LETTERS &
LETTERING

A TREATISE WITH 200 EXAMPLES

FRANK CHOUTEAU BROWN

BOSTON

BATES & GUILD COMPANY

MCMXXI

Copyright, 1921, by
BATES & GUILD COMPANY

Printed by
PERRY & ELLIOTT CO
LYNN BOSTON

Printed in the U. S. A.

NOTE

This book is intended for those who have felt the need of a varied collection of alphabets of standard forms, arranged for convenient use.

The alphabets illustrated, while primarily intended to exhibit the letter shapes, have in most cases been so arranged as to show also how the letters compose into words, except in those instances where they are intended to be used only as initials. The application of classic and medieval letters to modern usages has been, as far as possible, suggested by showing modern designs in which similar forms are employed.

In view of the practical aim of this treatise it has been deemed advisable to include a larger number of illustrative examples rather than to devote space to the historical evolution of the letter forms.

To the artists, American and European, who have so kindly furnished him with drawings of their characteristic letters—and without whose cordial assistance this book would hardly have been possible—to the master-printers who have allowed him to show types specially designed for them, and to the publishers who have given him permission to borrow from their books and magazines, the author wishes to express his sincere obligations.

F. C. B.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

[1] and [2] Alphabet after Sebastian Serlio (1473-1554). Reconstructed by Albert R. Ross.

[3] Width Proportions of Modern Roman Capitals. F. C. B.

[4] Drawing for Incised Roman Capitals. For cutting in granite. Letter forms based upon those shown in figures 1 and 2. F. C. B.

[5] Photograph of Incised Roman Capitals. Cut in granite from drawing shown in figure 4

[6] Incised Roman Capitals. From the Arch of Constantine, Rome. 315 A.D. From a photograph

[7] Model for Incised Roman Capitals. Used for inscriptions cut in granite on Boston Public Library. McKim, Mead & White, Architects. Photographed from a cast

[8] Roman Incised Capitals. From fragments in marble. National Museum, Naples. Rubbing

[9] Roman Incised Inscription. Museo Civico, Bologna. From a photograph

[10] Roman Incised Inscription. Museo Civico, Bologna. From a photograph

[11] Detail from a Roman Incised Inscription. Showing composition. Redrawn from a rubbing. F. C. B.

[12] "Rustic" Roman Capitals. Of pen forms, but cut in stone. Redrawn from a rubbing. From fragment in the National Museum, Naples. F. C. B.

[13] Roman Capitals from Fragments of Inscriptions. Showing various characteristic letter forms. Redrawn from rubbings. F. C. B.

[14] Modern Roman Incised Capitals. Executed in sandstone. From the Harvard Architectural Building, Cambridge, Mass. McKim, Mead & White, Architects

[15] Letters Shown in Alphabet 1 and 2, in Composition. By Albert R. Ross

[16] and [17] Classic Roman Capitals. Cut in marble. Redrawn from rubbings made in the Forum, Rome. F. C. B.-21

[18] and 19 Classic Roman Capitals. Late period. Cut in marble. Redrawn from rubbings. F. C. B.

[20] Portion of Roman Inscription. With supplied letters. Redrawn from a rubbing. F. C. B.

[21] Classic Roman Inscription. Incised in marble. Redrawn from a rubbing. F. C. B.

[22] Classic Roman Inscription. In stone. Redrawn from a rubbing. F. C. B.

[23] Italian Renaissance Inscription. Square-sunk in marble. From a photograph of a mortuary slab

[24] Italian Renaissance Medal. By Vittore Pisano. 15th Century. From a photograph

[25] Modern French Medal. By Oscar Roty. From a photograph of the original in the Luxembourg, Paris

[26] Capitals Adapted from Renaissance Medals. F. C. B.

[27] Spanish Renaissance Alphabet. By Juan de Yciar. From "Arte por la qual se esena a escrevir perfectamente." (Saragossa, 1550)

[28] Renaissance Inlaid Medallion. From a floor-slab in Santa Croce, Florence. Redrawn from a rubbing. F. C. B.

[29] Italian Renaissance Capitals. From an inlaid floor-slab in Santa Croce, Florence. (Compare figure 28.) Redrawn from a rubbing. F. C. B.

[30] Italian Renaissance Panel. From Raphael's tomb, Pantheon, Rome. From a photograph

[31] Italian Renaissance Incised Inscription. From the Marsuppini Tomb, Santa Croce, Florence, 1455. Rubbing

[32] Italian Renaissance Incised Inscription. From a floor-slab in Santa Croce, Florence. Early 15th Century. Rubbing

[33] Italian Renaissance Capitals. Redrawn from inscription on the Marsuppini Tomb, Santa Croce, Florence, 1455. (Compare figure 31.) F. C. B.

[34] Italian Renaissance Capitals. Redrawn from rubbings of inscriptions in Santa Croce, Florence. F. C. B.

[35] and [36] Italian Renaissance Capitals. By G. A. Tagliente. From 'La vera arte dello eccellento scrivere.' (Venice, 1524)

[37] and [38] German Renaissance Capitals. By Albrecht Dürer. Adapted from 'Underweyssung der messung, mit dem zirckel, ũn richtscheyt, in Linien, etc.' (Nuremberg, 1525)

[39] and [40] Italian Renaissance Capitals. By Sebastian Serlio. (1473-1554.) Compare figures 1 and 2

[41] German Renaissance Capitals. By Urbain Wÿss. From 'Libellus valde doctus ... scribendarum literarum genera complectens.' (Zurich, 1549)

[42] Italian Renaissance Panel. Above the door of the Badia, Florence. Redrawn by Claude Fayette Bragdon. From 'Minor Italian Palaces.' (Cutler Manufacturing Company, Rochester, N.Y., 1898)

[43] Modern Title in Anglo-Saxon Capitals. By Bertram G. Goodhue. (Compare figure 46.) From 'The Quest of Merlin.' (Small, Maynard & Co., Boston, 1891)

[44] Modern Title with Characteristics of 16th Century English Capitals. By Walter Crane. (Compare figure 49.) From 'The Story of Don Quixote.' (John Lane, New York, 1900)

[45] Title in Early English Capitals. By W. Eden Nesfield. From 'Specimens of Medieval Architecture.' (Day & Sons, London, 1862)

[46] Anglo-Saxon Capitals. 6th Century. From 'The Rule of St. Benedict.' Bodleian Library, Oxford

[47] Anglo-Saxon Capitals. 7th Century. From 'The Gospels of St. Cuthbert'

[48] Anglo-Saxon Capitals. Early 10th Century. From an Anglo-Saxon Bible

[49] Early English Capitals. 16th Century. From tomb of Henry VII, Westminster Abbey, London

[50] and [51] Scheme for the Construction of Roman Small Letters. F. C. B.

[52] Spanish Roman Pen Drawn Letters. By Francisco Lucas. From 'Arte de Escrēvirde.' (Madrid, 1577)

[53] Spanish Roman Pen Drawn Letters. Showing use of above. By Francisco Lucas. From 'Arte de Escrēvirde.' (Madrid, 1577)

[54] Spanish Italic Pen Drawn Letters. By Francisco Lucas. From 'Arte de Escrēvirde.' (Madrid, 1577)

[55] Spanish Italic Pen Drawn Letters. Showing use of above. By Francisco Lucas. From 'Arte de Escrēvirde.' (Madrid, 1577)

[56] Italian Small Letters. By J. F. Cresci. From 'Perfetto Scrittore.' (Rome, 1560)

[57] English 17th Century Letters. Incised in slate. From tombstones

[58] Modern Small Letters. After C. Hrachowina's 'Initialen Alphabete und Randleisten verschiedener Kunstepochen.' (Vienna, 1883)

[59] Modern Small Letters. By Claude Fayette Bragdon. Based on Venetian types cut by Nicholas Jenson, 1471-81

[60] Inscription from English 17th Century Tombstone. From slate tombstone at Chippenham, England. 1691. F. C. B.

[61] Roman and Italic Type. Designed by William Caslon. From his Specimen Book. (London, 1734)

[62] Modern Roman Type, "Montaigne." Designed by Bruce Rogers for The Riverside Press, Cambridge, Mass.

[63] Modern Roman Type, "Renner." Designed by Theo. L. De Vinne for The De Vinne Press, New York

[64] Modern Roman Type, "Merrymount." Designed by Bertram G. Goodhue for The Merrymount Press, Boston, Mass.

[65] Modern Roman Type, "Cheltenham Old Style." Designed by Bertram G. Goodhue for The Cheltenham Press, New York. (Owned by American Type Founders Company and Linotype Company)

[66] Modern Greek Type. Designed by Selwyn Image for The Macmillan Company, London

[67] Modern Roman Type. Designed by C. R. Ashbee for a Prayerbook for the King of England

[68] Modern German Capitals. After lettering by J. M. Olbrich

[69] Modern German Capitals. By Gustave Lemmen. From 'Beispiele Kunstlerische Schrift.' (A. Schroll & Co., Vienna)

[70] Modern German Capitals. After lettering by Alois Ludwig

[71] Modern German Capitals. After lettering by Otto Eckmann

[72] Modern German Capitals. By Otto Hupp. From 'Beispiele Kunstlerische Schrift.' (A. Schroll & Co., Vienna)

[73] Modern German Capitals. By Joseph Plécnik. From 'Beispiele Kunstlerische Schrift.' (A. Schroll & Co., Vienna)

[74] Modern German Capitals. After lettering by Franz Stuck

[75] Modern German Capitals. Arranged from originals. F. C. B.

[76] Modern German Capitals. After lettering by Bernhard Pankok

[77] Modern French Poster. 'La Libre Esthétique.' By Theo. van Rysselberghe

[78] Modern French Book-cover. By M. P. Verneuil. From 'L'Animal dans la décoration.' (E. Lévy, Paris)

[79] Modern French Letters. After lettering by M. P. Verneuil

[80] Modern French Poster. 'La Revue Blanche.' By P. Bonnard

[81] Modern French Magazine Cover Design. By George Auriol. From 'L'Image.' (Floury, Paris, 1897)

[82] Modern French Capitals. By Alphons M. Mucha. From 'Beispiele Kunstlerischer Schrift.' (A. Schroll & Co., Vienna)

[83] Modern French Lettered Page in "Cursive." By George Auriol. From 'Le Premier Livre des Cachets, etc.' (Librairie Centrale des Beaux-Arts, Paris, 1901)

[84] Modern French Letters, "Cursive." By George Auriol

[85] Modern French Cover Design. By Eugène Grasset. From 'Art et Décoration.' (Paris)

[86] Modern English Capitals. By Walter Crane. From 'Beispiele Kunstlerischer Schrift.' (A. Schroll & Co., Vienna)

[87] Modern English Theatrical Poster. By Walter Crane

[88] Modern English Capitals. By Walter Crane. From 'Alphabets Old and New.' (B. T. Batsford, London, 1899)

[89] Modern English Letters. By Walter Crane. From 'Beispiele Kunsterischer Schrift.' (A. Schroll & Co., Vienna)

[90] Modern English Title. By Joseph W. Simpson. From 'The Book of Book-plates.' (Williams & Norgate, Edinburgh)

[91] Modern English Poster. By Joseph W. Simpson

[92] Modern English Book-cover. By William Nicholson. From 'London Types.' (R. H. Russell, New York, 1898)

[93] Modern English Magazine Cover. By Lewis F. Day. From 'The Art Journal.' (H. Virtue & Co., London)

[94] Modern English Title. By Gordon Craig. From 'The Page' (The Sign of the Rose, Hackbridge, Surrey)

[95] Modern English Capitals. By Lewis F. Day. From 'Alphabets Old and New.' (B. T. Batsford, London, 1899)

[96] Modern English Title Page. By Robert Anning Bell. From 'Poems by John Keats.' (George Bell & Sons, London, 1897)

[97] Modern English Book-cover. By Edmund H. New. From 'The Natural History of Selborne.' (John Lane, London, 1900)

[98] Modern English Book-cover. By Selwyn Image. From 'Representative Painters of the 19th Century.' (Sampson, Low, Marston & Co., London, 1899)

[99] Modern English Capitals. Anonymous. From an advertisement

[100] Modern English Title. By Charles Ricketts. From 'Nimphidia and the Muses Elizium.' (The Vale Press, London)

[101] Modern American Title. By Edwin A. Abbey. From 'Selections from the Poetry of Robert Herrick.' (Harper & Brothers, New York, 1899)

[102] Modern American Title. Anonymous. From 'Harper's Weekly.' (New York)

[103] Modern American Magazine Cover. By Edward Penfield. From 'Harper's Weekly.' (New York)

[104] Modern American Capitals. By Edward Penfield

[105] Modern American Small Letters. By Edward Penfield

[106] Modern American Cover Design. By H. Van Buren Magonigle

[107] Modern American Capitals. By H. Van Buren Magonigle

[108] Modern American Capitals. By Bertram G. Goodhue. From 'Masters in Art.' (Boston, 1900)

[109] Modern American Title. By Will Bradley. From 'The Book List of Dodd, Mead & Co.' (New York, 1899)

[110] Modern American Capitals and Small Letters. By Will Bradley. From 'Bradley, His Book.' (The Wayside Press, Springfield, Mass., 1896)

[111] Modern American Magazine Cover. By Will Bradley. From 'The International Studio.' (New York)

[112] Modern American Ticket. By A. J. Iorio

[113] Modern American Capitals. After lettering by Will Bradley

[114] Modern American Capitals. By Maxfield Parrish

[115] Modern American Title. By Maxfield Parrish. From 'Knickerbocker's History of New York.' (R. H. Russell, New York, 1900)

[116] Modern American Title. By Addison B. Le Boutillier

[117] Modern American Capitals. By Addison B. Le Boutillier

[118] Modern American Small Letters. By Addison B. Le Boutillier

[119] Modern American Poster. By Addison B. Le Boutillier

[120] Modern American Book-Plate. By Claude Fayette Bragdon

[121] Modern American Title. By Claude Fayette Bragdon. From 'Literature.' (New York)

[122] Modern American Letter-heading. By Claude Fayette Bragdon

[123] Modern American Advertisement. By H. L. Bridwell. (Strowbridge Lithographic Co., Cincinnati)

[124] Modern American Capitals. By H. L. Bridwell

[125] Modern American Capitals. By Frank Hazenplug

[126] Modern American Capitals, "Heavy Face." By Frank Hazenplug

[127] Modern American Book-cover. By Frank Hazenplug. From ''Ickery Ann and other Girls and Boys.' (Herbert S. Stone & Co., Chicago, 1899)

[128] Modern American Title. By Edward Edwards. From 'Harper's Pictorial History of the War with Spain.' (Harper & Brothers, New York, 1899)

[129] Modern American Catalogue Cover. By Frank Hazenplug. From the Catalogue of the Chicago Arts and Crafts Society. (Chicago)

[130] Modern American Title. By Guernsey Moore. From 'The Saturday Evening Post.' (Philadelphia)

[131] Modern American Title. By Harry Everett Townsend. From 'The Blue Sky.' (Langworthy & Stevens, Chicago, 1901)

[132] Modern American Heading. By Howard Pyle. From 'Harper's Magazine.' (New York)

[133] Modern American Letters. Compiled from various sources. F. C. B.

[134] Modern American Capitals. After lettering by Orson Lowell

[135] Modern American Small Letters. F. C. B.

[136] Modern American Titles. By Orson Lowell. From 'Truth.' (New York)

[137] Modern American Title. By Orson Lowell. From 'Truth.' (New York)

[138] Modern American Letters. For rapid use. F. C. B.

[139] Modern American Italic. For use in lettering architects' plans, etc. By Claude Fayette Bragdon

[140] Modern American Letters, "Cursive." For rapid use. By Maxfield Parrish

[141] Italian Round Gothic Small Letters. After Lucantonii Giunta. Redrawn from 'Graduale Sanctae Romanae Ecclesiae.' (Venice, 1500)

[142] Italian Round Gothic Small Letters. 16th Century. Redrawn from Italian originals

[143] Spanish Round Gothic Letters. By Francisco Lucas. From 'Arte de Escrēvirde.' (Madrid, 1577)

[144] German Blackletter Construction. By Albrecht Dürer. From 'Underweyssung der messung, mit dem zirckel, ūn richtscheyt, in Linien, etc.' (Nuremberg, 1525)

[145] German Blackletters. Redrawn from manuscripts

[146] German Blackletters. With rounded angles. Redrawn from manuscripts

[147] Italian Blackletter Title-page. By Jacopus Philippus Foresti (Bergomensis). From 'De Claris Mulieribus, etc.' (Ferrara, 1497)

[148] German Blackletter Page. By Albrecht Dürer. From the Prayerbook designed by him for the Emperor Maximilian. (Nuremberg, 1515)

[149] German Memorial Brass with Blackletter Inscription. Ascribed to Albrecht Dürer. Cathedral of Meissen, 1510. From 'Fac-similes of Monumental Brasses on the Continent of Europe.' (W. F. Creeney, Norwich, 1884)

[150] Modern American Calendar Cover in Blackletter. By Bertram G. Goodhue. From 'Every Day's Date Calendar.' (Fleming, Schiller & Carnrick, New York, 1897)

[151] Modern German Blackletters. By Walter Puttner. From 'Jugend.' (Munich)

[152] Modern German Title in Blackletter. By Otto Hupp. From 'Münchener Kalendar.' (Munich, 1900)

[153] Modern American Page in English Blackletter. By Edwin A. Abbey. From 'Scribner's Magazine.' (New York)

[154] Uncial Gothic Initials. Redrawn from 12th Century examples. F. C. B.

[155] Uncial Gothic Initials. Redrawn from 13th Century examples. F. C. B.

[156] Uncial Gothic Capitals. Redrawn from 14th Century examples. F. C. B.

[157] Uncial Gothic Capitals. 14th Century. After J. Weale. Redrawn from 'Portfolio of Ancient Capital Letters.' (London, 1838-9)

[158] Italian Uncial Gothic Capitals, in the "Papal" Hand. From a Florentine manuscript of 1315. British Museum, London. F. C. B.

[159] Spanish Uncial Gothic Capitals. By Juan de Yciar. Adapted from 'Arte por la qual se esena escrevir perfectamente.' (Saragossa, 1550)

[160] Venetian Wall Panel, of Marble, Inscribed with Uncial Gothic Letters. 15th Century. From the Church of S. Giovanni e Paolo, Venice. Rubbing

[161] Venetian Gothic Capitals. 15th Century. Redrawn from the rubbing shown in figure 160. F. C. B.

[162] German Uncial Capitals. 1341. Redrawn from a memorial brass in the Cathedral of Lübeck

[163] French and Spanish Gothic Capitals. 14th Century. After W. S. Weatherley

[164] and [165] Italian Gothic Initials. After G. A. Tagliente, in 'La vera arte dello eccellento scrivere.' (Venice, 1524)

[166] Italian Gothic Initials. By Giovanni Battista Palatino. From 'Libro nel qual s'insegna a scrivere.' (Rome, 1548)

[167], [168] and [169] German Gothic Initials. By P. Frank. Nuremberg, 1601. From Petzendorfer's 'Schriften-Atlas.' (Stuttgart, 1889)

[170] Italian Gothic Capitals. 16th Century. Redrawn from old examples

[171] Gothic Capitals of English Form. 16th Century. Redrawn from old examples

[172] Italian Gothic Capitals. 17th Century. Redrawn from various examples

[173] German Gothic Capitals. 17th Century. Redrawn from various manuscripts

[174] German Gothic Capitals. From manuscripts

[175] German Gothic Capitals. From manuscripts

[176] German Gothic Capitals, Heavy Faced

[177] English Gothic "Text," Initials and Blackletters. 15th Century. From manuscripts

[178] English Gothic Uncials and Blackletters. 15th Century. From Queen Eleanor's tomb. F. C. B.

[179] English Gothic Capitals and Blackletters. 15th Century. From tomb of Richard II, Westminster Abbey, London. F. C. B.

[180] German Blackletters. From a brass. Redrawn from a rubbing. F. C. B.

[181] German Blackletters. With Albrecht Dürer's initials. 16th Century. F. C. B.

[182] Italian Blackletters. By G. A. Tagliente. From 'La vera arte dello eccellento scrivere.' (Venice, 1524)

[183] German Blackletters. After lettering by Albrecht Dürer. 16th Century

[184] German Blackletters. After lettering by Albrecht Dürer. 16th Century

[185] German Gothic Capitals. By Albrecht Dürer. 16th Century

[186] English Gothic Blackletters. Late 15th Century. Redrawn from a brass. F. C. B.

[187] Italian Inlaid Blackletters. From a marble slab in Santa Croce, Florence. Redrawn from a rubbing. F. C. B.

[188] and [189] Modern American Blackletters With Gothic Capitals. By Bertram G. Goodhue

[190] Modern German Blackletters. After lettering by Julius Diez

[191] Modern German Blackletters, flourished. F. C. B.

[192] German Italic. By Gottlieb Münch. From 'Ordnung der Schrift.' (Munich, 1744)

[193] Spanish Script. By Torquato Torio. From 'Arte de Escribir.' (Madrid, 1802)

[194] Spanish Scripts. By Torquato Torio. From 'Arte de Escribir.' (Madrid, 1802)

[195] Spanish Script. By Francisco Lucas. From 'Arte de Escrēvirde.' (Madrid, 1577)

[196] Spanish Cursive. By Francisco Lucas. From 'Arte de Escrēvirde.' (Madrid, 1577)

[197] Modern American Script Title. By Claude Fayette Bragdon. From an advertisement

[198] Modern American Script Title. By George Wharton Edwards. From 'Collier's Weekly.' (New York)

[199] French Script Capitals. 18th Century. F. C. B.

[200] German Script. 18th Century forms. Adapted from C. Hrachowina's 'Initialen, Alphabete und Randleisten verschiedener Kunstepochen.' (Vienna, 1883)

[201] Spanish Script Capitals. Early 18th Century. Adapted from a Spanish Writing-book. F. C. B.

[202] Spanish Script Alphabets. Late 17th Century. Adapted from Spanish Writing-books. F. C. B.

[203] English Incised Script. Redrawn from inscriptions in slate and stone in Westminster Abbey, London. F. C. B.

[204] Modern American Script Book Title. By Bruce Rogers. From cover design of 'The House of the Seven Gables.' (Houghton, Mifflin & Co., Boston, 1899)

[205] Modern American Script. By Bruce Rogers

[206] Modern American Script Capitals. After lettering by Frank Hazenplug

[207] Modern American Italic Capitals. F. C. B.

[208] Modern American Script Title. Anonymous. From 'Harper's Weekly.' (New York)

[209] Modern American Script Title. By Edward Penfield. From 'Harper's Weekly.' (New York)

[210] Diagram to Show Method of Enlarging a Panel, from upper left corner

[211] Diagram to Show Method of Enlarging a Panel, from perpendicular center line

[End Papers]. From an embroidered Altar-cloth. 17th Century. Church of St. Mary, Soest, Westphalia, Germany.

CONTENTS

I. ROMAN CAPITALS [1]

II. MODERN ROMAN LETTERS [52]

III. GOTHIC LETTERS [127]

IV. ITALIC AND SCRIPT [182]

V. TO THE BEGINNER [199]

CHAPTER I

ROMAN CAPITALS

In speaking of the "Roman" letter throughout this chapter its capital form—the form in monumental use among the Romans—will always be implied. The small or "minuscule" letters, which present nomenclature includes under the general title of "Roman" letters, and which will be considered in the following chapter, were of later formation than the capitals; and indeed only attained their definitive and modern form after the invention of printing from movable types.

The first point to be observed in regard to the general form of the Roman capital is its characteristic squareness. Although the letter as used to-day varies somewhat in proportions from its classic prototype, its skeleton is still based on the square.

Next to this typical squareness of outline, the observer should note that the Roman letter is composed of thick and thin lines. At first sight it may seem that no systematic rules determine which of these lines should be thick and which thin; but closer investigation will discover that the alternate widths of line were evolved quite methodically, and that they exactly fulfil the functions of making the letters both more legible and more decorative. Arbitrary rearrangements of these thick and thin lines, differing from the arrangement of them in the classic examples, have,

indeed, been often attempted; but such rearrangements have never resulted in improvement, and, except in eccentric lettering, have fallen into complete disuse.

The original thickening and thinning of the lines of the classic Roman capitals was partly due to the imitation in stone inscriptions of the letter forms as they were written on parchment with the pen. The early Latin scribes held their stiff-nibbed reed pens almost directly upright and at right angles to the writing surface, so that a down stroke from left to right and slanted at an angle of about forty-five degrees would bring the nib across the surface broadwise, resulting in the widest line possible to the pen. On the other hand, a stroke drawn at right angles to this, the pen being still held upright, would be made with the thin edge of the nib, and would result in the narrowest possible line. From this method of handling the pen the variations of line width in the standard Roman forms arose; and we may therefore deduce three logical rules, based upon pen use, which will determine the proper distribution of the thick and thin lines:

I, Never accent horizontal lines. II, Always accent the sloping down strokes which run from left to right, including the so-called "swash" lines, or flying tails, of Q and R; but never weight those which, contrariwise, slope up from left to right, with a single exception in the case of the letter Z, in which, if rule I be followed, the sloping line (in this case made with a down stroke) will be the only one possible to accent. III, Always accent the directly perpendicular lines, except in the N, where these lines seem originally to have been made with an up stroke of the pen; and the first line of the M, where the perpendiculars originally sloped in towards the top of the letter (see 2). On the round letters

the accents should occur at the sides of the circle, as virtually provided in rule III, or on the upper right and lower left quarters (see [1]-[2]), where in pen-drawn letters the accent of the down sloping stroke would naturally occur, as virtually determined in rule II.

The "serif"—a cross-stroke or tick—finishes the free ends of all lines used in making a Roman capital. The value of the serif in stone-cut letters seems obvious. To define the end of a free line a sharp cut was made across it with the chisel, and as the chisel was usually wider than the thin line this cut extended beyond it. Serifs were added to the ends of the thick lines either for the sake of uniformity, or may have been suggested by the chisel-marked guide lines themselves. Indeed in late stone-cut Roman work the scratched guide lines along the top and bottom of each line of the inscription are distinctly marked and merge into the serifs, which extend farther than in earlier examples. The serif was adopted in pen letters probably from the same reasons that caused it to be added to the stone-cut letters, namely, that it definitely finished the free lines and enhanced the general squareness and finish of the letter's aspect.

An excellent model for constructing the Roman capitals in a standard form will be found in the beautiful adaptation by Mr. A. R. Ross, [1] and [2], from an alphabet of capitals drawn by Sebastian Serlio, an Italian architect, engraver and painter of the sixteenth century, who devised some of the most refined variants of the classic Roman letter. Serlio's original forms, which are shown in [39] and [40], were intended for pen or printed use; but in altering Serlio's scheme of proportions it will be observed that Mr. Ross

has partially adapted the letter for use in stone, and has further varied it in details, notably in serif treatment. In most modern stone-cut letters, however, the thin strokes would be made even wider than in this example, as in [14]. Mr. Ross's adaptation shows excellently how far the classic letters do or do not fill out the theoretical square.

Width proportions, which may be found useful in laying out lettering for lines of a given length, are shown in 3 in a more modern style of the Roman capital. In the classic Roman letter the cross-bar is usually in the exact center of the letter height, but in [3] the center line has been used as the bottom of the cross-bar in B, E, H, P, and R, and as the top of the cross-bar in A; and in letters like K, Y and X the "waist lines," as the meeting points of the sloping lines are sometimes called, have been slightly raised to obtain a more pleasant effect.

The Roman alphabet, although the one most in use, is unfortunately the most difficult to compose into words artistically, as the spacing between the letters plays a great share in the result. The effect of even color over a whole panel is obtained by keeping as nearly as possible the same area of white between each letter and its neighbor; but the shape of this area will be determined in every case by the letters which happen to be juxtaposed. Individual letters may, however, be widened or condensed to help fill an awkward "hole" in a line of lettering;—the lower lobe of the B may be extended, the center bar of the E pulled out (in which case the F should be made to correspond), the lower slant stroke of the K may be used as a swash tail, and the R may have its tail extended or drawn closely back against the upright line, and so on. Indeed, each and

every letter of the alphabet is susceptible to such similar modifications in shape as may make it best suit the space left for it by its neighbors. Observe, for example, the spacing of the word MERITAE in [34], and notice how the tail of the R is lengthened to hold off the I because the T on the other side is perforce held away by its top. In the page of capitals, [124], by Mr. Bridwell, see also how the different spacing of the word FRENCH in the first and second lines is managed. In the advertisement, [123], also by Mr. Bridwell, note how the letters are spaced close or wide in order to produce a definite effect. The whole problem of spacing is, however, one of such subtle interrelation and composition, that it can only be satisfactorily solved by the artistic sense of the designer. Any rules which might be here formulated would prove more often a drawback than a help.

Certain optical illusions of some of the Roman letter forms should be briefly mentioned. These illusions are caused by the failure of certain letters to impinge squarely with determining serifs against the demarking top and bottom guide lines. The round letters C, G, O and Q often seem to be shorter and smaller than the other characters in a word unless the outsides of their curves run both above and below the guide lines. For the same reason S should be sometimes slightly increased in height, though in this case the narrowness of the letter makes less increase necessary; and J, on account of its kern, is governed by the same conditions as S, save when letters with distinct serifs come closely against it at the bottom. Theoretically the right side of D would require similar treatment, but actually this is seldom found necessary. The pointed ends of

the letters V and W should, for similar optical reasons, be extended slightly below the bottom guide lines, the amount of this extension being determined by the letters on each side of them. In the A, the Roman letterer at first got over the optical difficulty caused by its pointed top by running this letter also higher than its neighbors; but he later solved the problem by shaping its apex as shown in I, thus apparently getting the letter into line with its companions while still obtaining a sufficient width of top to satisfy the eye. Because of its narrowness, I should generally be allowed more proportionate white space on either side of it than the wider letters.

Some idea of the proportionate variations required to counteract the optical illusions of the letters above named may be obtained from the practice of type-founders. In making the designs for a fount of type, it has been customary to first draw each letter at a very large size. Taking an arbitrary height of twelve inches as a standard, the points of A and V were made to extend about three-quarters of an inch above or below the guides, the letter O was run over about half an inch at both top and bottom, and the points of the w were made to project about the same distance. In pen lettering, however, it is possible and preferable to adapt each letter more perfectly to its individual surroundings by judgment of the eye than to rely upon any hard and fast rules.

Certain variations between the stone-cut forms of the Roman letters and their forms as drawn or printed should be understood before an intelligent adaptation of stone forms to drawn forms, or the opposite, is possible. When drawn or printed a character is seen in black against a

white ground with no illusory alterations of its line widths caused by varying shadows. In stone-cut letters, on the other hand, where the shadows rather than the outlines themselves reveal the forms, different limitations govern the problem. The thin lines of a letter to be V-sunk should generally be made slightly thicker in proportion to the wide lines than is the case with the pen-drawn letter, especially as the section is likely to be less deeply and sharply cut nowadays than in the ancient examples, for the workmanship of to-day seems to be less perfect and the materials used more friable. A slight direct sinkage before beginning to cut the V-sunk section is a useful method of

partially atoning for modern shallow cutting, as shadows more directly defining the outlines are thus obtained. The student should, however, be warned at the outset that all reproductions or tracings from rubbings of ancient stone-cut letters are apt to be more or less deceptive, as all the accidental variations of the outlines are exaggerated, and where the stone of the original has been chipped or worn away it appears in the reproduction as though the letter had been actually so cut.

The photograph of a panel of lettering from the upper part of the Arch of Constantine, Rome, shown in [6], well indicates the effect of shadows in defining the classic Roman letters; and the effect of shadows on an incised letter may be clearly observed by comparing [4] and [5], the former showing a drawing for an inscription in which the Serlio-Ross

alphabet was used as a basis for the letter forms, and the latter being a photograph of the same inscription, as cut in granite. It will be noted how much narrower the thin lines appear when defined only by shadow than in the drawing. The model used for the lettering on the frieze of the Boston Public Library, [7], which shows some interesting modern forms intended for cutting in granite, should be studied for the effect of the cast shadows; while [14], a redrawing of inscriptions on the Harvard Architectural Building, Cambridge, Mass., exhibits an excellent type of letter with widened thin lines for v-cutting in sandstone.

The special requirements of the stone-cut forms for either incised or raised inscriptions are, however, quite apart from the subject of this book, and are too various to be taken up in greater detail here. It is important, nevertheless, that the designer should be reminded always to make allowance for the material in which a letter was originally executed. Otherwise, if exactly copied in other materials, he may find the result annoyingly unsatisfactory.

The examples of letters taken from Roman and Renaissance Italian monuments, shown in the pages of this chapter, will illustrate the variety of individual letter forms used by the Classic and Renaissance designers. The shape of the same letter will often be found to vary in the same inscription and even in apparently analogous cases. The designers evidently had in mind more than the directly adjacent words, and sometimes even considered

the relation of their lettering to objects outside the panel altogether. This is especially true in the work of the Italian Renaissance, which is almost invariably admirable in both composition and arrangement.

Figures [8] to [22] show examples, drawn from various sources, which exhibit different treatments of the classic Roman letter forms. The differentiation will be found to lie largely in the widths of the letters themselves, and in the treatment of the serifs, angles, and varying widths of line. Figures [11] to [13] and [16] to [22] are redrawn from rubbings

of Roman incised inscriptions. Figures [16] and [17] show beautifully proportioned letters cut in marble with unusual care and refinement, considering the large size of the originals. A later Roman form of less refinement but of greater strength and carrying power, and for that reason better adapted to many modern uses, is shown in [18] and [19]. In this case the original letters were cut about seven and

one-half inches high. The letters in [20] are curiously modern in character. Part of the panel of Roman lettering shown in [21] exhibits the use of a form very like that shown in [18] and [19]. Figure [11] shows a detail composed in a quite representative fashion; while on the other hand figure [12] depicts a Roman letter of quite unusual character, and of a form evidently adapted from pen work, in which the shapes are narrow and crowded, while the lines are thickened as though they were of the classical square outline. The bits of old Roman inscriptions shown in [8] to [10] and in [13] are included to exhibit various different forms and treatments of classic capitals.