Transcriber’s Note:

The cover image was created by the transcriber and is placed in the public domain.

Table laid for Formal Dinner.—Frontispiece.

THE
BOSTON COOKING-SCHOOL
COOK BOOK

BY

FANNIE MERRITT FARMER

Of Miss Farmer’s School of Cookery

AUTHOR OF “CHAFING-DISH POSSIBILITIES,” AND “FOOD AND COOKERY FOR THE SICK AND CONVALESCENT”

REVISED

WITH ONE HUNDRED AND TWENTY-FIVE NEW RECIPES, THE RECIPES FROM THE APPENDIX AND THE ADDENDA INTRODUCED IN LOGICAL ORDER THROUGHOUT THE BOOK, AND ONE HUNDRED HALF-TONE ILLUSTRATIONS

BOSTON

LITTLE, BROWN, AND COMPANY

1910

Copyright, 1896, 1900, 1901, 1902, 1903, 1904, 1905, 1906

By Fannie Merritt Farmer

TO

MRS. WILLIAM B. SEWALL,

President of the Boston Cooking School,

IN APPRECIATION OF HER HELPFUL ENCOURAGEMENT AND UNTIRING EFFORTS IN PROMOTING THE WORK OF SCIENTIFIC COOKERY, WHICH MEANS THE ELEVATION OF THE HUMAN RACE,

THIS BOOK IS AFFECTIONATELY DEDICATED

By the Author.

Cookery means the knowledge of Medea and of Circe and of Helen and of the Queen of Sheba. It means the knowledge of all herbs and fruits and balms and spices, and all that is healing and sweet in the fields and groves and savory in meats. It means carefulness and inventiveness and willingness and readiness of appliances. It means the economy of your grandmothers and the science of the modern chemist; it means much testing and no wasting; it means English thoroughness and French art and Arabian hospitality; and, in fine, it means that you are to be perfectly and always ladies—loaf givers.—Ruskin.

PREFACE

“But for life the universe were nothing; and all that has life requires nourishment.”

With the progress of knowledge the needs of the human body have not been forgotten. During the last decade much time has been given by scientists to the study of foods and their dietetic value, and it is a subject which rightfully should demand much consideration from all. I certainly feel that the time is not far distant when a knowledge of the principles of diet will be an essential part of one’s education. Then mankind will eat to live, will be able to do better mental and physical work, and disease will be less frequent.

At the earnest solicitation of educators, pupils, and friends, I have been urged to prepare this book, and I trust it may be a help to many who need its aid. It is my wish that it may not only be looked upon as a compilation of tried and tested recipes, but that it may awaken an interest through its condensed scientific knowledge which will lead to deeper thought and broader study of what to eat.

F. M. F.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

THE BOSTON COOKING-SCHOOL COOK BOOK

CHAPTER I
FOOD

Food is anything which nourishes the body. From fifteen to twenty elements enter into the composition of the body, of which the following thirteen are considered: oxygen, 62½%; carbon, 21½%; hydrogen, 10%; nitrogen, 3%; calcium, phosphorus, potassium, sulphur, chlorine, sodium, magnesium, iron, and fluorine the remaining 3%.

Food is necessary for growth, repair, and energy; therefore the elements composing the body must be found in the food. The thirteen elements named are formed into chemical compounds by the vegetable and animal kingdoms to support the highest order of being, man. All food must undergo chemical change after being taken into the body, before it can be utilized by the body; this is the office of the digestive system.

Food is classified as follows:—

The chief office of proteids is to build and repair tissues. They furnish energy, but at greater cost than carbohydrates, fats, and oils. They contain nitrogen, carbon, oxygen, hydrogen, and sulphur or phosphorus, and include all forms of animal foods (excepting fats and glycogen) and some vegetable foods. Examples: milk, cheese, eggs, meat, fish, cereals, peas, beans, and lentils. The principal constituent of proteid food is albumen. Albumen as found in food takes different names, but has the same chemical composition; as, albumen in eggs, fibrin in meat, casein in milk and cheese, vegetable casein or legumen in peas, beans, and lentils; and gluten in wheat. To this same class belongs gelatin.

The chief office of the carbohydrates is to furnish energy and maintain heat. They contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, and include foods containing starch and sugar. Examples: vegetables, fruits, cereals, sugars, and gums.

The chief office of fats and oils is to store energy and heat to be used as needed, and constitute the adipose tissues of the body. Examples: butter, cream, fat of meat, fish, cereals, nuts, and the berry of the olive-tree.

The chief office of mineral matter is to furnish the necessary salts which are found in all animal and vegetable foods. Examples: sodium chloride (common salt); carbonates, sulphates and phosphates of sodium, potassium, and magnesium; besides calcium phosphates and iron.

Water constitutes about two-thirds the weight of the body, and is in all tissues and fluids; therefore its abundant use is necessary. One of the greatest errors in diet is neglect to take enough water; while it is found in all animal and vegetable food, the amount is insufficient.

CORRECT PROPORTIONS OF FOOD

Age, sex, occupation, climate, and season must determine the diet of a person in normal condition.

Liquid food (milk or milk in preparation with the various prepared foods on the market) should constitute the diet of a child for the first eighteen months. After the teeth appear, by which time ferments have been developed for the digestion of starchy foods, entire wheat bread, baked potatoes, cereals, meat broths, and occasionally boiled eggs may be given. If mothers would use Dr. Johnson’s Educators in place of the various sweet crackers, children would be as well pleased and better nourished; with a glass of milk they form a supper suited to the needs of little ones, and experience has shown that children seldom tire of them. The diet should be gradually increased by the addition of cooked fruits, vegetables, and simple desserts; the third or fourth year fish and meat may be introduced, if given sparingly. Always avoid salted meats, coarse vegetables (beets, carrots, and turnips), cheese, fried food, pastry, rich desserts, confections, condiments, tea, coffee, and iced water. For school children the diet should be varied and abundant, constantly bearing in mind that this is a period of great mental and physical growth. Where children have broken down, supposedly from over-work, the cause has often been traced to impoverished diet. It must not be forgotten that digestive processes go on so rapidly that the stomach is soon emptied. Thanks to the institutor of the school luncheon-counter!

The daily average ration of an adult requires

4½ oz. proteid

2 oz. fat

18 oz. starch

5 pints water

About one-third of the water is taken in our food, the remainder as a beverage. To keep in health and do the best mental and physical work, authorities agree that a mixed diet is suited for temperate climates, although sound arguments appear from the vegetarian. Women, even though they do the same amount of work as men, as a rule require less food. Brain workers should take their proteid in a form easily digested. In consideration of this fact, fish and eggs form desirable substitutes for meat. The working man needs quantity as well as quality, that the stomach may have something to act upon. Corned beef, cabbage, brown-bread, and pastry, will not overtax his digestion. In old age the digestive organs lessen in activity, and the diet should be almost as simple as that of a child, increasing the amount of carbohydrates and decreasing the amount of proteids and fat. Many diseases which occur after middle life are due to eating and drinking such foods as were indulged in during vigorous manhood.

WATER (H₂O)

Water is a transparent, odorless, tasteless liquid. It is derived from five sources,—rains, rivers, surface-water or shallow wells, deep wells, and springs. Water is never found pure in nature; it is nearly pure when gathered in an open field, after a heavy rainfall, or from springs. For town and city supply, surface-water is furnished by some adjacent pond or lake. Samples of such water are carefully and frequently analyzed, to make sure that it is not polluted with disease germs.

The hardness of water depends upon the amount of salts of lime and magnesia which it contains. Soft water is free from objectionable salts, and is preferable for household purposes. Hard water may be softened by boiling, or by the addition of a small amount of bicarbonate of soda (NaHCO₃).

Water freezes at a temperature of 32° F., boils at 212° F.; when bubbles appear on the surface and burst, the boiling-point is reached. In high altitudes water boils at a lower temperature. From 32° to 65° F. water is termed cold; from 65° to 92° F., tepid; 92° to 100° F., warm; over that temperature, hot. Boiled water is freed from all organic impurities, and salts of lime are precipitated: it does not ferment, and is a valuable antiseptic. Hot water is more stimulating than cold, and is of use taken on an empty stomach, while at a temperature of from 60° to 95° F. it is used as an emetic; 90° F. being the most favorable temperature.

Distilled water is chemically pure and is always used for medicinal purposes. It is flat and insipid to the taste, having been deprived of its atmospheric gases.

There are many charged, carbonated, and mineral spring waters bottled and put on the market; many of these are used as agreeable table beverages. Examples: Soda Water, Apollinaris, Poland, Seltzer, and Vichy. Some contain minerals of medicinal value. Examples: Lithia, saline, and sulphur waters.

SALTS

Of all salts found in the body, the most abundant and valuable is sodium chloride (NaCl), common salt; it exists in all tissues, secretions, and fluids of the body, with the exception of enamel of the teeth. The amount found in food is not always sufficient; therefore salt is used as a condiment. It assists digestion, inasmuch as it furnishes chlorine for hydrochloric acid found in gastric juice.

Common salt is obtained from evaporation of spring and sea-water, also from mines. Our supply of salt obtained by evaporation comes chiefly from Michigan and New York; mined salt from Louisiana and Kansas.

Salt is a great preservative; advantage is taken of this in salting meat and fish.

Other salts—lime, phosphorus, magnesia, potash, sulphur, and iron—are obtained in sufficient quantity from food we eat and water we drink. In young children, perfect formation of bones and teeth depends upon phosphorus and lime taken into the system; these are found in meat and fish, but abound in cereals.

STARCH (C₆H₁₀O₅)

Starch is a white, glistening powder; it is largely distributed throughout the vegetable kingdom, being found most abundantly in cereals and potatoes. Being a force-producer and heat-giver it forms one of the most important foods. Alone it cannot sustain life, but must be taken in combination with foods which build and repair tissues.

Test for Starch. A weak solution of iodine added to cold cooked starch gives an intense blue color.

Starch is insoluble in cold water, and soluble to but a small extent in boiling water. Cold water separates starch-grains, boiling water causes them to swell and burst, thus forming a paste.

Starch subjected to dry heat is changed to dextrine (C₆H₁₀O₅), British gum. Dextrine subjected to heat plus an acid or a ferment is changed to dextrose (C₆H₁₂O₆). Dextrose occurs in ripe fruit, honey, sweet wine, and as a manufactured product. When grain is allowed to germinate for malting purposes, starch is changed to dextrine and dextrose. In fermentation, dextrose is changed to alcohol (C₂H₅HO) and carbon dioxide (CO₂). Examples: bread making, vinegar, and distilled liquors.

Glycogen, animal starch, is found in many animal tissues and in some fungi. Examples: in liver of meat and oysters.

Raw starch is not digestible; consequently all foods containing starch should be subjected to boiling water or dry heat, and thoroughly cooked. Starch is manufactured from wheat, corn, and potatoes. Corn-starch is manufactured from Indian corn. Arrowroot, the purest form of starch, is obtained from two or three species of the Maranta plant, which grows in the West Indies and other tropical countries. Bermuda arrowroot is most highly esteemed. Tapioca is starch obtained from tuberous roots of the bitter cassava, native of South America. Sago is starch obtained from sago palms, native of India.

SUGAR (C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁)

Sugar is a crystalline substance, differing from starch by its sweet taste and solubility in cold water. As food, its uses are the same as starch; all starch must be converted into sugar before it can be assimilated.

The principal kinds of sugar are: cane sugar or sucrose, grape sugar or glucose (C₆H₁₂O₆), milk sugar or lactose (C₁₂H₂₂O₁₁), and fruit sugar or levulose (C₆H₁₂O₆).

Cane sugar is obtained from sugar cane, beets, and the palm and sugar-maple trees. Sugar cane is a grass supposed to be native to Southern Asia, but now grown throughout the tropics, a large amount coming from Cuba and Louisiana; it is the commonest of all, and in all cases the manufacture is essentially the same. The products of manufacture are: molasses, syrup, brown sugar, loaf, cut, granulated, powdered, and confectioners’ sugar. Brown sugar is cheapest, but is not so pure or sweet as white grades; powdered and confectioners’ sugars are fine grades, pulverized, and, although seeming less sweet to the taste, are equally pure. Confectioners’ sugar when applied to the tongue will dissolve at once; powdered sugar is a little granular.

Cane sugar when added to fruits, and allowed to cook for some time, changes to grape sugar, losing one-third of its sweetness; therefore the reason for adding it when fruit is nearly cooked. Cane sugar is of great preservative value, hence its use in preserving fruits and milk; also, for the preparation of syrups.

Three changes take place in the cooking of sugar: first, barley sugar; second, caramel; third, carbon.

Grape sugar is found in honey and all sweet fruits. It appears on the outside of dried fruits, such as raisins, dates, etc., and is only two-thirds as sweet as cane sugar. As a manufactured product it is obtained from the starch of corn.

Milk sugar is obtained from the milk of mammalia, but unlike cane sugar does not ferment.

Fruit sugar is obtained from sweet fruits, and is sold as diabetin, is sweeter than cane sugar, and is principally used by diabetic patients.

GUM, PECTOSE, AND CELLULOSE

These compounds found in food are closely allied to the carbohydrates, but are neither starchy, saccharine, nor oily. Gum exists in the juices of almost all plants, coming from the stems, branches, and fruits. Examples: gum arabic, gum tragacanth, and mucilage. Pectose exists in the fleshy pulp of unripe fruit; during the process of ripening it changes to pectin; by cooking, pectin is changed to pectosic acid, and by longer cooking to pectic acid. Pectosic acid is jelly-like when cold; pectic acid is jelly-like when hot or cold. Cellulose constitutes the cell-walls of vegetable life; in very young vegetables it is possible that it can be acted upon by the digestive ferments; in older vegetables it becomes woody and completely indigestible.

FATS AND OILS

Fats and oils are found in both the animal and vegetable kingdom. Fats are solid; oils are liquid; they may be converted into a liquid state by application of heat; they contain three substances,—stearin (solid), olein (liquid), palmitin (semi-solid). Suet is an example where stearin is found in excess; lard, where olein is in excess; and butter, where palmitin is in excess. Margarin is a mixture of stearin and palmitin. The fatty acids are formed of stearin, olein, and palmitin, with glycerine as the base. Examples: stearic, palmitic, and oleic acid. Butyric acid is acid found in butter. These are not sour to the taste, but are called acids on account of their chemical composition.

Among animal fats cream and butter are of first importance as foods, on account of their easy assimilation. Other examples are: the fat of meats, bone-marrow, suet (the best found around the loin and kidneys of the beef creature), lard, cottolene, coto suet, cocoanut butter, butterine, and oleomargarine. The principal animal oils are cod liver oil and oil found in the yolk of egg; principal vegetable oils are olive, cottonseed, poppy, and cocoanut oils, and oils obtained from various nuts.

Oils are divided into two classes, essential and fixed. Essential oils are volatile and soluble in alcohol. Examples: clove, rose, nutmeg, and violet. Fixed oils are non-volatile and soluble in ether, oil, or turpentine. Examples: oil of nuts, corn meal, and mustard.

Fats may be heated to a high temperature, as considered in cookery they have no boiling-point. When appearing to boil, it is evident water has been added, and the temperature lowered to that of boiling water, 212° F.

MILK

COMPOSITION

Proteid, 3.4%

Fat, 4%

Mineral matter, .7%

Water, 87%

Lactose, 4.9%

Boston Chemist.

The value of milk as a food is obvious from the fact that it constitutes the natural food of all young mammalia during the period of their most rapid growth. There is some danger, however, of overestimating its value in the dietary of adults, as solid food is essential, and liquid taken should act as a stimulant and a solvent rather than as a nutrient. One obtains the greatest benefit from milk when taken alone at regular intervals between meals, or before retiring, and sipped, rather than drunk. Hot milk is often given to produce sleep.

When milk is allowed to stand for a few hours, the globules of fat, which have been held in suspension throughout the liquid, rise to the top in the form of cream; this is due to their lower specific gravity.

The difference in quality of milk depends chiefly on the quantity of fat therein: casein, lactose, and mineral matter being nearly constant, water varying but little unless milk is adulterated.

Why Milk Sours. A germ found floating in the air attacks a portion of the lactose in the milk, converting it into lactic acid; this, in turn, acts upon the casein (proteid) and precipitates it, producing what is known as curd and whey. Whey contains water, salts, and some sugar.

Milk is preserved by sterilization, pasteurization, and evaporation. Fresh condensed milk, a form of evaporized milk, is sold in bulk, and is preferred by many to serve with coffee. Various brands of condensed milk and cream are on the market in tin cans, hermetically sealed. Examples: Nestle’s Swiss Condensed Milk, Eagle Condensed Milk, Daisy Condensed Milk, Highland Evaporated Cream, Borden’s Peerless Evaporated Cream. Malted milk—evaporized milk in combination with extracts of malted barley and wheat—is used to a considerable extent; it is sold in the form of powder.

Thin, or strawberry, and thick cream may be obtained from almost all creameries. Devonshire, or clotted cream, is cream which has been removed from milk allowed to heat slowly to a temperature of about 150° F.

In feeding infants with milk, sterilization or pasteurization is sometimes recommended to avoid danger of infectious germs. By this process milk can be kept for many days, and transported if necessary. To prevent acidity of the stomach, add from one to two teaspoonfuls of lime water to each half-pint of milk. Lime water may be bought at any druggist’s, or easily prepared at home.

Lime Water. Pour two quarts boiling water over an inch cube unslacked lime; stir thoroughly and stand over night; in the morning pour off the liquid that is clear, and bottle for use. Keep in a cool place.

BUTTER

COMPOSITION

Fat, 93%

Water, 5.34%

Mineral matter, .95%

Casein, .71%

Pratt Institute.

Butter of commerce is made from cream of cow’s milk. The quality depends upon the breed of cow, manner of, and care in, feeding. Milk from Jersey and Guernsey cows yields the largest amount of butter.

Butter should be kept in a cool place and well covered, otherwise it is liable to become rancid; this is due to the albuminous constituents of the milk, acting as a ferment, setting free the fatty acids. First-quality butter should be used; this does not include pat butter or fancy grades. Poor butter has not been as thoroughly worked during manufacture, consequently more casein remains; therefore it is more apt to become rancid. Fresh butter spoils quickly; salt acts as a preservative. Butter which has become rancid by too long keeping may be greatly improved by melting, heating, and quickly chilling with ice-water. The butter will rise to the top, and may be easily removed.

Where butter cannot be afforded, there are several products on the market which have the same chemical composition as butter, and are equally wholesome. Examples: butterine and oleomargarine.

Buttermilk is liquid remaining after butter “has come.” When taken fresh, it makes a wholesome beverage.

CHEESE

COMPOSITION

Proteid, 31.23%

Fat, 34.39%

Water, 30.17%

Mineral matter, 4.31%

Cheese is the solid part of sweet milk obtained by heating milk and coagulating it by means of rennet or an acid. Rennet is an infusion made from prepared inner membrane of the fourth stomach of the calf. The curd is salted and subjected to pressure. Cheese is made from skim milk, milk plus cream, or cream. Cheese is kept for a longer or shorter time, according to the kind, that fermentation or decomposition may take place. This is called ripening. Some cream cheeses are not allowed to ripen. Milk from Jersey and Guernsey cows yields the largest amount of cheese.

Cheese is very valuable food; being rich in proteid, it may be used as a substitute for meat. A pound of cheese is equal in proteid to two pounds of beef. Cheese in the raw state is difficult of digestion. This is somewhat overcome by cooking and adding a small amount of bicarbonate of soda. A small piece of rich cheese is often eaten to assist digestion.

The various brands of cheese take their names from the places where made. Many foreign ones are now well imitated in this country. The favorite kinds of skim-milk cheese are: Edam, Gruyère, and Parmesan. Parmesan is very hard and used principally for grating. The holes in Gruyère are due to aeration.

The favorite kinds of milk cheese are: Gloucester, Cheshire, Cheddar, and Gorgonzola; Milk and Cream cheese: Stilton and Double Gloucester; Cream cheese: Brie, Neufchâtel, and Camembert.

FRUITS

The varieties of fruits consumed are numerous, and their uses important. They are chiefly valuable for their sugar, acids, and salts, and are cooling, refreshing, and stimulating. They act as a tonic, and assist in purifying the blood. Many contain a jelly-like substance, called pectin, and several contain starch, which during the ripening process is converted into glucose. Bananas, dates, figs, prunes, and grapes, owing to their large amount of sugar, are the most nutritious. Melons, oranges, lemons, and grapes contain the largest amount of water. Apples, lemons, and oranges are valuable for their potash salts, and oranges and lemons especially valuable for their citric acid. It is of importance to those who are obliged to exclude much sugar from their dietary, to know that plums, peaches, apricots, and raspberries have less sugar than other fruits; apples, sweet cherries, grapes, and pears contain the largest amount. Apples are obtainable nearly all the year, and on account of their variety, cheapness, and abundance, are termed queen of fruits.

Thoroughly ripe fruits should be freely indulged in, and to many are more acceptable than desserts prepared in the kitchen. If possible, fruits should always appear on the breakfast-table. In cases where uncooked fruit cannot be freely eaten, many kinds may be cooked and prove valuable. Never eat unripe fruit, or that which is beginning to decay. Fruits should be wiped or rinsed before serving.

VEGETABLE ACIDS, AND WHERE FOUND

The principal vegetable acids are:

I. Acetic (HC₂H₃O₂), found in wine and vinegar.

II. Tartaric (H₂C₄H₄O₆), found in grapes, pineapples, and tamarinds.

III. Malic, much like tartaric, found in apples, pears, peaches, apricots, gooseberries, and currants.

IV. Citric (H₃C₆H₅O₇), found in lemons, oranges, limes, and citron.

V. Oxalic (H₂C₂O₄), found in rhubarb and sorrel.

To these may be added tannic acid, obtained from gall nuts. Some fruits contain two or more acids. Malic and citric are found in strawberries, raspberries, gooseberries, and cherries; malic, citric, and oxalic in cranberries.

CONDIMENTS

Condiments are not classed among foods, but are known as food adjuncts. They are used to stimulate the appetite by adding flavor to food. Among the most important are salt, spices, and various flavorings. Salt, according to some authorities, is called a food, being necessary to life.

Black pepper is ground peppercorns. Peppercorns are the dried berries of Piper nigrum, grown in the West Indies, Sumatra, and other eastern countries.

White pepper is made from the same berry, the outer husk being removed before grinding. It is less irritating than black pepper to the coating of the stomach.

Cayenne pepper is the powdered pod of Capsicum grown on the eastern coast of Africa and in Zanzibar.

Mustard is the ground seed of two species of the Brassica. Brassica alba yields white mustard seeds; Brassica nigra, black mustard seeds. Both species are grown in Europe and America.

Ginger is the pulverized dried root of Zanzibar officinale, grown in Jamaica, China, and India. Commercially speaking, there are three grades,—Jamaica, best and strongest; Cochin, and African.

Cinnamon is the ground inner bark of Cinnamomum zeylanicum, principally grown in Ceylon. The cinnamon of commerce (cassia) is the powdered bark of different species of the same shrub, which is principally grown in China, and called Chinese cinnamon. It is cheaper than true cinnamon.

Clove is the ground flower buds of Caryophyllus aromaticus, native to the Moluccas or Spice Islands, but now grown principally in Zanzibar, Pemba, and the West Indies.

Pimento (commonly called allspice) is the ground fruit of Eugenia pimenta, grown in Jamaica and the West Indies.

Nutmeg is the kernel of the fruit of the Myristica fragans, grown in Banda Islands.

Mace. The fibrous network which envelops the nutmeg seed constitutes the mace of commerce.

Vinegar is made from apple cider, malt, and wine, and is the product of fermentation. It is a great preservative; hence its use in the making of pickles, sauces, and other condiments. The amount of acetic acid in vinegar varies from two to seven per cent.

Capers are flower buds of Capparis spinosa, grown in countries bordering the Mediterranean. They are preserved in vinegar, and bottled for importation.

Horseradish is the root of Cochliaria armoracia,—a plant native to Europe, but now grown in our own country. It is generally grated, mixed with vinegar, and bottled.

FLAVORING EXTRACTS

Many flavoring extracts are on the market. Examples: almond, vanilla, lemon, orange, peach, and rose. These are made from the flower, fruit, or seed from which they are named. Strawberry, pineapple, and banana extracts are manufactured from chemicals.

A group of kitchen utensils.—Page [14].

Measuring cups and teaspoons and tablespoons illustrating the measuring of dry ingredients, butter, and liquids.—Page [25].

The Whipping of heavy and thin Cream.—Page [425].

CHAPTER II
COOKERY

Cookery is the art of preparing food for the nourishment of the body.

Prehistoric man may have lived on uncooked foods, but there are no savage races to-day who do not practise cookery in some way, however crude. Progress in civilization has been accompanied by progress in cookery.

Much time has been given in the last few years to the study of foods, their necessary proportions, and manner of cooking them. Educators have been shown by scientists that this knowledge should be disseminated; as a result, “Cookery” is found in the curriculum of public schools of many of our towns and cities.

Food is cooked to develop new flavors, to make it more palatable and digestible, and to destroy micro-organisms. For cooking there are three essentials (besides the material to be cooked),—heat, air, and moisture.

Heat is molecular motion, and is produced by combustion. Heat used for cookery is obtained by the combustion of inflammable substances—wood, coal, charcoal, coke, gas, gasoline, kerosene, and alcohol—called fuels. Heat for cookery is applied by radiation, conduction, and convection.

Air is composed of oxygen, nitrogen, and argon, and surrounds everything. Combustion cannot take place without it, the oxygen of the air being the only supporter of combustion.

Moisture, in the form of water, either found in the food or added to it.

The combined effect of heat and moisture swells and bursts starch-grains; hardens albumen in eggs, fish, and meat; softens fibrous portions of meat, and cellulose of vegetables.

Among fuels, kerosene oil is the cheapest; gas gives the greatest amount of heat in the shortest time. Soft wood, like pine, on account of its coarse fibre, burns quickly; therefore makes the best kindling. Hard wood, like oak and ash, having the fibres closely packed, burns slowly, and is used in addition to pine wood for kindling coal. Where only wood is used as a fuel, it is principally hard wood.

Charcoal for fuel is produced by the smothered combustion of wood. It gives an intense, even heat, therefore makes a good broiling fire. Its use for kindling is not infrequent.

There are two kinds of coal: Anthracite, or hard coal. Examples: Hard and free-burning White Ash, Shamokin, and Franklin. Nut is any kind of hard coal obtained from screenings. Bituminous, or soft coal. Example: cannel coal.

Coke is the solid product of carbonized coal, and bears the same relation to coal that charcoal bears to wood.

Alcohol is employed as fuel when the chafing-dish is used.

FIRE

Fire for cookery is confined in a stove or range, so that heat may be utilized and regulated. Flame-heat is obtained from kerosene, gas, or alcohol, as used in oil-stoves, gas-stoves or gas-ranges, and chafing-dishes.

A cooking-stove is a large iron box set on legs. It has a fire-box in the front, the sides of which are lined with fireproof material similar to that of which bricks are made. The bottom is furnished with a movable iron grate. Underneath the fire-box is a space which extends from the grate to a pan for receiving ashes. At the back of fire-box is a compartment called the oven, accessible on each side of the stove by a door. Between the oven and the top of the stove is a space for the circulation of air.

Stoves are connected with chimney-flues by means of a stovepipe, and have dampers to regulate the supply of air and heat, and as an outlet for smoke and gases.

The damper below the fire-box is known as the front damper, by means of which the air supply is regulated, thus regulating the heat.

The oven is heated by a circulation of hot air. This is accomplished by closing the oven-damper, which is situated near the oven. When this damper is left open, the hot air rushes up the chimney. The damper near the chimney is known as the chimney-damper. When open it gives a free outlet for the escape of smoke and gas. When partially closed, as is usually the case in most ranges, except when the fire is started, it serves as a saver of heat. There is also a check, which, when open, cools the fire and saves heat, but should always be closed except when used for this purpose.

Stoves are but seldom used, portable ranges having taken their places.

A portable range is a cooking-stove with one oven door; it often has an under oven, of use for warming dishes and keeping food hot.

A set range is built in a fireplace. It usually has two ovens, one on each side of the fire-box, or two above it at the back. Set ranges, as they consume so large an amount of fuel, are being replaced by portable ones.

HOW TO BUILD A FIRE

Before starting to build a fire, free the grate from ashes. To do this, put on covers, close front and back dampers, and open oven-damper; turn grate, and ashes will fall into the ash receiver. If these rules are not followed, ashes will fly over the room. Turn grate back into place, remove the covers over fire-box, and cover grate with pieces of paper (twisted in centre and left loose at the ends). Cover paper with small sticks, or pieces of pine wood, being sure that the wood reaches the ends of fire-box, and so arranged that it will admit air. Over pine wood arrange hard wood; then sprinkle with two shovelfuls of coal. Put on covers, open closed dampers, strike a match,—sufficient friction is formed to burn the phosphorus, this in turn lights the sulphur, and the sulphur the wood,—then apply the lighted match under the grate, and you have a fire.

Now blacken the stove. Begin at front of range, and work towards the back; as the iron heats, a good polish may be obtained. When the wood is thoroughly kindled, add more coal. A blue flame will soon appear, which is the gas (CO) in the coal burning to carbon dioxide (CO₂), when the blue flame changes to a white flame; then the oven-damper should be closed. In a few moments the front damper may be nearly closed, leaving space to admit sufficient oxygen to feed the fire. It is sometimes forgotten that oxygen is necessary to keep a fire burning. As soon as the coal is well ignited, half close the chimney-damper, unless the draft be very poor.

Never allow the fire-box to be more than three-fourths filled. When full, the draft is checked, a larger amount of fuel is consumed, and much heat is lost. This is a point that should be impressed on the mind of the cook.

Ashes must be removed and sifted daily; pick over and save good coals,—which are known as cinders,—throwing out useless pieces, known as clinkers.

If a fire is used constantly during the day, replenish coal frequently, but in small quantities. If for any length of time the fire is not needed, open check, the dampers being closed; when again wanted for use, close check, open front damper, and with a poker rake out ashes from under fire, and wait for fire to burn brightly before adding new coal.

Coal when red hot has parted with most of its heat. Some refuse to believe this, and insist upon keeping dampers open until most of the heat has escaped into the chimney.

To keep a fire over night, remove the ashes from under the fire, put on enough coal to fill the box, close the dampers, and lift the back covers enough to admit air. This is better than lifting the covers over the fire-box and prevents poisonous gases entering the room.

WAYS OF COOKING

The principal ways of cooking are boiling, broiling, stewing, roasting, baking, frying, sautéing, braising, and fricasseeing.

Boiling is cooking in boiling water. Solid food so cooked is called boiled food, though literally this expression is incorrect. Examples: boiled eggs, potatoes, mutton, etc.

Water boils at 212° F. (sea level), and simmers at 185° F. Slowly boiling water has the same temperature as rapidly boiling water, consequently is able to do the same work,—a fact often forgotten by the cook, who is too apt “to wood” the fire that water may boil vigorously.

Watery vapor and steam pass off from boiling water. Steam is invisible; watery vapor is visible, and is often miscalled steam. Cooking utensils commonly used admit the escape of watery vapor and steam; thereby much heat is lost if food is cooked in rapidly boiling water.

Water is boiled for two purposes: first, cooking of itself to destroy organic impurities; second, for cooking foods. Boiling water toughens and hardens albumen in eggs; toughens fibrin and dissolves tissues in meat; bursts starch-grains and softens cellulose in cereals and vegetables. Milk should never be allowed to boil. At boiling temperature (214° F.) the casein is slightly hardened, and the fat is rendered more difficult of digestion. Milk heated over boiling water, as in a double boiler, is called scalded milk, and reaches a temperature of 196° F. When foods are cooked over hot water the process is called steaming.

Stewing is cooking in a small amount of hot water for a long time at low temperature; it is the most economical way of cooking meats, as all nutriment is retained, and the ordinary way of cooking cheaper cuts. Thus fibre and connective tissues are softened, and the whole is made tender and palatable.

Broiling is cooking over or in front of a clear fire. The food to be cooked is usually placed in a greased broiler or on a gridiron held near the coals, turned often at first to sear the outside,—thus preventing escape of inner juices,—afterwards turned occasionally. Tender meats and fish may be cooked in this way. The flavor obtained by broiling is particularly fine; there is, however, a greater loss of weight in this than in any other way of cooking, as the food thus cooked is exposed to free circulation of air. When coal is not used, or a fire is not in condition for broiling, a plan for pan broiling has been adopted. This is done by placing food to be cooked in a hissing hot frying-pan, turning often as in broiling.

Roasting is cooking before a clear fire, with a reflector to concentrate the heat. Heat is applied in the same way as for broiling, the difference being that the meat for roasting is placed on a spit and allowed to revolve, thicker pieces alway being employed. Tin-kitchens are now but seldom used. Meats cooked in a range oven, though really baked, are said to be roasted. Meats so cooked are pleasing to the sight and agreeable to the palate, although, according to Edward Atkinson, not so easily digested as when cooked at a lower temperature in the Aladdin oven.

Baking is cooking in a range oven.

Frying is cooking by means of immersion in deep fat raised to a temperature of 350° to 400° F. For frying purposes olive oil, lard, beef drippings, cottolene, coto suet, and cocoanut butter are used. A combination of two-thirds lard and one-third beef suet (tried out and clarified) is better than lard alone. Cottolene, coto suet, and cocoanut butter are economical, inasmuch as they may be heated to a high temperature without discoloring, therefore may be used for a larger number of fryings. Cod fat obtained from beef is often used by chefs for frying.

Great care should be taken in frying that fat is of the right temperature; otherwise food so cooked will absorb fat.

Nearly all foods which do not contain eggs are dipped in flour or crumbs, egg, and crumbs, before frying. The intense heat of fat hardens the albumen, thus forming a coating which prevents food from “soaking fat.”

When meat or fish is to be fried, it should be kept in a warm room for some time previous to cooking, and wiped as dry as possible. If cold, it decreases the temperature of the fat to such extent that a coating is not formed quickly enough to prevent fat from penetrating the food. The ebullition of fat is due to water found in food to be cooked.

Great care must be taken that too much is not put into the fat at one time, not only because it lowers the temperature of the fat, but because it causes it to bubble and go over the sides of the kettle. It is not fat that boils, but water which fat has received from food.

All fried food on removal from fat should be drained on brown paper.

Rules for Testing Fat for Frying. 1. When the fat begins to smoke, drop in an inch cube of bread from soft part of loaf, and if in forty seconds it is golden brown, the fat is then of right temperature for frying any cooked mixture.

2. Use same test for uncooked mixtures, allowing one minute for bread to brown.

Many kinds of food may be fried in the same fat; new fat should be used for batter and dough mixtures, potatoes, and fishballs; after these, fish, meat, and croquettes. Fat should be frequently clarified.

To Clarify Fat. Melt fat, add raw potato cut in quarter-inch slices, and allow fat to heat gradually; when fat ceases to bubble and potatoes are well browned, strain through double cheese-cloth, placed over wire strainer, into a pan. The potato absorbs any odors or gases, and collects to itself some of the sediment, remainder settling to bottom of kettle.

When small amount of fat is to be clarified, add to cold fat boiling water, stir vigorously, and set aside to cool; the fat will form a cake on top, which may be easily removed; on bottom of the cake will be found sediment, which may be readily scraped off with a knife.

Remnants of fat, either cooked or uncooked, should be saved and tried out, and when necessary clarified.

Fat from beef, poultry, chicken, and pork, may be used for shortening or frying purposes; fat from mutton and smoked meats may be used for making hard and soft soap; fat removed from soup stock, the water in which corned beef has been cooked, and drippings from roast beef, may be tried out, clarified, and used for shortening or frying purposes.

To Try out Fat. Cut in small pieces and melt in top of a double boiler; in this way it will require less watching than if placed in kettle on the back of range. Leaf lard is tried out in the same way; in cutting the leaf, remove membrane. After straining lard, that which remains may be salted, pressed, and eaten as a relish, and is called scraps.

Sautéing is frying in a small quantity of fat. Food so cooked is much more difficult of digestion than when fried in deep fat; it is impossible to cook in this way without the food absorbing fat. A frying-pan or griddle is used; the food is cooked on one side, then turned, and cooked on the other.

Braising is stewing and baking (meat). Meat to be braised is frequently first sautéd to prevent escape of much juice in the gravy. The meat is placed in a pan with a small quantity of stock or water, vegetables (carrot, turnip, celery, and onion) cut in pieces, salt, pepper, and sweet herbs. The pan should have a tight-fitting cover. Meat so prepared should be cooked in an oven at low uniform temperature for a long time. This is an economical way of cooking, and the only way besides stewing or boiling of making a large piece of tough meat palatable and digestible.

Fricasseeing is sautéing and serving with a sauce. Tender meat is fricasseed without previous cooking; less tender meat requires cooking in hot water before fricasseeing. Although veal is obtained from a young creature, it requires long cooking; it is usually sautéd, and then cooked in a sauce at low temperature for a long time.

VARIOUS WAYS OF PREPARING FOOD FOR COOKING

Egging and Crumbing. Use for crumbing dried bread crumbs which have been rolled and sifted, or soft stale bread broken in pieces and forced through a colander. An ingenious machine on the market, “The Bread Crumber,” does this work. Egg used for crumbing should be broken into a shallow plate and beaten with a silver fork to blend yolk and white; dilute each egg with two tablespoons water. The crumbs should be taken on a board; food to be fried should be first rolled in crumbs (care being taken that all parts are covered with crumbs), then dipped in egg mixture (equal care being taken to cover all parts), then rolled in crumbs again; after the last crumbing remove food to a place on the board where there are no crumbs, and shake off some of the outer ones which make coating too thick. A broad-bladed knife with short handle—the Teller knife—is the most convenient utensil for lifting food to be crumbed from egg mixture. Small scallops, oysters, and crabs are more easily crumbed by putting crumbs and fish in paper and shaking paper until the fish is covered with crumbs. The object of first crumbing is to dry the surface that egg may cling to it; and where a thin coating is desired flour is often used in place of crumbs.

Larding is introducing small pieces of fat salt pork or bacon through the surface of uncooked meat. The flavor of lean and dry meat is much improved by larding; tenderloin of beef (fillet), grouse, partridge, pigeon, and liver are often prepared in this way. Pig pork being firm, is best for larding. Pork should be kept in a cold place that it may be well chilled. Remove rind and use the part of pork which lies between rind and vein. With sharp knife (which is sure to make a clean cut) remove slices a little less than one-fourth inch thick; cut the slices into strips a little less than one-fourth inch wide; these strips should be two and one-fourth inches long, and are called lardoons. Lardoons for small birds—quail, for example—should be cut smaller and not quite so long. To lard, insert one end of lardoon into larding-needle, hold needle firmly, and with pointed end take up a stitch one-third inch deep and three-fourths inch wide; draw needle through, care being taken that lardoon is left in meat and its ends project to equal lengths. Arrange lardoons in parallel rows, one inch apart, stitches in the alternate rows being directly underneath each other. Lard the upper surface of cuts of meat with the grain, never across it. In birds, insert lardoons at right angles to breastbone on either side. When large lardoons are forced through meat from surface to surface, the process is called daubing. Example: Beef à la mode. Thin slices of fat salt pork placed over meat may be substituted for larding, but flavor is not the same as when pork is drawn through flesh, and the dish is far less sightly.

Boning is removing bones from meat or fish, leaving the flesh nearly in its original shape. For boning, a small sharp knife with pointed blade is essential. Legs of mutton and veal and loins of beef may be ordered boned at market, no extra charge being made.

Whoever wishes to learn how to bone should first be taught boning of a small bird; when this is accomplished, larger birds, chickens, and turkeys may easily be done, the processes varying but little. In large birds tendons are drawn from legs, and the wings are left on and boned.

How to Bone a Bird

In buying birds for boning, select those which have been fresh killed, dry picked, and not drawn. Singe, remove pinfeathers, head, and feet, and cut off wings close to body. Lay bird on a board, breast down.

Begin at neck and with sharp knife cut through the skin the entire length of body. Scrape the flesh from backbone until end of one shoulder-blade is found; scrape flesh from shoulder-blade and continue around wing joint, cutting through tendinous portions which are encountered; then bone other side. Scrape skin from backbone the entire length of body, working across the ribs. Free wishbone and collar-bones, at same time removing crop and windpipe; continue down breastbone, particular care being taken not to break the skin as it lies very near bone, or to cut the delicate membranes which enclose entrails. Scrape flesh from second joints and drumsticks, laying it back and drawing off as a glove may be drawn from the hand. Withdraw carcass and put flesh back in its original shape. In large birds where wings are boned, scrape flesh to middle joint, where bone should be broken, leaving bone at tip end to assist in preserving shape.

How to Measure

Correct measurements are absolutely necessary to insure the best results. Good judgment, with experience, has taught some to measure by sight; but the majority need definite guides.

Tin, granite-ware, and glass measuring cups, divided in quarters or thirds, holding one half-pint, and tea and table spoons of regulation sizes,—which may be bought at any store where kitchen furnishings are sold,—and a case knife, are essentials for correct measurement. Mixing-spoons, which are little larger than tablespoons, should not be confounded with the latter.

Measuring Ingredients. Flour, meal, powdered and confectioners’ sugar, and soda should be sifted before measuring. Mustard and baking-powder, from standing in boxes, settle, therefore should be stirred to lighten; salt frequently lumps, and these lumps should be broken. A cupful is measured level. To measure a cupful, put in the ingredient by spoonfuls or from a scoop, round slightly, and level with a case knife, care being taken not to shake the cup. A tablespoonful is measured level. A teaspoonful is measured level.

To measure tea or table spoonfuls, dip the spoon in the ingredient, fill, lift, and level with a knife, the sharp edge of knife being toward tip of spoon. Divide with knife lengthwise of spoon, for a half-spoonful; divide halves crosswise for quarters, and quarters crosswise for eighths. Less than one-eighth of a teaspoonful is considered a few grains.

Measuring Liquids. A cupful of liquid is all the cup will hold.

A tea or table spoonful is all the spoon will hold.

Measuring Butter, Lard, etc. To measure butter, lard, and other solid fats, pack solidly into cup or spoon, and level with a knife.

When dry ingredients, liquids, and fats are called for in the same recipe, measure in the order given, thereby using but one cup.

How to Combine Ingredients

Next to measuring comes care in combining,—a fact not always recognized by the inexperienced. Three ways are considered,—stirring, beating, and cutting and folding.

To stir, mix by using circular motion, widening the circles until all is blended. Stirring is the motion ordinarily employed in all cookery, alone or in combination with beating.

To beat, turn ingredient or ingredients over and over, continually bringing the under part to the surface, thus allowing the utensil used for beating to be constantly brought in contact with bottom of the dish and throughout the mixture.

To cut and fold, introduce one ingredient into another ingredient or mixture by two motions: with a spoon, a repeated vertical downward motion, known as cutting; and a turning over and over of mixture, allowing bowl of spoon each time to come in contact with bottom of dish, is called folding. These repeated motions are alternated until thorough blending is accomplished.

By stirring, ingredients are mixed; by beating, a large amount of air is enclosed; by cutting and folding, air already introduced is prevented from escaping.

Ways of Preserving

1. By Freezing. Foods which spoil readily are frozen for transportation, and must be kept packed in ice until used. Examples: Fish and poultry.

2. By Refrigeration. Foods so preserved are kept in cold storage. The cooling is accomplished by means of ice, or by a machine where compressed gas is cooled and then permitted to expand. Examples: meat, milk, butter, eggs, etc.

3. By Canning. Which is preserving in air-tight glass jars, or tin cans hermetically sealed. When fruit is canned, sugar is usually added.

4. By Sugar. Examples: fruit juices and condensed milk.

5. By Exclusion of Air. Foods are preserved by exclusion of air in other ways than canning. Examples: grapes in bran, eggs in lime water, etc.

6. By Drying. Drying consists in evaporation of nearly all moisture, and is generally combined with salting, except in vegetables and fruits.

7. By Evaporation. There are examples where considerable moisture remains, though much is driven off. Example: beef extract.

8. By Salting. There are two kinds of salting,—dry, and corning or salting in brine. Examples: salt codfish, beef, pork, tripe, etc.

9. By Smoking. Some foods, after being salted, are hung in a closed room for several hours, where hickory wood is allowed to smother. Examples: ham, beef, and fish.

10. By Pickling. Vinegar, to which salt is added, and sometimes sugar and spices, is scalded; and cucumbers, onions, and various kinds of fruit are allowed to remain in it.

11. By Oil. Examples: sardines, anchovies, etc.

12. By Antiseptics. The least wholesome way is by the use of antiseptics. Borax and salicylic acid, when employed, should be used sparingly.

TABLE OF MEASURES AND WEIGHTS

TIME TABLES FOR COOKING

Note.—Length of time for cooking fish and meat does not depend so much on the number of pounds to be cooked as the extent of surface exposed to the heat.

CHAPTER III
BEVERAGES

A beverage is any drink. Water is the beverage provided for man by Nature. Water is an essential to life. All beverages contain a large percentage of water, therefore their uses should be considered:—

I. To quench thirst. II. To introduce water into the circulatory system. III. To regulate body temperature. IV. To assist in carrying off waste. V. To nourish. VI. To stimulate the nervous system and various organs. VII. For medicinal purposes.

Freshly boiled water should be used for making hot beverages; freshly drawn water for making cold beverages.

TEA

Tea is used by more than one-half the human race; and, although the United States is not a tea-drinking country, one and one-half pounds are consumed per capita per annum.

All tea is grown from one species of shrub, Thea, the leaves of which constitute the tea of commerce. Climate, elevation, soil, cultivation, and care in picking and curing all go to make up the differences. First-quality tea is made from young, whole leaves. Two kinds of tea are considered:—

Black tea, made from leaves which have been allowed to ferment before curing.

Green tea, made from unfermented leaves artificially colored.

The best black tea comes from India and Ceylon. Some familiar brands are Oolong, Formosa, English Breakfast, Orange Pekoe, and Flowery Pekoe. The last two named, often employed at the “five o’clock tea,” command high prices; they are made from the youngest leaves. Orange Pekoe is scented with orange leaves. The best green tea comes from Japan. Some familiar brands are Hyson, Japan, and Gunpowder.

From analysis, it has been found that tea is rich in proteid, but taken as an infusion acts as a stimulant rather than as a nutrient. The nutriment is gained from sugar and milk served with it. The stimulating property of tea is due to the alkaloid, theine, together with an essential oil; it contains an astringent, tannin. Black tea contains less theine, essential oil, and tannin than green tea. The tannic acid, developed from the tannin by infusion, injures the coating of the stomach.

Although tea is not a substitute for food, it appears so for a considerable period of time, as its stimulating effect is immediate. It is certain that less food is required where much tea is taken, for by its use there is less wear of the tissues, consequently need of repair. When taken to excess, it so acts on the nervous system as to produce sleeplessness or insomnia, and finally makes a complete wreck of its victim. Taken in moderation, it acts as a mild stimulant, and ingests a considerable amount of water into the system; it heats the body in winter, and cools the body in summer. Children should never be allowed to drink tea, and it had better be avoided by the young, while it may be indulged in by the aged, as it proves a valuable stimulant as the functional activities of the stomach become weakened.

Freshly boiled water should be used for making tea. Boiled, because below the boiling-point the stimulating property, theine, would not be extracted. Freshly boiled, because long cooking renders it flat and insipid to taste on account of escape of its atmospheric gases. Tea should always be infused, never boiled. Long steeping destroys the delicate flavor by developing a larger amount of tannic acid.

How to Make Tea

3 teaspoons tea

2 cups boiling water

Scald an earthen or china teapot.

Put in tea, and pour on boiling water. Let stand on back of range or in a warm place five minutes. Strain and serve immediately, with or without sugar and milk. Avoid second steeping of leaves with addition of a few fresh ones. If this is done, so large an amount of tannin is extracted that various ills are apt to follow.

Five o’Clock Tea

When tea is made in dining or drawing-room, a “Five o’Clock Tea-kettle” (Samovar), and tea-ball or teapot are used.

Russian Tea

Follow recipe for making tea. Russian Tea may be served hot or cold, but always without milk. A thin slice of lemon, from which seeds have been removed, or a few drops of lemon juice, is allowed for each cup. Sugar is added according to taste. In Russia a preserved strawberry to each cup is considered an improvement. We imitate our Russian friends by garnishing with a candied cherry.

De John’s Tea

Follow recipe for making tea and serve hot, allowing three whole cloves to each cup. Sugar is added according to taste.

Iced Tea

4 teaspoons tea

2 cups boiling water

Follow recipe for making tea. Strain into glasses one-third full of cracked ice. Sweeten to taste, and allow one slice lemon to each glass tea. The flavor is much finer by chilling the infusion quickly.

Wellesley Tea

Make same as Iced Tea, having three crushed mint leaves in each glass into which the hot infusion is strained.

Five o’Clock Tea Service.—Page [34].

Chocolate Service.—Page [41].

Coffee Percolators and Pot.—Page [38].

After-Dinner Coffee Service.—Page [38].

COFFEE

The coffee-tree is native to Abyssinia, but is now grown in all tropical countries. It belongs to the genus Coffea, of which there are about twenty-two species. The seeds of berries of coffee-trees constitute the coffee of commerce. Each berry contains two seeds, with exception of maleberry, which is a single round seed. In their natural state they are almost tasteless; therefore color, shape, and size determine value. Formerly, coffee was cured by exposure to the sun; but on account of warm climate and sudden rainfalls, coffee was often injured. By the new method coffee is washed, and then dried by steam heat.

In coffee plantations, trees are planted in parallel rows, from six to eight feet apart, and are pruned so as never to exceed six feet in height. Banana-trees are often grown in coffee plantations, advantage being taken of their outspreading leaves, which protect coffee-trees from direct rays of the sun. Brazil produces about two-thirds the coffee used. Central America, Java, and Arabia are also coffee centres.

Tea comes to us ready for use; coffee needs roasting. In process of roasting the seeds increase in size, but lose fifteen per cent in weight. Roasting is necessary to develop the delightful aroma and flavor. Java coffee is considered finest. Mocha commands a higher price, owing to certain acidity and sparkle, which alone is not desirable; but when combined with Java, in proportion of two parts Java to one part Mocha, the coffee best suited to average taste is made. Some people prefer Maleberry Java; so especial care is taken to have maleberries separated, that they may be sold for higher price. Old Government Java has deservedly gained a good reputation, as it is carefully inspected, and its sale controlled by Dutch government. Strange as it may seem to the consumer, all coffee sold as Java does not come from the island of Java. Any coffee, wherever grown, having same characteristics and flavor, is sold as Java. The same is true of other kinds of coffee.

The stimulating property of coffee is due to the alkaloid caffeine, together with an essential oil. Like tea, it contains an astringent. Coffee is more stimulating than tea, although, weight for weight, tea contains about twice as much theine as coffee contains caffeine. The smaller proportion of tea used accounts for the difference. A cup of coffee with breakfast, and a cup of tea with supper, serve as a mild stimulant for an adult, and form a valuable food adjunct, but should never be found in the dietary of a child or dyspeptic. Coffee taken in moderation quickens action of the heart, acts directly upon the nervous system, and assists gastric digestion. Fatigue of body and mind are much lessened by moderate use of coffee; severe exposure to cold can be better endured by the coffee drinker. In times of war, coffee has proved more valuable than alcoholic stimulants to keep up the enduring power of soldiers. Coffee acts as an antidote for opium and alcoholic poisoning. Tea and coffee are much more readily absorbed when taken on an empty stomach; therefore this should be avoided except when used for medicinal purposes. Coffee must be taken in moderation; its excessive use means palpitation of the heart, tremor, insomnia, and nervous prostration.

Coffee is often adulterated with chiccory, beans, peas, and various cereals, which are colored, roasted, and ground. By many, a small amount of chiccory is considered an improvement, owing to the bitter principle and volatile oil which it contains. Chiccory is void of caffeine. The addition of chiccory may be detected by adding cold water to supposed coffee; if chiccory is present, the liquid will be quickly discolored, and chiccory will sink; pure coffee will float.

Buying of Coffee. Coffee should be bought for family use in small quantities, freshly roasted and ground; or, if one has a coffee-mill, it may be ground at home as needed. After being ground, unless kept air tight, it quickly deteriorates. If not bought in air-tight cans, with tight-fitting cover, or glass jar, it should be emptied into canister as soon as brought from grocer’s.

Coffee may be served as filtered coffee, infusion of coffee, or decoction of coffee. Commonly speaking, boiled coffee is preferred, and is more economical for the consumer. Coffee is ground fine, coarse, and medium; and the grinding depends on the way in which it is to be made. For filtered coffee have it finely ground; for boiled, coarse or medium.

Filtered Coffee

(French or Percolated)

1 cup coffee (finely ground)

6 cups boiling water

Various kinds of coffee pots are on the market for making filtered coffee. They all contain a strainer to hold coffee without allowing grounds to mix with infusion. Some have additional vessel to hold boiling water, upon which coffee-pot may rest.

Place coffee in strainer, strainer in coffee-pot, and pot on the range. Add gradually boiling water, and allow it to filter. Cover between additions of water. If desired stronger, re-filter. Serve at once with cut sugar and cream.

Put sugar and cream in cup before hot coffee. There will be perceptible difference if cream is added last. If cream is not obtainable, scalded milk may be substituted, or part milk and part cream may be used, if a diluted cup of coffee is desired.

Boiled Coffee

1 cup coffee

1 egg

1 cup cold water

6 cups boiling water

Scald granite-ware coffee-pot. Wash egg, break, and beat slightly. Dilute with one-half the cold water, add crushed shell, and mix with coffee. Turn into coffee-pot, pour on boiling water, and stir thoroughly. Place on front of range, and boil three minutes. If not boiled, coffee is cloudy; if boiled too long, too much tannic acid is developed. The spout of pot should be covered or stuffed with soft paper to prevent escape of fragrant aroma. Stir and pour some in a cup to be sure that spout is free from grounds. Return to coffee-pot and repeat. Add remaining cold water, which perfects clearing. Cold water being heavier than hot water sinks to the bottom, carrying grounds with it. Place on back of range for ten minutes, where coffee will not boil. Serve at once. If any is left over, drain from grounds, and reserve for making of jelly or other dessert.

Egg-shells may be saved and used for clearing coffee. Three egg-shells are sufficient to effect clearing where one cup of ground coffee is used. The shell performs no office in clearing except for the albumen which clings to it. Burnett’s Crystal Coffee Settler, or salt fish-skin, washed, dried, and cut in inch pieces, is used for same purpose.

Coffee made with an egg has a rich flavor which egg alone can give. Where strict economy is necessary, if great care is taken, egg may be omitted. Coffee so made should be served from range, as much motion causes it to become roiled.

Tin is an undesirable material for a coffee-pot, as tannic acid acts on such metal and is apt to form a poisonous compound.

When coffee and scalded milk are served in equal proportions, it is called Café au lait. Coffee served with whipped cream is called Vienna Coffee.

To Make a Small Pot of Coffee. Mix one cup ground coffee with one egg, slightly beaten, and crushed shell. To one-third of this amount add one-third cup cold water. Turn into a scalded coffee-pot, add one pint boiling water, and boil three minutes. Let stand on back of range ten minutes; serve. Keep remaining coffee and egg closely covered, in a cool place, to use two successive mornings.

To Make Coffee for One. Allow two tablespoons ground coffee to one cup cold water. Add coffee to cold water, cover closely, and let stand over night. In the morning bring to a boiling-point. If carefully poured, a clear cup of coffee may be served.

After-Dinner Coffee

(Black Coffee, or Café Noir)

For after-dinner coffee use twice the quantity of coffee, or half the amount of liquid, given in previous recipes. Filtered coffee is often preferred where milk or cream is not used, as is always the case with black coffee. Serve in after-dinner coffee cups, with or without cut sugar.

Coffee retards gastric digestion; but where the stomach has been overtaxed by a hearty meal, café noir may prove beneficial, so great are its stimulating effects.

KOLA

The preparations on the market made from the kola-nut have much the same effect upon the system as coffee and chocolate, inasmuch as they contain caffeine and theobromine; they are also valuable for their diastase and a milk-digesting ferment.

COCOA AND CHOCOLATE

The cacao-tree (Theobroma cacao) is native to Mexico. Although successfully cultivated between the twentieth parallels of latitude, its industry is chiefly confined to Mexico, South America, and the West Indies. Cocoa and chocolate are both prepared from seeds of the cocoa bean. The bean pod is from seven to ten inches long, and three to four and one-half inches in diameter. Each pod contains from twenty to forty seeds, imbedded in mucilaginous material. Cocoa beans are dried previous to importation. Like coffee, they need roasting to develop flavor. After roasting, outer covering of bean is removed; this covering makes what is known as cocoa shells, which have little nutritive value. The beans are broken and sold as cocoa nibs.

The various preparations of cocoa on the market are made from the ground cocoa nibs, from which, by means of hydraulic pressure, a large amount of fat is expressed, leaving a solid cake. This in turn is pulverized and mixed with sugar, and frequently a small amount of corn-starch or arrowroot. To some preparations cinnamon or vanilla is added. Broma contains both arrowroot and cinnamon.

Chocolate is made from cocoa nibs, but contains a much larger proportion of fat than cocoa preparations. Bitter, sweet, or flavored chocolate is always sold in cakes.

The fat obtained from cocoa bean is cocoa butter, which gives cocoa its principal nutrient.

Cocoa and chocolate differ from tea and coffee inasmuch as they contain nutriment as well as stimulant. Theobromine, the active principle, is almost identical with theine and caffeine in its composition and effects.

Many people who abstain from the use of tea and coffee find cocoa indispensable. Not only is it valuable for its own nutriment, but for the large amount of milk added to it. Cocoa may be well placed in the dietary of a child after his third year, while chocolate should be avoided as a beverage, but may be given as a confection. Invalids and those of weak digestion can take cocoa where chocolate would prove too rich.

Cocoa Shells

1 cup cocoa shells

6 cups boiling water

Boil shells and water three hours; as water boils away it will be necessary to add more. Strain, and serve with milk and sugar. By adding one-third cup cocoa nibs, a much more satisfactory drink is obtained.

Cracked Cocoa

½ cup cracked cocoa

3 pints boiling water

Boil cracked cocoa and water two hours. Strain, and serve with milk and sugar. If cocoa is pounded in a mortar and soaked over night in three pints water, it will require but one hour’s boiling.

Breakfast Cocoa

1½ tablespoons prepared cocoa

2 tablespoons sugar

2 cups boiling water

2 cups milk

Few grains salt

Scald milk. Mix cocoa, sugar, and salt, dilute with one-half cup boiling water to make smooth paste, add remaining water, and boil one minute; turn into scalded milk and beat two minutes, using Dover egg-beater, when froth will form, preventing scum, which is so unsightly; this is known as milling.

Reception Cocoa

3 tablespoons cocoa

¼ cup sugar

A few grains salt

4 cups milk

¾ cup boiling water

Scald milk. Mix cocoa, sugar, and salt, adding enough boiling water to make a smooth paste; add remaining water and boil one minute; pour into scalded milk. Beat two minutes, using Dover egg-beater.

Brandy Cocoa

3 tablespoons cocoa

¼ cup sugar

1½ cups boiling water

4 cups milk

3 teaspoons cooking brandy

Prepare as Reception Cocoa, and add brandy before milling.

Chocolate I

1½ squares Baker’s chocolate

¼ cup sugar

Few grains salt

1 cup boiling water

3 cups milk

Scald milk. Melt chocolate in small saucepan placed over hot water, add sugar, salt, and gradually boiling water; when smooth, place on range and boil one minute; add to scalded milk, mill, and serve in chocolate cups with whipped cream. One and one-half ounces vanilla chocolate may be substitute for Baker’s chocolate; being sweetened, less sugar is required.

Chocolate II

Prepare same as Chocolate I., substituting one can evaporated cream or condensed milk diluted with two cups boiling water in place of three cups milk. If sweetened condensed milk is used, omit sugar.

Chocolate III

2 ozs. sweetened chocolate

4 cups milk

Few grains salt

Whipped cream

Scald milk, add chocolate, and stir until chocolate is melted. Bring to boiling-point, mill, and serve in chocolate cups with whipped cream sweetened and flavored.

FRUIT BEVERAGES

Lemonade

1 cup sugar

⅓ cup lemon juice

1 pint water

Make syrup by boiling sugar and water twelve minutes; add fruit juice, cool, and dilute with ice-water to suit individual tastes. Lemon syrup may be bottled and kept on hand to use as needed.

Pineapple Lemonade

1 pint water

1 quart ice-water

1 cup sugar

1 can grated pineapple

Juice 3 lemons

Make syrup by boiling water and sugar ten minutes; add pineapple and lemon juice, cool, strain, and add ice-water.

Orangeade

Make syrup as for Lemonade. Sweeten orange juice with syrup, and dilute by pouring over crushed ice.

Mint Julep

1 quart water

2 cups sugar

1 pint claret wine

1 cup strawberry juice

1 cup orange juice

Juice 8 lemons

1½ cups boiling water

12 sprigs fresh mint

Make syrup by boiling quart of water and sugar twenty minutes. Separate mint in pieces, add to the boiling water, cover, and let stand in warm place five minutes, strain, and add to syrup; add fruit juices, and cool. Pour into punch-bowl, add claret, and chill with a large piece of ice; dilute with water. Garnish with fresh mint leaves and whole strawberries.

Claret Punch

1 quart cold water

½ cup raisins

2 cups sugar

2 inch piece stick cinnamon

Few shavings lemon rind

1⅓ cups orange juice

⅓ cup lemon juice

1 pint claret wine

Put raisins in cold water, bring slowly to boiling-point, and boil twenty minutes; strain, add sugar, cinnamon, lemon rind, and boil five minutes. Add fruit juice, cool, strain, pour in claret, and dilute with ice-water.

Fruit Punch I

1 quart cold water

2 cups sugar

½ cup lemon juice

2 cups chopped pineapple

1 cup orange juice

Boil water, sugar, and pineapple twenty minutes; add fruit juice, cool, strain, and dilute with ice-water.

Fruit Punch II

1 cup water

2 cups sugar

1 cup tea infusion

1 quart Apollinaris

2 cups strawberry syrup

Juice 5 lemons

Juice 5 oranges

1 can grated pineapple

1 cup Maraschino cherries

Make syrup by boiling water and sugar ten minutes; add tea, strawberry syrup, lemon juice, orange juice, and pineapple; let stand thirty minutes, strain, and add ice-water to make one and one-half gallons of liquid. Add cherries and Apollinaris. Serve in punch-bowl, with large piece of ice. This quantity will serve fifty.

Fruit Punch III

1 cup sugar

1 cup hot tea infusion

¾ cup orange juice

⅓ cup lemon juice

1 pint ginger ale

1 pint Apollinaris

Few slices orange

Pour tea over sugar, and as soon as sugar is dissolved add fruit juices. Strain into punch-bowl over a large piece of ice, and just before serving add ale, Apollinaris, and slices of orange.

Fruit Punch IV

9 oranges 6 lemons 1 cup grated pineapple 1 cup raspberry syrup 1½ cups tea infusion 1¼ cups sugar 1 cup hot water 1 quart Apollinaris

Mix juice of oranges and lemons with pineapple, raspberry syrup, and tea; then add a syrup made by boiling sugar and water fifteen minutes. Turn in punch-bowl over a large piece of ice. Chill thoroughly, and just before serving add Apollinaris.

Ginger Punch

1 quart cold water

1 cup sugar

½ lb. Canton ginger

½ cup orange juice

½ cup lemon juice

Chop ginger, add to water and sugar, boil fifteen minutes; add fruit juice, cool, strain, and dilute with crushed ice.

Champagne Punch

1 cup water

2 cups sugar

1 quart California champagne

4 tablespoons brandy

2 tablespoons Medford rum

2 tablespoons Orange Curaçoa

Juice 2 lemons

2 cups tea infusion

Ice

1 quart soda water

Make a syrup by boiling water and sugar ten minutes. Mix champagne, brandy, rum, Curaçoa, lemon juice, and tea infusion. Sweeten to taste with syrup and pour into punch-bowl over a large piece of ice. Just before serving add soda water.

Club Punch

1 cup water

2 cups sugar

1 quart Burgundy

1 cup rum

⅓ cup brandy

⅓ cup Benedictine

1 quart Vichy

3 sliced oranges

½ can pineapple

Juice 2 lemons

1 cup tea infusion

Ice.

Make a syrup by boiling water and sugar ten minutes. Mix remaining ingredients, except ice, sweeten to taste with syrup, and pour into punch-bowl over a large piece of ice.

Unfermented Grape Juice

10 lbs. grapes

1 cup water

3 lbs. sugar

Put grapes and water in granite stewpan. Heat until stones and pulp separate; then strain through jelly bag, add sugar, heat to boiling-point, and bottle. This will make one gallon. When served, it should be diluted one-half with water.

Punch Service.—Page [43].

Claret Cup Service.—Page [45].

Double Loaves of Milk and Water Bread.—Page [54].

Boston Brown Bread.—Page [57].

Claret Cup

1 quart claret wine

½ cup Curaçoa

1 quart Apollinaris

⅓ cup orange juice

2 tablespoons brandy

Sugar

Mint leaves

Cucumber rind

12 strawberries

Mix ingredients, except Apollinaris, using enough sugar to sweeten to taste. Stand on ice to chill, and add chilled Apollinaris just before serving.

Sauterne Cup

1 quart soda water

2 cups Sauterne wine

Rind ½ orange

Rind ½ lemon

2 tablespoons Orange Curaçoa

½ cup sugar (scant)

Mint leaves

Few slices orange

12 strawberries

Add Curaçoa to rind of fruit and sugar; cover, and let stand two hours. Add Sauterne, strain, and stand on ice to chill. Add chilled soda water, mint leaves, slices of orange, and strawberries. The success of cups depends upon the addition of charged water just before serving.

CHAPTER IV
BREAD AND BREAD MAKING

Bread is the most important article of food, and history tells of its use thousands of years before the Christian era. Many processes have been employed in making and baking; and as a result, from the first flat cake has come the perfect loaf. The study of bread making is of no slight importance, and deserves more attention than it receives.

Considering its great value, it seems unnecessary and wrong to find poor bread on the table; and would that our standard might be raised as high as that of our friends across the water! Who does not appreciate the loaf produced by the French baker, who has worked months to learn the art of bread making?

Bread is made from flour of wheat, or other cereals, by addition of water, salt, and a ferment. Wheat flour is best adapted for bread making, as it contains gluten in the right proportion to make the spongy loaf. But for its slight deficiency in fat, wheat bread is a perfect food; hence arose the custom of spreading it with butter. It should be remembered, in speaking of wheat bread as perfect food, that it must be made of flour rich in gluten. Next to wheat flour ranks rye in importance for bread making; but it is best used in combination with wheat, for alone it makes heavy, sticky, moist bread. Corn also needs to be used in combination with wheat for bread making, for if used alone the bread will be crumbly.

The miller, in order to produce flour which will make the white loaf (so sightly to many), in the process of grinding wheat has been forced to remove the inner bran coats, so rich in mineral matter, and much of the gluten intimately connected with them.

To understand better the details of bread making, wheat, from which bread is principally made, should be considered.

A grain of wheat consists of (1) an outer covering or husk, which is always removed before milling; (2) bran coats, which contain mineral matter; (3) gluten, the proteid matter and fat; and (4) starch, the centre and largest part of the grain. Wheat is distinguished as white and soft, or red and hard. The former is known as winter wheat, having been sown in the fall, and living through the winter; the latter is known as spring wheat, having been sown in the spring. From winter wheat, pastry flour, sometimes called St. Louis, is made; from spring wheat, bread flour, also called Haxall. St. Louis flour takes its name from the old process of grinding; Haxall, from the name of the inventor of the new process. All flours are now milled by the same process. For difference in composition of wheat flours, consult table in Chapter VI on Cereals.

Wheat is milled for converting into flour by processes producing essentially the same results, all requiring cleansing, grinding, and bolting. Entire wheat flour has only the outer husk removed, the remainder of the kernel being finely ground. Graham flour, confounded with entire wheat, is too often found to be an inferior flour, mixed with coarse bran.

Grinding is accomplished by one of four systems: (1) low milling; (2) Hungarian system, or high milling; (3) roller-milling; and (4) by a machine known as disintegrator.

In low milling process, grooved stones are employed for grinding. The stones are enclosed in a metal case, and provision is made within case for passage of air to prevent wheat from becoming overheated. The lower stone being permanently fixed, the upper stone being so balanced above it that grooves may exactly correspond, when upper stone rotates, sharp edges of grooves meet each other, and operate like a pair of scissors. By this process flour is made ready for bolting by one grinding.

In high milling process, grooved stones are employed, but are kept so far apart that at first the wheat is only bruised, and a series of grindings and siftings is necessary. This process is applicable only to the hardest wheats, and is partially supplanted by roller-milling.

In roller-milling, wheat is subjected to action of a pair of steel or chilled-iron horizontal rollers, having toothed surfaces. They revolve in opposite directions, at different rates of speed, and have a cutting action.

Porcelain rollers, with rough surfaces, are sometimes employed. In this system, grinding is accomplished by cutting rather than crushing.

“The disintegrator consists of a pair of circular metal disks, set face to face, studded with circles of projecting bars so arranged that circles of bars on one disk alternate with those of the other. The disks are mounted on the same centre, and so closely set to one another that projecting bars of one disk come quite close to plane surface of the other. They are enclosed within an external casing. The disks are caused to rotate in opposite directions with great rapidity, and the grain is almost instantaneously reduced to a powder.”

After grinding comes bolting, by which process the different grades of flour are obtained. The ground wheat is placed in octagonal cylinders (covered with silk or linen bolting-cloth of different degrees of fineness), which are allowed to rotate, thus forcing the wheat through. The flour from first siftings contains the largest percentage of gluten.

Flour is branded under different names to suit manufacturer or dealer. In consequence, the same wheat, milled by the same process, makes flour which is sold under different names.

In buying flour, whether bread or pastry, select the best kept by your grocer. Some of the well-known brands of bread flour are King Arthur, Swan’s Down, Bridal Veil, Columbia, Washburn’s Extra, and Pillbury’s Best; of pastry, Best St. Louis. Bread flour should be used in all cases where yeast is called for, with few exceptions; in other cases, pastry flour. The difference between bread and pastry flour may be readily determined. Take bread flour in the hand, close hand tightly, then open, and flour will not keep in shape; if allowed to pass through fingers it will feel slightly granular. Take pastry flour in the hand, close hand tightly, open, and flour will be in shape, having impression of the lines of the hand, and feeling soft and velvety to touch. Flour should always be sifted before measuring.

Entire wheat flour differs from ordinary flour inasmuch as it contains all the gluten found in wheat, the outer husk of kernels only being removed, the remainder ground to different degrees of fineness and left unbolted. Such flours are sold by the different health food companies, who have agencies in the large cities. Franklin Mills, Old Grist Mill, and Health Food flours are included in this class.

Gluten, the proteid of wheat, is a gray, tough, elastic substance, insoluble in water. On account of its great power of expansion, it holds the gas developed in bread dough by fermentation, which otherwise would escape.

Yeast

Yeast is a microscopic plant of fungous growth, and is the lowest form of vegetable life. It consists of spores, or germs, found floating in air, and belongs to a family of which there are many species. These spores grow by budding and division, and multiply very rapidly under favorable conditions, and produce fermentation.

Fermentation is the process by which, under influence of air, warmth, moisture, and some ferment, sugar (or dextrose, starch converted into sugar) is changed into alcohol (C₂H₅HO) and carbon dioxide (CO₂). The product of all fermentation is the same. Three kinds are considered,—alcoholic, acetic, and lactic. Where bread dough is allowed to ferment by addition of yeast, the fermentation is alcoholic; where alcoholic fermentation continues too long, acetic fermentation sets in, which is a continuation of alcoholic. Lactic fermentation is fermentation which takes place when milk sours.

Liquid, dry, or compressed yeast may be used for raising bread. The compressed yeast cakes done up in tinfoil have long proved satisfactory, and are now almost universally used, having replaced the home-made liquid yeast. Never use a yeast cake unless perfectly fresh, which may be determined by its light color and absence of dark streaks.

The yeast plant is killed at 212° F.; life is suspended, but not entirely destroyed, 32° F. The temperature best suited for its growth is from 65° to 68° F. The most favorable conditions for the growth of yeast are a warm, moist, sweet, nitrogenous soil. These must be especially considered in bread making.

Bread Making

Fermented bread is made by mixing to a dough, flour, with a definite quantity of water, milk, or water and milk, salt, and a ferment. Sugar is usually added to hasten fermentation. Dough is then kneaded that the ingredients may be thoroughly incorporated, covered, and allowed to rise in a temperature of 68° F., until dough has doubled its bulk. This change has been caused by action of the ferment, which attacks some of the starch in flour, and changes it to sugar, and sugar in turn to alcohol and carbon dioxide, thus lightening the whole mass. Dough is then kneaded a second time to break bubbles and distribute evenly the carbon dioxide. It is shaped in loaves, put in greased bread pans (they being half filled), covered, allowed to rise in temperature same as for first rising, to double its bulk. If risen too long, it will be full of large holes; if not risen long enough, it will be heavy and soggy. If pans containing loaves are put in too hot a place while rising, a heavy streak will be found near bottom of loaf.

How to Shape Loaves and Biscuits. To shape bread dough in loaves, divide dough in parts, each part large enough for a loaf, knead until smooth, and if possible avoid seams in under part of loaf. If baked in brick pan, place two loaves in one pan, brushed between with a little melted butter. If baked in long shallow pan, when well kneaded, roll with both hands to lengthen, care being taken that it is smooth and of uniform thickness. Where long loaves are baked on sheets, shape and roll loosely in a towel sprinkled with corn meal for last rising.

To shape bread dough in biscuits, pull or cut off as many small pieces (having them of uniform size) as there are to be biscuits. Flour palms of hands slightly; take up each piece and shape separately, lifting, with thumb and first two fingers of right hand, and placing in palm of left hand, constantly moving dough round and round, while folding towards the centre; when smooth, turn it over and roll between palms of hands. Place in greased pans near together, brushed between with a little melted butter, which will cause biscuits to separate easily after baking. For finger rolls, shape biscuits and roll with one hand on part of board where there is no flour, until of desired length, care being taken to make smooth, of uniform size, and round at ends.

Biscuits may be shaped in a great variety of ways, but they should always be small. Large biscuits, though equally good, never tempt one by their daintiness.

Bread is often brushed over with milk before baking, to make a darker crust.

Where bread is allowed to rise over night, a small piece of yeast cake must be used; one-fourth yeast cake to one pint liquid is sufficient, one-third yeast cake to one quart liquid. Bread mixed and baked during the day requires a larger quantity of yeast; one yeast cake, or sometimes even more, to one pint of liquid. Bread dough mixed with a large quantity of yeast should be watched during rising, and cut down as soon as mixture doubles its bulk. If proper care is taken, the bread will be found most satisfactory, having neither “yeasty” nor sour taste.

Fermented bread was formerly raised by means of leaven.

Baking of Bread

Bread is baked: (1) To kill ferment, (2) to make soluble the starch, (3) to drive off alcohol and carbon dioxide, and (4) to form brown crust of pleasant flavor. Bread should be baked in a hot oven. If the oven be too hot the crust will brown quickly before the heat has reached the centre, and prevent further rising; loaf should continue rising for first fifteen minutes of baking, when it should begin to brown, and continue browning for the next twenty minutes. The last fifteen minutes it should finish baking, when the heat may be reduced. When bread is done, it will not cling to sides of pan, and may be easily removed. Biscuits require more heat than loaf bread, should continue rising the first five minutes, and begin to brown in eight minutes. Experience is the best guide for testing temperature of oven. Various oven thermometers have been made, but none have proved practical. Bread may be brushed over with melted butter, three minutes before removal from oven, if a more tender crust is desired.

Care of Bread after Baking

Remove loaves at once from pans, and place side down on a wire bread or cake cooler. If a crisp crust is desired, allow bread to cool without covering; if soft crust, cover with a towel during cooling. When cool, put in tin box or stone jar, and cover closely.

Never keep bread wrapped in cloth, as the cloth will absorb moisture and transmit an unpleasant taste to bread. Bread tins or jars should be washed and scalded twice a week in winter, and every other day in summer; otherwise bread is apt to mould. As there are so many ways of using small and stale pieces of bread, care should be taken that none is wasted.

Unfermented bread is raised without a ferment, the carbon dioxide being produced by the use of soda (alkaline salt) and an acid. Soda, employed in combination with cream of tartar, for raising mixtures, in proportion of one-third soda to two-thirds cream of tartar, was formerly used to a great extent, but has been generally superseded by baking powder.

Soda bicarbonate (NaHCO₃) is manufactured from sodium chloride (NaCl), common salt or cryolite.

Baking powder is composed of soda and cream of tartar in definite, correct proportions, mixed with small quantity of dry material (flour or corn-starch) to keep action from taking place. If found to contain alum or ammonia, it is impure. In using baking powder, allow two teaspoons baking powder to each cup of flour, when eggs are not used; to egg mixtures allow one and one-half teaspoons baking powder. When a recipe calls for soda and cream of tartar, in substituting baking powder use double amount of cream of tartar given.

These rules apply to the various soda and cream of tartar baking powders on the market. Horsford’s Baking Powder, the only mineral one, requires one-third less than others.

Soda and cream of tartar, or baking powder mixtures, are made light by liberation of gas in mixture; the gas in soda is set free by the acid in cream of tartar; in order to accomplish this, moisture and heat are both required. As soon as moisture is added to baking powder mixtures, the gas will begin to escape; hence the necessity of baking as soon as possible. If baking powder only is used for raising, put mixture to be cooked in a hot oven.

Cream of tartar (HKC₄O₆H₄) is obtained from argols found adhering to bottom and sides of wine casks, which are ninety per cent cream of tartar. The argols are ground and dissolved in boiling water, coloring matter removed by filtering through animal charcoal, and by a process of recrystallization the cream of tartar of commerce is obtained.

The acid found in molasses, sour milk, and lemon juice will liberate gas in soda, but the action is much quicker than when cream of tartar is used.

Fermented and unfermented breads are raised to be made light and porous, that they may be easily acted upon by the digestive ferments. Some mixtures are made light by beating sufficiently to enclose a large amount of air, and when baked in a hot oven air is forced to expand.

Aerated bread is made light by carbon dioxide forced into dough under pressure. The carbon dioxide is generated from sulphuric acid and lime. Aerated bread is of close texture, and has a flavor peculiar to itself. It is a product of the baker’s skill, but has found little favor except in few localities.

Water Bread

2 cups boiling water

1 tablespoon butter

1 tablespoon lard

1 tablespoon sugar

1½ teaspoons salt

¼ yeast cake dissolved in

¼ cup lukewarm water

6 cups sifted flour

Put butter, lard, sugar, and salt in bread raiser, or large bowl without a lip; pour on boiling water; when lukewarm, add dissolved yeast cake and five cups of flour; then stir until thoroughly mixed, using a knife or mixing-spoon. Add remaining flour, mix, and turn on a floured board, leaving a clean bowl; knead until mixture is smooth, elastic to touch, and bubbles may be seen under the surface. Some practice is required to knead quickly, but the motion once acquired will never be forgotten. Return to bowl, cover with a clean cloth kept for the purpose, and board or tin cover; let rise over night in temperature of 65° F. In morning cut down: this is accomplished by cutting through and turning over dough several times with a case knife, and checks fermentation for a short time; dough may be again raised, and recut down if it is not convenient to shape into loaves or biscuits after first cutting. When properly cared for, bread need never sour. Toss on board slightly floured, knead, shape into loaves or biscuits, place in greased pans, having pans nearly half full. Cover, let rise again to double its bulk, and bake in hot oven. (See Baking of Bread and Time Table for Baking.) This recipe will make a double loaf of bread and pan of biscuit. Cottolene, coto suet, or beef drippings may be used for shortening, one-third less being required. Bread shortened with butter has a good flavor, but is not as white as when lard is used.

Milk and Water Bread

1 cup scalded milk

1 cup boiling water

1 tablespoon lard

1 tablespoon butter

1½ teaspoon salt

1 yeast cake dissolved in

¼ cup lukewarm water

6 cups sifted flour, or one cup white flour and enough entire wheat flour to knead

Prepare and bake as Water Bread. When entire wheat flour is used add three tablespoons molasses. Bread may be mixed, raised, and baked in five hours, by using one yeast cake. Bread made in this way has proved most satisfactory. It is usually mixed in the morning, and the cook is able to watch the dough while rising and keep it at uniform temperature. It is often desirable to place bowl containing dough in pan of water, keeping water at uniform temperature of from 95° to 100° F. Cooks who have not proved themselves satisfactory bread makers are successful when employing this method.

Entire Wheat Bread

2 cups scalded milk

¼ cup sugar or

⅓ cup molasses

1 teaspoon salt

1 yeast cake dissolved in

¼ cup lukewarm water

4⅔ cups coarse entire wheat flour

Add sweetening and salt to milk; cool, and when lukewarm add dissolved yeast cake and flour; beat well, cover, and let rise to double its bulk. Again beat, and turn into greased bread pans, having pans one-half full; let rise, and bake. Entire Wheat Bread should not quite double its bulk during last rising. This mixture may be baked in gem pans.

German Caraway Bread

Follow recipe for Milk and Water Bread (see p. [54]), using rye flour in place of entire wheat flour, and one tablespoon sugar for sweetening. After first rising while kneading add one-third tablespoon caraway seed. Shape, let rise again, and bake in a loaf.

Entire Wheat and White Flour Bread

Use same ingredients as for Entire Wheat Bread, with exception of flour. For flour use three and one-fourth cups entire wheat and two and three-fourths cups white flour. The dough should be slightly kneaded, and if handled quickly will not stick to board. Loaves and biscuits should be shaped with hands instead of pouring into pans, as in Entire Wheat Bread.

Graham Bread

2½ cups hot liquid (water, or milk and water)

⅓ cup molasses

1½ teaspoons salt

¼ yeast cake dissolved in

¼ cup lukewarm water

3 cups flour

3 cups Graham flour

Prepare and bake as Entire Wheat Bread. The bran remaining in sieve after sifting Graham flour should be discarded.

Third Bread

2 cups lukewarm water

1 yeast cake

½ tablespoon salt

½ cup molasses

1 cup rye flour

1 cup granulated corn meal

3 cups flour

Dissolve yeast cake in water, add remaining ingredients, and mix thoroughly. Let rise, shape, let rise again, and bake as Entire Wheat Bread.

Rolled Oats Bread

2 cups boiling water

½ cup molasses

½ tablespoon salt

1 tablespoon butter

½ yeast cake dissolved in

½ cup lukewarm water

1 cup Rolled Oats

4½ cups flour

Add boiling water to oats and let stand one hour; add molasses, salt, butter, dissolved yeast cake, and flour; let rise, beat thoroughly, turn into buttered bread pans, let rise again, and bake. By using one-half cup less flour, the dough is better suited for biscuits, but, being soft, is difficult to handle. To make shaping of biscuits easy, take up mixture by spoonfuls, drop into plate of flour, and have palms of hands well covered with flour before attempting to shape.

Rye Biscuit

1 cup boiling water

1 cup rye flakes

2 tablespoons butter

⅓ cup molasses

1½ teaspoons salt

1 yeast cake dissolved in

1 cup lukewarm water

Flour

Make same as Rolled Oats Bread.

Rye Bread

1 cup scalded milk

1 cup boiling water

1 tablespoon lard

1 tablespoon butter

⅓ cup brown sugar

1½ teaspoons salt

¼ yeast cake dissolved in

¼ cup lukewarm water

3 cups flour

Rye meal

To milk and water add lard, butter, sugar, and salt; when lukewarm, add dissolved yeast cake and flour, beat thoroughly, cover, and let rise until light. Add rye meal until dough is stiff enough to knead; knead thoroughly, let rise, shape in loaves, let rise again, and bake.

Date Bread

Use recipe for Health Food Muffins (see p. [67]). After the first rising, while kneading, add two-thirds cup each of English walnut meats cut in small pieces, and dates stoned and cut in pieces. Shape in a loaf, let rise in pan, and bake fifty minutes in a moderate oven. This bread is well adapted for sandwiches.

Boston Brown Bread

1 cup rye meal

1 cup granulated corn meal

1 cup Graham flour

¾ tablespoon soda

1 teaspoon salt

¾ cup molasses

2 cups sour milk, or 1¾ cups sweet milk or water

Mix and sift dry ingredients, add molasses and milk, stir until well mixed, turn into a well-buttered mould, and steam three and one-half hours. The cover should be buttered before being placed on mould, and then tied down with string; otherwise the bread in rising might force off cover. Mould should never be filled more than two-thirds full. A melon mould or one-pound baking-powder boxes make the most attractive-shaped loaves, but a five-pound lard pail answers the purpose. For steaming, place mould on a trivet in kettle containing boiling water, allowing water to come half-way up around mould, cover closely, and steam, adding, as needed, more boiling water.

New England Brown Bread

Soak bread in two cups of the water over night. In the morning rub through colander, add molasses, dry ingredients mixed and sifted, and remaining water. Stir until well mixed, fill buttered one-pound baking-powder boxes two-thirds full, cover, and steam two hours.

Indian Bread

1½ cups Graham flour

1 cup Indian meal

½ tablespoon soda

1 teaspoon salt

½ cup molasses

1⅔ cups milk

Mix and steam same as Boston Brown Bread.

Steamed Graham Bread

3 cups Arlington meal

1 cup flour

3½ teaspoons soda

1 teaspoon salt

1 cup molasses (scant)

2½ cups sour milk

Mix same as Boston Brown Bread and steam four hours. This bread may often be eaten when bread containing corn meal could not be digested.

Parker House Rolls

2 cups scalded milk

3 tablespoons butter

2 tablespoons sugar

1 teaspoon salt

1 yeast cake dissolved in

¼ cup lukewarm water

Flour

Add butter, sugar, and salt to milk; when lukewarm, add dissolved yeast cake and three cups of flour. Beat thoroughly, cover, and let rise until light; cut down, and add enough flour to knead (it will take about two and one-half cups). Let rise again, toss on slightly floured board, knead, pat, and roll out to one-third inch thickness. Shape with biscuit-cutter, first dipped in flour. Dip the handle of a case knife in flour, and with it make a crease through the middle of each piece; brush over one-half of each piece with melted butter, fold, and press edges together. Place in greased pan, one inch apart, cover, let rise, and bake in hot oven twelve to fifteen minutes. As rolls rise they will part slightly, and if hastened in rising are apt to lose their shape.

Sweet French Rolls.—Page [60].

Parker House Rolls; Salad Rolls; Clover Leaf Biscuit; Sticks.—Page [59].

Swedish Tea Ring; Swedish Tea Braid.—Page [64].

Coffee Cakes (Brioche).—Page [62].

Parker House Rolls may be shaped by cutting or tearing off small pieces of dough, and shaping round like a biscuit; place in rows on floured board, cover, and let rise fifteen minutes. With handle of large wooden spoon, or toy rolling-pin, roll through centre of each biscuit, brush edge of lower halves with melted butter, fold, press lightly, place in buttered pan one inch apart, cover, let rise, and bake.

Salad or Dinner Rolls

Use same ingredients as for Parker House Rolls, allowing one-fourth cup butter. Shape in small biscuits, place in rows on a floured board, cover with cloth and pan, and let rise until light and well puffed. Flour handle of wooden spoon and make a deep crease in middle of each biscuit, take up, and press edges together. Place closely in buttered pan, cover, let rise, and bake twelve to fifteen minutes in hot oven. From this same mixture crescents, braids, twists, bow-knots, clover leaves, and other fancy shapes may be made.

Sticks

1 cup scalded milk

¼ cup butter

1½ tablespoons sugar

½ teaspoon salt

1 yeast cake dissolved in

¼ cup lukewarm water

White 1 egg

3¾ cups flour

Add butter, sugar, and salt to milk; when lukewarm, add dissolved yeast cake, white of egg well beaten, and flour. Knead, let rise, shape, let rise again, and start baking in a hot oven, reducing heat, that sticks may be crisp and dry. To shape sticks, first shape as small biscuits, roll on board (where there is no flour) with hands until eight inches in length, keeping of uniform size and rounded ends, which may be done by bringing fingers close to, but not over, ends of sticks.

Salad Sticks

Follow recipe for Sticks. Let rise, and add salt to dough, allowing two teaspoons to each cup of dough. Shape in small sticks, let rise again, sprinkle with salt, and bake in a slow oven. If preferred glazed, brush over with egg yolk slightly beaten and diluted with one-half tablespoon cold water.

Swedish Rolls

Use recipe for Salad Rolls. Roll to one-fourth inch thickness, spread with butter, and sprinkle with two tablespoons sugar mixed with one-third teaspoon cinnamon, one-third cup stoned raisins finely chopped, and two tablespoons chopped citron; roll up like jelly roll, and cut in three-fourths inch pieces. Place pieces in pan close together, flat side down. Again let rise, and bake in a hot oven. When rolls are taken from oven, brush over with white of egg slightly beaten, diluted with one-half tablespoon water; return to oven to dry egg, and thus glaze top.

Sweet French Rolls

1 cup milk

1 yeast cake dissolved in

¼ cup lukewarm water

Flour

¼ cup sugar

1 teaspoon salt

1 egg

Yolk one egg

⅛ teaspoon mace

¼ cup melted butter

Scald milk; when lukewarm, add dissolved yeast cake and one and one-half cups flour; beat well, cover, and let rise until light. Add sugar, salt, eggs well beaten, mace, and butter, and enough more flour to knead; knead, let rise again, shape, and bake same as Salad Rolls, or roll in a long strip to one-fourth inch in thickness, spread with butter, roll up like jelly roll, and cut in one-inch pieces. Place pieces in pan close together, flat side down. A few gratings from the rind of a lemon or one-half teaspoon lemon extract may be substituted in place of mace.

Luncheon Rolls

½ cup scalded milk

2 tablespoons sugar

¼ teaspoon salt

½ yeast cake dissolved in

2 tablespoons lukewarm water

2 tablespoons melted butter

1 egg

Few gratings from rind of lemon

Flour

Add sugar and salt to milk; when lukewarm, add dissolved yeast cake and three-fourths cup flour. Cover and let rise; then add butter, egg well beaten, grated rind of lemon, and enough flour to knead. Let rise again, roll to one-half inch thickness, shape with small biscuit-cutter, place in buttered pan close together, let rise again, and bake.

French Rusks

2 cups scalded milk

¼ cup butter

¼ cup sugar

1 teaspoon salt

1 yeast cake dissolved in Flour

1 egg

Yolks 2 eggs

Whites 2 eggs

¾ teaspoon vanilla

¼ cup lukewarm water

Add butter, sugar, and salt to scalded milk; when lukewarm add dissolved yeast cake and three cups flour. Cover and let rise; add egg and egg yolks well beaten, and enough flour to knead. Let rise again, and shape as Parker House Rolls. Before baking, make three parallel creases on top of each roll. When nearly done, brush over with whites of eggs beaten slightly, diluted with one tablespoon cold water and vanilla. Sprinkle with sugar.

Rusks (Zweiback)

½ cup scalded milk

½ teaspoon salt

2 yeast cakes

¼ cup sugar

¼ cup melted butter

3 eggs

Flour

Dissolve yeast cakes in milk; when lukewarm, add salt and one cup flour; cover, and let rise until very light; then add sugar, butter, eggs unbeaten, and flour enough to handle. Shape as finger rolls, and place close together on a buttered sheet in parallel rows, two inches apart; let rise again and bake twenty minutes. When cold, cut diagonally in one-half inch slices, and brown evenly in oven.

German Coffee Bread

1 cup scalded milk

⅓ cup butter, or butter and lard

¼ cup sugar

½ teaspoon salt

1 egg

⅓ yeast cake dissolved in

¼ cup lukewarm milk

½ cup raisins stoned and cut in pieces

Add butter, sugar, and salt to milk; when lukewarm, add dissolved yeast cake, egg well beaten, flour to make stiff batter, and raisins; cover, and let rise over night; in morning spread in buttered dripping-pan one-half inch thick. Cover and let rise again. Before baking, brush over with beaten egg, and cover with following mixture: Melt three tablespoons butter, add one-third cup sugar and one teaspoon cinnamon. When sugar is partially melted, add three tablespoons flour.

Coffee Cakes (Brioche)

1 cup scalded milk

¼ cup yolks of eggs

½ cup whole eggs

⅔ cup butter

½ cup sugar

2 yeast cakes

½ teaspoon extract lemon or

2 pounded cardamon seeds

4⅔ cups flour

French Confectioner

Cool milk; when lukewarm, add yeast cakes, and when they are dissolved add remaining ingredients, and beat thoroughly with hand ten minutes; let rise six hours. Keep in ice-box over night; in morning turn on floured board, roll in long rectangular piece one-fourth inch thick; spread with softened butter, fold from sides toward centre to make three layers. Cut off pieces three-fourths inch wide; cover and let rise. Take each piece separately in hands and twist from ends in opposite directions, coil and bring ends together at top of cake. Let rise in pans and bake twenty minutes in a moderate oven; cool and brush over with confectioners’ sugar, moistened with boiling water to spread, and flavored with vanilla.

Coffee Rolls

Scald milk, when lukewarm add yeast cakes, and as soon as dissolved add three and one-half cups flour. Beat thoroughly, cover, and let rise; then add butter, lard, sugar, egg unbeaten, cinnamon, salt, and flour enough to knead. Knead until well mixed, cover, and let rise. Turn mixture on a floured cloth. Roll into a long, rectangular piece one-fourth inch thick. Brush over with melted butter, fold from ends toward centre to make three layers and cut off pieces three-fourths inch wide. Cover and let rise. Take each piece separately in hands and twist from ends in opposite directions, then shape in a coil. Place in buttered pans, cover, again let rise, and bake in a moderate oven twenty minutes. Cool slightly, and brush over with confectioners’ sugar moistened with boiling water and flavored with vanilla.

Swedish Bread

2½ cups scalded milk

1 yeast cake

Flour

½ cup melted butter

⅔ cup sugar

1 egg, well beaten

¼ teaspoon salt

1 teaspoon almond extract

Add yeast cake to one-half cup milk which has been allowed to cool until lukewarm; as soon as dissolved add one-half cup flour, beat thoroughly, cover, and let rise. When light, add remaining milk and four and one-half cups flour. Stir until thoroughly mixed, cover, and again let rise; then add remaining ingredients and one and one-half cups flour. Toss on a floured cloth and knead, using one-half cup flour, cover, and again let rise. Shape as Swedish Tea Braid or Tea Ring I or II, and bake.

Swedish Tea Braid. Cut off three pieces of mixture of equal size and roll, using the hands, in pieces of uniform size; then braid. Put on a buttered sheet, cover, let rise, brush over with yolk of one egg, slightly beaten, and diluted with one-half tablespoon cold water, and sprinkle with finely chopped blanched almonds. Bake in a moderate oven.

Swedish Tea Ring I. Shape as tea braid, form in shape of ring, and proceed as with tea braid, having almonds blanched and cut in slices crosswise.

Swedish Tea Ring II. Take one-third Swedish Bread mixture and shape, using the hands, in a long roll. Put on an unfloured board and roll, using a rolling-pin, as thinly as possible. Mixture will adhere to board but may be easily lifted with a knife. Spread with melted butter, sprinkle with sugar and chopped blanched almonds or cinnamon. Roll like a jelly roll, cut a piece from each end and join ends to form ring. Place on a buttered sheet, and cut with scissors and shape (see illustration). Let rise, and proceed as with Tea Ring I.

Dutch Apple Cake

1 cup scalded milk

⅓ cup butter

⅓ cup sugar

⅓ teaspoon salt

1 yeast cake

2 eggs

Flour

Melted butter

5 sour apples

¼ cup sugar

½ teaspoon cinnamon

2 tablespoons currants

Mix first four ingredients. When lukewarm add yeast cake, eggs unbeaten, and flour to make a soft dough. Cover, let rise, beat thoroughly, and again let rise. Spread in a buttered dripping-pan as thinly as possible and brush over with melted butter. Pare, cut in eighths, and remove cores from apples.

Press sharp edges of apples into the dough in parallel rows lengthwise of pan. Sprinkle with sugar mixed with cinnamon and sprinkle with currants. Cover, let rise, and bake in a moderate oven thirty minutes. Cut in squares and serve hot or cold with whipped cream sweetened and flavored.

Swedish Tea Ring II before baking.—Page [64].

Swedish Tea Ring II.—Page [64].

Raised Hominy Muffins.—Page [66].

Pop-Overs.—Page [76].

Buns

1 cup scalded milk

⅓ cup butter

⅓ cup sugar

1 yeast cake dissolved in

¼ cup lukewarm water

½ teaspoon salt

½ cup raisins stoned and cut in quarters

1 teaspoon extract lemon

Flour

Add one-half sugar and salt to milk; when lukewarm, add dissolved yeast cake and one and one-half cups flour; cover, and let rise until light; add butter, remaining sugar, raisins, lemon, and flour to make a dough; let rise, shape like biscuits, let rise again, and bake. If wanted glazed, brush over with beaten egg before baking.

Hot Cross Buns

1 cup scalded milk

¼ cup sugar

2 tablespoons butter

½ teaspoon salt

½ yeast cake dissolved in

¼ cup lukewarm water

¾ teaspoon cinnamon

3 cups flour

1 egg

¼ cup raisins stoned and quartered, or

¼ cup currants

Add butter, sugar, and salt to milk; when lukewarm, add dissolved yeast cake, cinnamon, flour, and egg well beaten; when thoroughly mixed, add raisins, cover, and let rise over night. In morning, shape in forms of large biscuits, place in pan one inch apart, let rise, brush over with beaten egg, and bake twenty minutes; cool, and with ornamental frosting make a cross on top of each bun.

Raised Muffins

1 cup scalded milk

1 cup boiling water

2 tablespoons butter

¼ cup sugar

¾ teaspoon salt

¼ yeast cake

1 egg

4 cups flour

Add butter, sugar, and salt to milk and water; when lukewarm, add yeast cake, and when dissolved, egg well beaten, and flour; beat thoroughly, cover, and let rise over night. In morning, fill buttered muffin rings two-thirds full; let rise until rings are full, and bake thirty minutes in hot oven.

Grilled Muffins

Put buttered muffin rings on a hot greased griddle. Fill one-half full with raised muffin mixture, and cook slowly until well risen and browned underneath; turn muffins and rings and brown the other side. This is a convenient way of cooking muffins when oven is not in condition for baking.

Raised Hominy Muffins

1 cup warm cooked hominy

¼ cup butter

1 cup scalded milk

3 tablespoons sugar

½ teaspoon salt

¼ yeast cake

¼ cup lukewarm water

3¼ cups flour

Mix first five ingredients; when lukewarm add yeast cake, dissolved in lukewarm water and flour. Cover, and let rise over night. In the morning cut down, fill hot buttered gem pans two-thirds full, let rise one hour, and bake in a moderate oven. Unless cooked hominy is rather stiff more flour will be needed.

Raised Rice Muffins

Make same as Raised Hominy Muffins, substituting one cup hot boiled rice in place of hominy, and adding the whites of two eggs beaten until stiff.

Raised Oatmeal Muffins

¾ cup scalded milk

¼ cup sugar

½ teaspoon salt

¼ yeast cake dissolved in

¼ cup lukewarm milk

1 cup cold cooked oatmeal

2½ cups flour

Add sugar and salt to scalded milk; when lukewarm, add dissolved yeast cake. Work oatmeal into flour with tips of fingers, and add to first mixture; beat thoroughly, cover, and let rise over night. In morning, fill buttered iron gem pans two-thirds full, let rise on back of range that pan may gradually heat and mixture rise to fill pan. Bake in moderate oven twenty-five to thirty minutes.

Health Food Muffins

1 cup warm wheat mush

¼ cup brown sugar

½ teaspoon salt

1 tablespoon butter

¼ yeast cake

¼ cup lukewarm water

Flour

Mix first four ingredients, add yeast cake dissolved in lukewarm water, and flour to knead. Cover, and let rise over night. In the morning cut down, fill hot buttered gem pans two-thirds full and bake in a moderate oven. This mixture, when baked in a loaf, makes a delicious bread.

Squash Biscuits

½ cup squash (steamed and sifted)

¼ cup sugar

½ teaspoon salt

½ cup scalded milk

¼ yeast cake dissolved in

¼ cup lukewarm water

¼ cup butter

2½ cups flour

Add squash, sugar, salt, and butter to milk; when lukewarm, add dissolved yeast cake and flour; cover, and let rise over night. In morning shape into biscuits, let rise, and bake.

Imperial Muffins

1 cup scalded milk

¼ cup sugar

½ teaspoon salt

1¾ cups flour

1 cup corn meal

¼ cup butter

⅓ yeast cake dissolved in ¼ cup lukewarm water

Add sugar and salt to milk; when lukewarm add dissolved yeast cake, and one and one-fourth cups flour. Cover, and let rise until light, then add corn meal, remaining flour, and butter. Let rise over night; in the morning fill buttered muffin rings two-thirds full; let rise until rings are full and bake thirty minutes in hot oven.

Dry Toast

Cut stale bread in one-fourth inch slices. Crust may or may not be removed. Put slices on wire toaster, lock toaster and place over clear fire to dry, holding some distance from coals; turn and dry other side. Hold nearer to coals and color a golden brown on each side. Toast, if piled compactly and allowed to stand, will soon become moist. Toast may be buttered at table or before sending to table.

Water Toast

Dip slices of dry toast quickly in boiling salted water, allowing one-half teaspoon salt to one cup boiling water. Spread slices with butter, and serve at once.

Milk Toast I

1 pint scalded milk

2 tablespoons butter

2½ tablespoons bread flour

½ teaspoon salt

Cold water

6 slices dry toast

Add cold water gradually to flour to make a smooth, thin paste. Add to milk, stirring constantly until thickened, cover, and cook twenty minutes; then add salt and butter in small pieces. Dip slices of toast separately in sauce; when soft, remove to serving dish. Pour remaining sauce over all.

Milk Toast II

Use ingredients given in Milk Toast I, omitting cold water, and make as Thin White Sauce. Dip toast in sauce.

Brown Bread Milk Toast

Make same as Milk Toast, using slices of toasted brown bread in place of white bread. Brown bread is better toasted by first drying slices in oven.

Cream Toast

Substitute cream for milk, and omit butter in recipe for Milk Toast I or II.

Tomato Cream Toast

1½ cups stewed and strained tomato

½ cup scalded cream

¼ teaspoon soda

3 tablespoons butter

3 tablespoons flour

½ teaspoon salt

6 slices toast

Put butter in saucepan; when melted and bubbling, add flour, mixed with salt, and stir in gradually tomato, to which soda has been added, then add cream. Dip slices of toast in sauce. Serve as soon as made.

German Toast

3 eggs

½ teaspoon salt

2 tablespoons sugar

1 cup milk

6 slices stale bread

Beat eggs slightly, add salt, sugar, and milk; strain into a shallow dish. Soak bread in mixture until soft. Cook on a hot, well-greased griddle; brown on one side, turn and brown other side. Serve for breakfast or luncheon, or with a sauce for dessert.

Brewis

Break stale bits or slices of brown and white bread in small pieces, allowing one and one-half cups brown bread to one-half cup white bread. Butter a hot frying-pan, put in bread, and cover with equal parts milk and water. Cook until soft; add butter and salt to taste.

Bread for Garnishing

Dry toast is often used for garnishing, cut in various shapes. Always shape before toasting. Cubes of bread, toast points, and small oblong pieces are most common. Cubes of stale bread, from which centres are removed, are fried in deep fat and called croûstades; half-inch cubes, browned in butter, or fried in deep fat, are called croûtons.

Uses for Stale Bread

All pieces of bread should be saved and utilized. Large pieces are best for toast. Soft stale bread, from which crust is removed, when crumbed, is called stale breadcrumbs, or raspings, and is used for puddings, griddle-cakes, omelets, scalloped dishes, and dipping food to be fried. Remnants of bread, from which crusts have not been removed, are dried in oven, rolled, and sifted. These are called dry bread crumbs, and are useful for crumbing croquettes, cutlets, fish, meat, etc.

CHAPTER V
BISCUITS, BREAKFAST CAKES, AND SHORTCAKES

Batters, Sponges, and Doughs

Batter is a mixture of flour and some liquid (usually combined with other ingredients, as sugar, salt, eggs, etc.), of consistency to pour easily, or to drop from a spoon.

Batters are termed thin or thick, according to their consistency.

Sponge is a batter to which yeast is added.

Dough differs from batter inasmuch as it is stiff enough to be handled.

Cream Scones

2 cups flour

4 teaspoons baking power

2 teaspoons sugar

½ teaspoon salt

4 tablespoons butter

2 eggs

⅓ cup cream

Mix and sift together flour, baking powder, sugar, and salt. Rub in butter with tips of fingers; add eggs well beaten, and cream. Toss on a floured board, pat, and roll to three-fourths inch in thickness. Cut in squares, brush with white of egg, sprinkle with sugar, and bake in a hot oven fifteen minutes.

Baking Powder Biscuit I

2 cups flour

4 teaspoons baking powder

1 teaspoon salt

1 tablespoon lard

¾ cup milk and water in equal parts

1 tablespoon butter

Mix dry ingredients, and sift twice.

Work in butter and lard with tips of fingers; add gradually the liquid, mixing with knife to a soft dough. It is impossible to determine the exact amount of liquid, owing to differences in flour. Toss on a floured board, pat and roll lightly to one-half inch in thickness. Shape with a biscuit-cutter. Place on buttered pan, and bake in hot oven twelve to fifteen minutes. If baked in too slow an oven, the gas will escape before it has done its work. Many obtain better results by using bread flour.

Baking Powder Biscuit II

2 cups flour

4 teaspoons baking powder

2 tablespoons butter

¾ cup milk

½ teaspoon salt

Mix and bake as Baking Powder Biscuit I.

Emergency Biscuit

Use recipe for Baking Powder Biscuit I or II, with the addition of more milk, that mixture may be dropped from spoon without spreading. Drop by spoonfuls on a buttered pan, one-half inch apart. Brush over with milk, and bake in hot oven eight minutes.

Fruit Rolls (Pin Wheel Biscuit)

2 cups flour

4 teaspoons baking powder

½ teaspoon salt

2 tablespoons sugar

2 tablespoons butter

⅔ cup milk

⅓ cup stoned raisins (finely chopped)

2 tablespoons citron (finely chopped)

⅓ teaspoon cinnamon

Mix as Baking Powder Biscuit II. Roll to one-fourth inch thickness, brush over with melted butter, and sprinkle with fruit, sugar, and cinnamon. Roll like a jelly roll; cut off pieces three-fourths inch in thickness. Place on buttered tin, and bake in hot oven fifteen minutes. Currants may be used in place of raisins and citron.

Twin Mountain Muffins

¼ cup butter

¼ cup sugar

1 egg

¾ cup milk

2 cups flour

3 teaspoons baking powder

Cream the butter; add sugar and egg well beaten; sift baking powder with flour, and add to the first mixture, alternating with milk. Bake in buttered tin gem pans twenty-five minutes.

One Egg Muffins I

3½ cups flour

6 teaspoons baking powder

1 teaspoon salt

1⅓ cups milk

3 tablespoons melted butter

1 egg

3 tablespoons sugar

Mix and sift dry ingredients; add gradually milk, egg well beaten, and melted butter. Bake in buttered gem pans twenty-five minutes. If iron pans are used they must be previously heated. This recipe makes thirty muffins. Use half the proportions given and a small egg, if half the number is required.

One Egg Muffins II

2 cups flour

4 teaspoons baking powder

½ teaspoon salt