tell me” is yi tsoo° °hau meh, le te° °ngoo wo° (伊做好末來對我話).

“How” is °na-nung (那能). Thus “How do you know”, is noong° °na-nung °hyau-tuh? (儂那能曉得).

“When?” is °kyi-z (幾時). Thus “When did you come?” is noong° °kyi-z le kuh? (儂幾時來個). “When did you arrive?”, is noong° kyi-z tau°? (儂幾時到). Beginners in Chinese often make the mistake of using °kyi-z as the ordinary adverb of time. To express such a sentence as “When I come he will go,” we say °ngoo le-°ts meh yi iau° chi° (我來仔末伊要去), the past participle being used, and meh implying that it is conditional. It is incorrect to say °ngoo °kyi-z le, yi iau° chi°. Let it be remembered that °kyi-z is only used in asking a question.

We have the °kyi-z used after the verb in such a sentence as noong° tau°-ts °kyi-z tse? (儂到仔幾時哉) meaning, “How long since you arrived?” or yi chi°-°ts °kyi-z tse? (伊去仔幾時哉) meaning, “How long since he went?”

VOCABULARY.

• To sell, ma° 賣 or ma°-theh 賣脫.
• To see, khoen° 看 or khoen°-kyien° seen 看見.
• To walk, °tseu 走.
• To run, bau 跑.
• To know, °hyau-tuh 曉得.
• To know a person, nyung°-tuh 認得.
• To understand, °toong 懂 or ming-bak 明白.
• A pagoda, ih zoo° thah 一座塔.
• A sedan chair, ih °ting jau°-°ts 一頂轎子.
• A visitor or guest, ih we° khak-nyung 一位客人.
• A doctor, ih we° laung tsoong 一位郞中 or ih we° i-sung 一位醫生.
• A grave mound, ih kuh °vung-san 一個墳山.
• A mouth, ih kuh °kheu 一個口 or ih tsang °ts 一張嘴.
• A doorway, ih kuh mung-°kheu (Mouth of the door) 一個門口 or mung-°kheu-deu 一個門口頭.
• An ear, ih tsak °nyi-°too 一隻耳朵.
• A nose, ih kuh bih-deu 一個鼻頭.
• An eye, ih tsak °ngan-tsing 一隻眼晴.
• A face, ih kuh mien°-khoong 一個面孔.

Boo (部) is the classifier used with carriages, and vehicles on wheels.

• A carriage, ih boo °mo-tsho 一部馬車.
• A ricsha, ih boo toong-yang-tsho 一部東洋車. (Lit. East of the Ocean carriage.) Japan is known as the land East of the Ocean, and ricshas were first used there.
• A wheelbarrow, ih boo tsho-°ts 一部車子 or °siau-tsho 小車.
• Short, °toen 短.
• Long, dzang 長.
• Fast, kwha° 快.
• Slow, man° 慢.
• To-morrow, ming-tsau 明朝.

EXERCISES

(Translate into English)

• (1) Noong° ming-bak va°? ’Veh ming-bak.
• (2) Tsoong-kok wo°, noong° we° wo° va°? °Ngoo ’veh we° wo°.
• (3) Tsoong-kok su noong° we° dok va°? °Ngoo ’veh we° dok.
• (4) °Tshing sien-sang ming-tsau le.
• (5) Noong° °kyi-z khau-°i chi°? °Ngoo ming-tsau khau-°i chi°.
• (6) Di°-tsak °mo ’veh nung-keu° bau le kwha°.
• (7) Zak-zen sien-sang le meh, noong° te° yi wo° °ngoo °Zaung-°he chi° tse.
• (8) Chi° kyau° ih boo toong-yang-tsho.
• (9) Di°-zoo° thah noong° khoen°-kyien° hyih meh?
• (10) Mok-ziang° °zoo-ts °siau-tsho-°ts tau° °Zaung-°he chi° tse.
• (11) Di-°kuh nyung noong° nyung°-tuh va°? ’Veh nyung°-tuh.
• (12) Noong° °na-nung chi° kuh? °Ngoo °zoo-ts °mo-tsho chi kuh.
• (13) Iau° noong° chi° °tshing i-sung le.
• (14) °Tshing sien-sang wo° le man° °tien.
• (15) Zah-zen sien-sang wo° le kwha° meh, °ngoo ’veh °toong.
• (16) Di°-kung °baung °z dzang kuh, di°-°po tau °z °toen kuh.
• (17) Khak-nyung tau°-°ts mung-°kheu-deu iau° °tshing yi °li-hyang° °zoo.
• (18) I-kuh °siau-noen kuh mien°-°khoong ’man °hau khoen°.
• (19) Nyung °yeu °liang tsak °nyi-°too, °liang tsak °ngan-tsing, ih kuh bih-deu, °lau ih tsang-°ts.
• (20) Di°-zoo° vaung-°ts °i-kyung ma°-theh tse.

• (一) 儂明白否? 勿明白.
• (二) 中國話儂會話否? 我勿會話.
• (三) 中國書儂會讀否? 我勿會讀.
• (四) 請先生明朝來.
• (五) 儂幾時可以去? 我明朝可以去.
• (六) 第隻馬勿能彀跑來快.
• (七) 若然先生來末儂對伊話我上海去哉.
• (八) 去叫一部東洋車.
• (九) 第座塔儂看見歇末?
• (十) 木匠坐之小車子到上海去哉.
• (十一) 第個人儂認得否? 勿認得.
• (十二) 儂那能去個? 我坐馬車去個.
• (十三) 要儂去請醫生來.
• (十四) 請先生話來慢點.
• (十五) 若然先生話來快末我勿懂.
• (十六) 第根棒是長個, 第把刀是短個.
• (十七) 客人到之門口頭請伊裏向坐.
• (十八) 伊個小囝個面孔蠻好看.
• (十九) 人有兩隻耳朵, 兩隻眼睛, 一個鼻頭佬一張嘴.
• (二十) 第座房子已經賣脫哉.

(Translate into Chinese)

• (l) Please take a seat.
• (2) When will that teacher come?
• (3) He said he will come to-morrow.
• (4) Have you seen my dog?
• (5) Ask the visitor to come in.
• (6) The sheep is on the grave mound.
• (7) I wish to ride in a sedan chair, and go into the city.
• (8) When the doctor comes, come and call me.
• (9) Call two ricshas.
• (10) How long have you been in China?
• (11) If men had no eyes they would not be able to see.
• (12) If the pupil is not diligent he will not be able to learn Chinese.
• (13) I do not know how to say this.
• (14) When will the doctor come?
• (15) To-morrow he will come.
• (16) The road to Shanghai is very long.
• (17) If you do not understand you can ask the teacher to speak more slowly.
• (18) The ears of that dog are very long.
• (19) The child runs very fast.
• (20) Do you know my friend? I do not.

• (一) 請坐.
• (二) 伊個先生幾時要來?
• (三) 伊話伊明朝要來.
• (四) 我個一隻狗儂看見歇末?
• (五) 請客人進來.
• (六) 第隻羊拉墳山上.
• (七) 我要坐轎子到城裏去.
• (八) 醫生來之末來叫我.
• (九) 去叫兩部東洋車.
• (十) 儂到之中國幾時哉?
• (十一) 若然人無沒眼睛伊拉勿能彀看見.
• (十二) 苦然學生子勿用心伊勿會學中國話.
• (十三) 第個我勿曉得那能話個.
• (十四) 醫生幾時要來?
• (十五) 伊明朝要來.
• (十六) 到上海路是蠻長.
• (十七) 若然儂勿懂末儂可以請先生話來慢點.
• (十八) 伊隻狗個耳朵是蠻長.
• (十九) 笫個小囝跑來蠻快.
• (二十) 我個朋友儂認得否? 勿認得.

Notes.

• （1) In the sixth sentence of the first exercise, notice that the adjective kwha° is turned into an adverb by the le coming before it. Adjectives are often used with verbs in this way.
• （2) In the twelfth sentence of the first exercise, notice the expression for travelling in a carriage. In Chinese you “sit a carriage.”
• （3) In the first sentence of the second exercise we have the usual polite expression for asking one to be seated °Tshing °zoo. This should be said as soon as a guest or stranger enters the room, but of course is not used in speaking to inferiors, In such cases it is enough to say °zoo-°zoo (坐坐).
• （4) Notice the difference between °ma (買) to buy, and ma° (賣) to sell. To our ears the sounds are hard to distinguish. The only difference is in the tones.
• （5) The new term for ricsha is ih boo waung bau tsho 黃跑車, a yellow running carriage.

LESSON IX
The Use of Dzak, Reduplication of Verbs, Reflexive Pronouns