NEW ZEALAND

MOTHS AND BUTTERFLIES.

"The rearing of larvæ, . . . when joined with the entomological collection, adds immense interest to Saturday afternoon rambles, and forms an admirable introduction to the study of physiology."

Herbert Spencer, in 'Education.'

"When simple curiosity passes into the love of knowledge as such, and the gratification of the æsthetic sense of the beauty of completeness and accuracy seems more desirable than the easy indolence of ignorance; when the finding out of the causes of things becomes a source of joy, and he is counted happy who is successful in the search; common knowledge of Nature passes into what our forefathers called Natural History, from whence there is but a step to that which used to be termed Natural Philosophy, and now passes by the name of Physical Science."

Thomas Henry Huxley, in 'The Crayfish.'

"It is interesting to contemplate a tangled bank, clothed with many plants of many kinds, with birds singing on the bushes, with various insects flitting about, and with worms crawling through the damp earth, and to reflect that these elaborately constructed forms, so different from each other, and dependent upon each other in so complex a manner, have all been produced by laws acting around us. These laws, taken in the largest sense, being Growth with Reproduction; Inheritance which is almost implied by reproduction; Variability from the indirect and direct action of the conditions of life, and from use and disuse: a Ratio of Increase so high as to lead to a Struggle for Life, and as a consequence to Natural Selection, entailing Divergence of Character and the Extinction of less-improved forms. Thus, from the war of Nature, from famine and death, the most exalted object which we are capable of conceiving, namely, the production of the higher animals, directly follows. There is a grandeur in this view of life, with its several powers, having been originally breathed by the Creator into a few forms or into one; and that, whilst this planet has gone cycling on according to the fixed law of gravity, from so simple a beginning endless forms most beautiful and most wonderful have been, and are being evolved."

Darwin, in 'The Origin of Species.'

NEW ZEALAND

MOTHS AND BUTTERFLIES

(MACRO-LEPIDOPTERA).

BY

G. V. HUDSON, F.E.S.,

Author of 'An Elementary Manual of New Zealand Entomology.'

WITH 13 PLATES.

LONDON:

WEST, NEWMAN & Co., 54, HATTON GARDEN, E.C.

1898.

PREFACE.

The present work is intended as a guide to those who desire to collect or study our native Lepidoptera, and also as a book of reference to the general reader.

In the Introduction I have first given an outline of the Transformations and Structure of the Lepidoptera. Then a brief sketch of the Darwinian theories respecting the origin of species and their special application to various phenomena exhibited by moths and butterflies, as well as a short outline of the general principles which have been followed in framing modern classifications of the order. Next follow five chapters on the various groups dealt with.

With a few exceptions this work only treats of what are, for the sake of convenience, termed the Macro-Lepidoptera. A similar work on the numerous and interesting species of Micro-Lepidoptera found in New Zealand may at some future time be undertaken.

In conclusion, I have to discharge the pleasurable duty of thanking the numerous entomologists who have so liberally assisted me in the production of this work. First, and especially, my thanks are due to Mr. Meyrick, without whose masterly papers and 'Handbook' but little could have been accomplished. Next, to Mr. R. W. Fereday, who very kindly allowed me to figure many species of which he alone possesses specimens—in itself an invaluable assistance. I have also to express my thanks to Messrs. E. F. Hawthorne, H. P. Hanify, R. I. Kingsley, A. Norris, A. Philpott, and others for the loan of specimens, and for much valuable information regarding the localities and habits of rare or local species. Lastly, I have to acknowledge the aid so willingly given by my lamented friend, the late Mr. A. S. Olliff, of Sydney.

Karori, Wellington,

New Zealand,

1897.

CONTENTS.

INTRODUCTION.

The order Lepidoptera, which includes all those insects commonly known as Moths and Butterflies, is chiefly distinguished by its members possessing four wings clothed with numerous minute scales, the term Lepidoptera being derived from the two Greek words, λεπις, a scale, and πτερον, a wing. The mouth of these insects is suctorial, the maxillæ forming a spiral proboscis which is coiled up between the large labial palpi when not in use (see Plate [I]., figs. 5 and 6). The other oral organs are rudimentary. To acquire this form these insects pass through three very distinct stages, viz., the Egg, the Larva, and the Pupa.

I.—METAMORPHOSIS.

THE EGG.

The eggs of Lepidoptera are generally somewhat globular, much flattened above and beneath. Some are very elaborately sculptured, whilst others are quite smooth. They are usually white or yellowish, but always change much in colour as the contained embryo develops.

THE LARVA.

The larvæ of moths and butterflies are popularly known as caterpillars. They always consist of thirteen segments, segment number one being the head. The head is furnished with several simple eyes (Plate [I]., fig. 2, AA), a pair of very short antennæ (BB), and a very powerful masticatory mouth. The mouth consists of the following organs: The labrum, or upper lip (1); a pair of mandibles, or upper jaws, working like scissor-blades (2,2); two maxillæ, or lower jaws (3,3), each carrying a jointed organ termed the maxillary palpus; and the labium, or lower lip (4); which bears another pair of minute jointed appendages—the labial palpi.

Segments 2, 3, and 4, which answer to the thorax of the perfect insect, are each furnished with a pair of legs. They consist of the six following joints (fig. 2): (a) coxa, (b) trochanter, (c) femur, (d) tibia, (e) tarsus, and (f) claw. These legs correspond to those of the perfect insect. The remaining nine segments of the body constitute the abdomen. Usually segments 7 to 9 and 13, each have a pair of fleshy pads, which are termed prolegs and are furnished on their edges with a row of minute hooklets (see Plate [I]., fig. 14, proleg highly magnified). It is these hooklets which enable caterpillars to hold on by means of their prolegs with such great tenacity. The number of the prolegs varies considerably in different groups and families.

The spiracles, or orifices of the air-tubes, are situated on each side of the larva just above the legs. They are usually present on segments 2 and 5 to 12, but vary considerably in different groups and families. The larva is provided with a very complete digestive system, which consists of the following organs (see Plate [I]., fig. 9): A, the œsophagus; D, the ventriculus; F, the clavate intestine; E, the ilium; H, the colon; K, the biliary vessels; and O, the spinning vessels. These last open at a small orifice in the labium termed the spinneret (fig. 2, 5). They supply the silken threads which are employed by most larvæ in constructing their cocoons, and which also serve in cases of danger as a rapid means of retreat. Many larvæ, which live on shrubs and trees, suddenly lower themselves to the ground by means of one of these silken threads, and thus often escape being devoured by insectivorous animals.

The entire growth of the insect is accomplished during the larval condition, the increase in size being frequently very rapid. Owing to this circumstance larvæ are often compelled to shed their skin, and in many species a very considerable alteration both in the shape and colour takes place at each moult, or ecdysis as it is sometimes termed.

THE PUPA.

The pupa of a Lepidopterous insect is completely encased in a chitinous envelope. With the exception of a slight twirling of the abdominal segments it is incapable of any motion. In the pupa of Micropteryx the mandibles and labial palpi are said to be functionally active, but this is a very exceptional though extremely interesting case. In conjunction with other evidence it would appear to indicate that the Lepidoptera originated from insects with active pupæ. The number of free or movable segments of pupæ varies considerably in different groups and genera, and by some modern authors it is regarded as a character of much importance in the framing of their classifications. The various organs of the perfect insect are distinctly marked out on the otherwise uniform integument of the pupa. In some groups, notably the Micropterygina, these organs are much more distinctly indicated than in others.

II.—ANATOMY.

THE PERFECT INSECT OR IMAGO.

In common with all other members of the class, the body of a Lepidopterous insect consists of three main divisions: (1) the head, (2) the thorax, and (3) the abdomen.

THE HEAD.

The front of the head is termed the face, the top the crown, the sides are nearly entirely occupied by the compound eyes (Plate [I]., fig. 11, AA), and the lower surface by the organs of the mouth.

The Eyes consist of a very large number of simple lenses arranged in the form of two hemispheres, one on each side of the head. The ocelli, or simple eyes, are situated on the crown, and are usually almost entirely covered by scales.

The Antennæ are two jointed appendages attached to the top of the head above the eyes. They vary very much in structure. The following are the terms used in describing the different forms of antennæ in the Lepidoptera:—

1. Pectinated, when the joints have long processes like the teeth of a comb. If these are on one side only, the antennæ are unipectinated; if on both sides, bipectinated. (Plate [I]., fig. 20, bipectinated antenna of Nyctemera annulata.)

2. Dentate, when the joints are armed with slight pointed spines.

3. Serrate, when the joints have sharp projections like the teeth of a saw. (Fig. 18, antenna of Melanchra composita.)

4. Filiform, when the whole antenna is simple or thread-like. (Fig. 19, antenna of Epirranthis alectoraria.)

The clothing of the antennæ also varies, and is distinguished as under:—

1. Ciliated, when clothed with one or two series of short, fine hairs.

2. Fasciculate-ciliated, when the hairs are collected into tufts. (Fig. 17, antenna of Chloroclystis plinthina.)

3. Pubescent, when the antennæ are clothed with uniform short hairs. (Fig. 19.)

The functions of the antennæ are still a matter of dispute amongst entomologists. The majority of the older naturalists regarded them as organs of hearing. The antennæ are almost always more fully developed in the male than in the female. From this circumstance many modern entomologists consider that one of their functions is to enable the former to find the latter.

The organs of the mouth are thus distinguished:—

1. The Labrum, or upper lip (Plate [I]., fig. 11, l), a minute rudimentary plate situated in front immediately above the proboscis.

2. The Mandibles, or upper jaws (m.m), two minute sickle-shaped organs situated just below the labrum, also rudimentary.

3. The Proboscis, or Haustellum[^[1]] (c), a tubular extensible organ formed of the two maxillæ, or lower jaws, which have become greatly elongated, semi-tubular, and closely pressed together at the edges, but separable at the will of the insect—a structure which enables the organ to be easily cleansed when necessary, and is extremely interesting as indicating so clearly the true development of the proboscis from the maxillæ.

The Maxillary palpi (p.p) are two jointed organs attached to the base of the proboscis and very frequently rudimentary, but fully developed amongst certain of the Micro-Lepidoptera.

The Labium, or lower lip, is situated below the proboscis and carries the Labial palpi (figs. 5 and 6), two large jointed organs which are very conspicuous in nearly all the species and often quite conceal the maxillary palpi. They are usually regarded as organs of touch, but their true function does not seem to be properly understood. In the Lepidoptera they appear to protect the proboscis, which, when out of use, is always coiled up in a spiral between them. The labrum and mandibles can only be seen by removing the large labial palpi.

THE THORAX

carries the organs of locomotion, which consist of two pairs of wings attached to its sides, and three pairs of legs attached beneath, a pair belonging to each of the three segments of which the thorax is composed. On the front of the thorax there are two flap-like organs covered with scales, termed the patagia.

The Wings vary greatly in shape, but usually they are triangular. The portion of the wing which joins on to the thorax is termed the base. The front margin is called the costa, the outer margin the termen, and the lower margin the dorsum, these being described as situated when the wing is extended in flight. The angle between the costa and termen is called the apex, and the angle between the termen and the dorsum the tornus (see Plate [I]., fig. 1). The termen and dorsum are edged with a fringe of hair-like scales, termed the cilia. At the base of the hind-wings is generally situated a stiff bristle, or several stiff hairs, called the frenulum, the ends of which pass through a chitinous process on the under side of the fore-wing near the dorsum. This process is termed the retinaculum, and serves, in conjunction with the frenulum, to lock the wings together during flight. In the female both these organs are often very imperfectly developed, the frenulum consisting of several bristly hairs, and the retinaculum of a group of stiff scales. In many of the Lepidoptera both frenulum and retinaculum are entirely wanting.

"In the Micropterygina, a membranous or spine-like process called the jugum rises from the dorsum of the fore-wing near the base and passes under the hind-wing, which is thus held between the process and the overlapping portion of the fore-wing."—(Meyrick.)

The veins of the wings are thus described by Mr. Meyrick:—

"The wings are traversed by a system of Veins—tubular structures which serve at once as extensions of the tracheal system, and to form a stiff framework for the support of the wing. In the normal type of Lepidoptera the fore-wings possess three free veins towards the dorsum, termed 1a, 1b, and 1c; a central cell, out of which rise ten veins, numbered 2 to 11, the sides of the cell being known as the upper median, lower median, and transverse veins respectively; and a free subcostal vein, numbered 12; whilst the hind-wings differ from the fore-wings in having only six veins rising from the central cell, numbered 2 to 7, so that the free subcostal vein is numbered 8 (see Plate [I]., figs. 3 and 4, assumed type of neuration of a Lepidopterous insect). In some forms a forked parting-vein traverses the middle of the cell longitudinally, and a second parting-vein traverses the upper portion, so as to form a secondary cell; but these are more frequently absent or represented only by folds in the membrane. In a few forms there is a tendency to the production of several false veins, termed pseudoneuria, appearing as short branches from the subcostal vein of the hind-wings to the costa; these are thickenings of the membrane, and are commonly very irregular and variable, often uneven in thickness or incomplete. Sometimes one of these near the base is better developed and more permanent in character; it is then termed the præcostal spur (see Plate [I]., figs. 8⁹ and 27⁹). Modifications in the general arrangement of the veins may arise through any of the following processes, viz.: (1) obsolescence, when a vein loses its normal tubular structure, becoming attenuated and reduced in substance, until it appears a mere fold of the membrane (Plate [II]., fig. 60, vein 5 in hind-wings of Selidosema); (2) stalking, when the two veins are fused together for a portion of their length from their base, so as to appear to rise on a common stalk (Plate [II]., fig. 34, veins 6 and 7 in hind-wing of Hydriomena); (3) coincidence, when two veins are fused together for the whole of their length, so that one appears entirely absent, an extreme form of stalking; (4) anastomosis, when two veins rise separate, meet, and are fused together for a certain distance, and then separate again (Plate [II]., fig. 23, veins 7 and 8 in the hind-wings of the ♀ of Tatosoma); (5) concurrence, when a vein rises separate, runs into another, and does not separate again, an extreme form of anastomosis; (6) connection, when two veins are connected by a short transverse bar passing from one to the other, a special form of anastomosis, evolved from the ordinary form under the influence of a tendency to lateral extension (Plate [II]., fig. 28, veins 7 and 8 in hind-wing of Paradetis). Vein 1b in both wings is often furcate at the base.

"The type of veins in the Micropterygina differs from that described above in two essential particulars, viz.: (1) there may be three additional veins in the fore-wings, rising out of vein 11 or 12; and (2) the veins of the hind-wings are practically identical in number and structure with those of the fore-wings, being thus much more numerous than in the ordinary type. There is also often a system of cross-bars between the veins near the base of the wing (Plate [I]., figs. 22 and 23, neuration of Hepialus).

"The structure of the veins can be best observed on the under surface of the wing, where they are more prominent. The student should begin by completely denuding of scales a few wings of common species: the wing should be cut off and laid on a moistened piece of glass, to which it will adhere; the scales should then be removed, first from one surface and then from the other, with a fine, moist camel's-hair brush—an operation requiring a little patience and delicacy of touch; the veins will thus be rendered conspicuous.[^[2]] When, however, the student has familiarised himself with the general subject, it will not be found necessary in practice to resort to this process; most details will be easily observed without denudation[^[3]]; where this is not the case (as where the veins are closely crowded or otherwise obscured), the scales can be removed with the brush on the under surface in the locality of the difficulty only, without cutting off the wing or otherwise damaging the specimen, which remains in the collection available for all purposes as before; with proper practice, even the smallest species are amenable to this treatment, which does not require more skill than the actual setting of the specimen. Some workers prefer to put a drop of benzine on the spot, which renders it temporarily transparent; the effect is short-lived, as the benzine evaporates rapidly, and the cilia (if long) are liable to be damaged by this method."

The Legs consist of the following joints (see Plate [I]., fig. 21): (1) coxa, (2) trochanter, (3) femur, (4) tibia, (5) tarsus, (6) claw. The tarsus normally consists of five joints, but is more or less aborted when the leg is not employed for walking. The spines (SS) on the tibiæ of the several legs vary considerably in size and number. They are often useful to the systematist for purposes of classification.

THE ABDOMEN

consists of nine segments, some of which are often fused together. It contains the various internal organs, of which the most important are those of Digestion and Reproduction. The Digestive System (Plate [I]., fig. 10) consists of the following organs: A, the œsophagus, or throat; C, the sucking stomach; D, the ventriculus or stomach; E, the small intestine; G, the cæcum; H, the colon; K, the biliary vessels; N, the salivary vessels. The function of the sucking stomach is to exhaust the air in the throat and proboscis, and thus to cause the ascent of the fluids into the stomach when the insect is feeding.

III.—ORIGIN OF SPECIES.

The theory of the origin of species as propounded by Darwin may be thus very briefly summarised:—

Variation.—No two organisms are exactly alike; there is always some variation from the parent form, in some cases very slight, in others considerable. (For examples of variation see Plate [VII]., figs. 1 to 9, varieties of Hydriomena deltoidata; Plate [VIII]., figs. 42 to 47, varieties of Epirranthis alectoraria; Plate [IX]., figs. 6 to 14, varieties of Selidosema productata; Plate [X]., figs. 13 to 23, varieties of Azelina gallaria; Plate [X]., figs. 39 to 47, varieties of Declana floccosa.)

Inheritance.—Many of these variations are inherited—a fact demonstrated by our domestic plants and animals, where man has selected and bred from varieties suitable for his purposes, and has thus produced races in which the variation is permanent. Many of the races of domestic animals differ as much from one another as do some distinct species of wild animals.

Struggle for Existence.—All animals and plants produce far more offspring than can possibly survive, thus giving rise to the struggle for existence. For example: The average number of eggs laid by a Lepidopterous insect is certainly over 100, and in many species this number is greatly exceeded. Assuming each female to lay 100 eggs, the progeny from a single pair would amount, after six generations, to over six million individuals.

Natural Selection, or the Survival of the Fittest.—In the struggle for existence which necessarily results from such a great increase of individuals, those variations which favoured the possessors would be preserved, whilst those which did not, would be gradually exterminated. This principle of the preservation of the favourable varieties in the struggle for life is called Natural Selection, or the Survival of the Fittest.

Divergence of Character.—As there are so many different places and conditions in the economy of nature which can be occupied by organic beings differently constituted, individuals which diverged most from the original type would be brought into less severe competition, than those which diverged only in a slight degree. For instance, if we represent the original form as A, occupying one place in the economy of nature; a second form as B, occupying a somewhat similar place; a third form as C, occupying a very different place to A although somewhat similar place to B, it is obvious that B would enter into severe competition with both A and C, whilst A and C might not trend to any great extent on one another's place in the natural economy; hence B would be exterminated before either A or C. In other words, natural selection continually tends to increase the slight differences, which we call varieties, into the greater differences, which we call species.

The following phenomena, which have long been observed by students of the Lepidoptera, will serve as excellent examples of the operation of natural selection:—

Protective Resemblance.—This term is applied to those classes of form or colour which enable an animal to so closely resemble its surroundings as to escape the notice of its enemies. Numerous examples of protective resemblance exist in the New Zealand moths and butterflies; in fact, it may safely be asserted that nearly all the colouring we observe in these insects has been acquired for protective purposes. The following species, amongst many others which will be described hereafter, exhibit in a very marked degree the phenomenon of protective resemblance: Epirranthis alectoraria, Selidosema dejectaria, and Drepanodes muriferata resemble dead leaves; Chloroclystis bilineolata, Tatosoma agrionata, and Erana graminosa resemble, when at rest, patches of moss; Selidosema productata and S. lupinata resemble the bark of trees; Chloroclystis lichenodes, Declana floccosa, and Elvia glaucata resemble variously coloured lichens. It is almost unnecessary to point out that all those variations, which tended to conceal the possessors from their enemies, would be preserved in the struggle for existence, and that these numerous and perfect instances of protective resemblance would inevitably result from the operation of natural selection. The dark colouration of Alpine and Arctic Lepidoptera, which enables them to rapidly absorb heat during the short and fitful gleams of sunshine experienced on mountains or in high latitudes, is also an instance of adaptation to conditions through the influence of natural selection. This was first pointed out by Lord Walsingham in 1885. The almost complete absence of white species in these localities is a good example of the extinction of forms unfitted to their surroundings.

Contrast Colours.—In this class of colouring the fore-wings only are protectively coloured, the hind-wings being very conspicuous. Contrast colouring is well exemplified by several of the insects included in the genus Notoreas. The sudden exhibition of the hind-wings during flight dazzles the eye of the pursuer. When the insect immediately afterwards closes its wings and the fore-wings alone are visible, it is extremely difficult to see. This form of protective colouring was also first drawn attention to by Lord Walsingham. (See page 75.)

Warning Colours.—Insects, which are unfit for food or nauseous, are not protectively coloured, but on the contrary are rendered as conspicuous as possible. This class of colouring is well illustrated by one of our commonest moths, Nyctemera annulata (Pl. IV., figs. 1 and 2). The principle of warning colours was first discovered by Mr. A. R. Wallace, and is graphically described in Professor Poulton's entertaining work, 'The Colours of Animals.' The possession of nauseous qualities would be of little value to an insect, unless it could be at once recognised by insectivorous animals and avoided as food. If a nauseous insect were not easily identified it would speedily be destroyed by what Professor Poulton ingeniously terms "experimental tasting"; hence, through the process of natural selection, all nauseous species have become very conspicuously coloured. It may be remarked that warning colours are extremely rare amongst the New Zealand species, and I am not aware of any other example than that already given.

Mimicry.—This term is applied to those remarkable cases where a harmless or edible species imitates in form and colouring a highly armed or nauseous species. No instances of this extremely interesting class of protection are yet known amongst the New Zealand Lepidoptera, but a very perfect example of mimicry exists between two common introduced species of Hymenoptera and Diptera, the well-known honey-bee and the drone-fly. The superficial resemblance between these two insects is very close. The bee, as every one knows, is armed with a powerful sting, whilst the drone-fly is unarmed. In this case it can be seen that if a harmless insect varied in the direction of resembling a formidable or objectionable species it would be a decided advantage to it, and such varieties would tend to be continually preserved and improved, through the operation of natural selection. The subject of mimicry has been alluded to here as it is not impossible that some instances of it may yet be discovered in connection with our native Lepidoptera.

Ornamental Colouring.—This class of colouring occurs in many species, especially amongst the butterflies, and is not apparently connected in any way with protection. Darwin supposes that it has arisen through the females of each species always selecting the most beautiful males as mates, hence these alone would leave progeny, and the females themselves would afterwards become beautiful through the effects of inheritance. This principle Darwin has termed Sexual Selection, and has discussed it in great detail in his work on the 'Descent of Man.' The fact, that amongst birds and butterflies the males are nearly always the most brilliantly coloured and the most beautiful, together with an immense mass of other evidence, tends, I think, to entirely support Darwin's theory, although it should be mentioned that several eminent naturalists, including Mr. Wallace, do not admit the principle of Sexual Selection.

IV.—CLASSIFICATION.

From a further consideration of the foregoing principles it will be seen that all existing species are held to be descended by true generation from pre-existing species, and that, consequently, all the relationships we observe between species are explained by community of origin. The most natural system of classification is, therefore, that which best reveals the scheme of descent, or, as it is termed, the phylogeny, of the group of organisms classified. To construct a perfect system of classification on these principles a knowledge of not only all the existing species of Lepidoptera would be essential, but also of all the extinct species, and it is needless to say that such knowledge is quite unattainable. Nevertheless large numbers of species are now known from many parts of the world, and a very extensive collection has recently been employed by Mr. Meyrick in framing a classification of the Lepidoptera, which is, to the best of my belief, the first constructed on strictly Darwinian principles. Although adopting Mr. Meyrick's system in the present work I do not agree unreservedly with all his conclusions; but I have not attempted to alter his system in accordance with my own views, as I conceive that the conclusions of a naturalist, who has only had the opportunity of studying a restricted fauna, would necessarily be liable to considerable error.

The general principles on which Mr. Meyrick has founded his system are practically those laid down by Darwin in his 'Origin of Species,' and may be thus summarised:—

A. Resemblances between all organisms are explained by community of origin, the amount of difference representing the amount of modification and expressible in the classification as varieties, species, genera, families, groups, orders, &c. The amount of difference does not necessarily bear any direct relation to time, many forms remaining almost stationary whilst others are undergoing development.

B. By a consideration of the following laws the age of a division can be approximately arrived at; that is to say, its position in the great genealogical tree of the Lepidoptera can be, to some extent, determined:—

"(1) No new organ can be produced except as a modification of some previously existing structure.

"(2) A lost organ cannot be regained.

"(3) A rudimentary organ is rarely redeveloped."—(Meyrick.)

C. The greatest care is necessary to avoid being misled by adaptive characters, i.e., characters which are very important to the welfare of the species, and hence much modified through the agency of natural selection. A familiar instance of superficial resemblance, due to the presence of similar adaptive characters, may be observed in fishes and whales, where two groups of animals with but little real relationship have, through living under similar conditions, become extremely like each other in external appearance. Other examples might be given amongst exotic Lepidoptera. Thus, many noxious species are closely mimicked by harmless forms which are often far removed from them in real affinity. These cases of adaptive resemblances abound amongst all organisms, and have often deceived experienced naturalists. It is in consequence of the illusive nature of these external resemblances amongst different members of the Lepidoptera, that the structure of the neuration of the wings is now considered of such great importance as a character for purposes of classification. The numerous modifications in the position of the veins and their presence or absence in certain groups can, so far as we are able to see, have had very little effect on the well-being of those insects possessing such modifications. Hence it may fairly be assumed, that these structures have been free from the influence of natural selection for a very lengthened period. It is thus contended that the neuration of a Lepidopterous insect probably reveals more plainly than any other character its true relationship with other species.

The descent of all the Lepidoptera from some ancient member of the Trichoptera (or caddis-flies) is thus proved, according to Mr. Meyrick:—

"From a consideration of the laws enunciated above, there can be no doubt that the Micropterygina are the ancestral group of the Lepidoptera, from which all others have descended; this is sufficiently proved by the existence of the four or more additional veins in the hind-wings of that group, for these veins, if not originally present, could not have been afterwards produced. Of the two families of that group, the Micropterygidæ, which possess an additional vein (or veins) in the fore-wings, and fully developed six-jointed maxillary palpi, must be more primitive than the Hepialidæ. Now if the neuration of the whole of the Lepidoptera is compared with that of all other insects, it will be found that in no instance is there any close resemblance, except in the case of the Micropterygidæ; but the neuration of these so closely approaches that of certain Trichoptera (caddis-flies) as to be practically identical. The conclusion is clear, that the Lepidoptera are descended from the Trichoptera, and that the Micropterygidæ are the true connecting link. If the other marked structural characters of the Micropterygidæ are taken into consideration, viz., the possession of the jugum, the large development of the maxillary palpi as compared with the labial, and the sometimes functionally active mandibles, they will be all found commonly in the Trichoptera, affording additional confirmation. It may be added that in one New Zealand species of Micropterygidæ (Palæomicra chalcophanes) vein 1b is basally trifurcate, a character frequent in the Trichoptera, but not yet discovered in any other Lepidopteron. In most Trichoptera the veins of the hindwings are much more numerous than those of the fore-wings, in the Micropterygina they are usually equal in number, in other Lepidoptera they are less numerous; in the course of descent there has therefore been a greater progressive diminution in the number of veins of the hind-wings as compared with those of the fore-wings, though these also have diminished.

"It is unnecessary to trace back the descent of the Lepidoptera further; but it may be worth while to point out that we may assume as the primitive type of Trichopterous neuration, a system of numerous longitudinal veins gradually diverging from the base, mostly furcate terminally, and connected by a series of irregularly placed cross-bars near base, and another series beyond middle."

The following is Mr. Meyrick's method of arrangement, which has been adopted in this book:—

"The natural order of arrangement, which is that of a much-branched tree, cannot be adequately expressed by a simple linear succession, such as is alone practicable in a book. It is, however, possible to devise a linear succession which shall be consistent with the natural genealogical order, if some additional explanation can be given. The method here adopted is as follows:—

"Suppose the accompanying diagram represents a portion of the genealogical tree; then the order will begin at M and descend to K, recommence at L and descend to K, and thence to G, recommence at H and descend to G, and thence to B, recommence at F and descend to D, recommence at E and descend to D and thence to B, recommence at C and descend to B and thence to A, and so on. Thus the order begins with the most recently developed forms and descends gradually to the earliest or most ancestral, which are the last in the book. To understand the order in practice, it may be assumed that each genus is descended from that which immediately follows it in the book, unless its actual descent is expressly stated otherwise; such statement will, of course, require to be made before every recommencement of a fresh branch. This system has been adhered to throughout, and after a little use will not be found unintelligible. If adopted in the arrangement of a collection in the cabinet, it would be a good plan to indicate the recommencement of a fresh branch by a special mark, such as a red bar drawn above the first (or highest) species."

Phylogeny of Lepidoptera. (After Meyrick.)

V.—GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION.

The details of geographical distribution are given under the headings of the respective species, so far as I have been able to ascertain them; but our knowledge in this direction is necessarily limited, and I have found much difficulty in obtaining reliable information, on account of the obstacles which exist in regard to the correct identification of species in other countries.

The distribution of the species within New Zealand is also very imperfectly known at present, owing to the paucity of collectors and observers, particularly in the extreme north of New Zealand, and on the west coast of the South Island. In the latter locality no doubt many interesting species remain to be discovered, especially amongst the mountain ranges.

In employing the book for identifications, the reader is recommended to first refer to the Plates and see if he can find anything at all resembling the species he has, and then to refer to the description for verification. In dealing with variable forms, it is always well to remember that the shape of markings is generally far more constant than their intensity, or even their colour.

The purely descriptive portions of the work have been made as brief as possible, and characters, of special importance for the identification of species, are printed in italics. Those who desire to consult more detailed descriptions may readily do so by referring to Mr. Meyrick's papers, in the Transactions of the New Zealand Institute and elsewhere. References to such papers are invariably given under the synonomy of each species which has been described by Mr. Meyrick.

It should be mentioned that the figures and descriptions in this work have been prepared from nature, quite separately, and no attempt has been made to reconcile the figure with the description. This course has been followed so that any character, which may have been accidentally omitted from the figure, will not necessarily be wanting in the description.

The figures of neuration (Plates [I]. and [II].) have all been made from fully denuded specimens examined under the microscope. They are in nearly every instance considerably enlarged. Each drawing has afterwards been compared with Mr. Meyrick's description, and if found to differ, a second examination of the wings has been made with a view to a reconciliation of results. Any important differences observed between Mr. Meyrick's descriptions and my final results are in every case specially mentioned.

NEW ZEALAND

MACRO-LEPIDOPTERA.

I.—THE CARADRININA.

The Caradrinina may be distinguished by the following characters:—

"The maxillary palpi are obsolete, the fore-wings have vein 1b simple or hardly furcate, 1c absent, and 5 approximated to 4 towards base. The hind-wings are furnished with a frenulum, vein 1c is absent, and 8 is connected or anastomosing with cell." (See Plate [II]., figs. 1 to 12 and 14 to 18.)

"Imago with the fore-wings more or less elongate-triangular, termen not very oblique; hind-wings broad-ovate.

"Larva sometimes very hairy, usually with 10 prolegs, those on segments 7 and 8 sometimes absent. (Plate [III]., figs. 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 15 and 16.) Pupa with segments 9 to 11 free; not protruded from cocoon in emergence."—(Meyrick.)

So far as New Zealand is concerned, the Caradrinina may be said to comprise that group of the Lepidoptera formerly known as the Noctuina, with the addition of the family Arctiadæ. Its members are chiefly nocturnal fliers; the body is usually stout, the forewings are narrow, and (except in the Arctiadæ) mostly dull-coloured, with three very characteristic spots. 1. The orbicular stigma, a round spot situated near the middle of the wing; 2. The claviform stigma usually somewhat club-shaped and situated immediately below the orbicular; and 3. The reniform stigma, a kidney-shaped marking situated beyond the orbicular. The claviform is very frequently absent, and the orbicular less frequently so, but the reniform is an almost constant character throughout the entire group, with the exception of the Arctiadæ.

There are three families of the Caradrinina represented in New Zealand, viz.:—

1. [Arctiadæ]. 2. [Caradrinidæ]. 3. [Plusiadæ].

Family 1.—ARCTIADÆ.

The Arctiadæ may be characterised as follows:—

"Eyes smooth. Tongue developed. Posterior tibiæ with all spurs present. Hind-wings with veins 6 and 7 connate or stalked (rarely approximated or coincident), 8 anastomosing with cell nearly or quite from base to middle or beyond."—(Meyrick.) (See Plate [II]., figs. 1, 2, and 4, 5.)

This interesting family, although generally distributed throughout the world, is very poorly represented in New Zealand. Unlike most of the Caradrinina, many of the included species are day fliers and gaily coloured. One of these, Nyctemera annulata, is probably one of the most familiar of New Zealand insects, whilst the four remaining representatives of the family are but seldom seen. To British entomologists the name of "tiger moths" will probably at once recall several conspicuous and beautiful members of this family.

Three genera of the Arctiadæ are represented in New Zealand, viz.:—

1. [Nyctemera]. 2. [Utetheisa]. 3. [Metacrias].

Genus 1.—NYCTEMERA, Hb.

"Tongue well developed. Antennæ in ♂ bipectinated throughout. Palpi moderately long, porrected or rather ascending, with appressed scales; terminal joint moderate, cylindrical. Forewings with vein 6 out of 9 or separate, 7 and 8 out of 9, 10 connected with 9 by a bar. Hind-wings with veins 6 and 7 stalked or separate, 8 anastomosing shortly with margin of cell near base." (Plate [II]., fig. 3 head, 4 neuration of fore-wing, 5 ditto of hind-wing.)

"The single New Zealand species is endemic, but nearly allied to an Australian form."—(Meyrick.)

NYCTEMERA ANNULATA, Boisd.

(Leptosoma annulata, Boisd., Voy. Astr. v. 197, pl. v. 9; Dbld., Dieff, N. Z. ii. 284. Nyctemera doubledayi, Walk., Bomb. 392. Nyctemera annulata, Meyr., Proc. Linn. Soc., N.S.W., 1886, 700; ditto, Trans. N. Z. Inst. xxii. 218.)

(Plate [IV]., fig. 1 ♂, 2 ♀; Plate [III]., fig. 9, larva.)

This species is perhaps one of the best known of the New Zealand Lepidoptera, occurring in great profusion in all parts of both North and South Islands. It is also common at Stewart Island, in the neighbourhood of cultivation.

The expansion of the wings is about 1¾ inches. All the wings are deep sooty black. The forewings have an irregular cream-coloured band running from beyond the middle of the costa towards the tornus. This band is interrupted in the middle, and crossed by several black veins, which sometimes almost break it up into a chain of spots. The hind-wings have a single large cream-coloured spot near the middle. The body is black, with several orange markings on the thorax, and a series of broad orange rings on the abdomen.

This species varies a good deal in the extent of the cream-coloured markings.

The larva feeds on the New Zealand groundsel (Senecio bellidioides), but in cultivated districts it is more often observed on Senecio scandens, a plant having a superficial resemblance to ivy, which frequently grows in great profusion on fences and hedgerows in various parts of the country.

Mr. W. W. Smith informs us[^[4]] that it also feeds on the common groundsel (S. vulgaris) as well as on Cineraria maritima. I have often seen these caterpillars on mild days in the middle of winter, and full-grown specimens are very common towards the end of August, so that I think there is little doubt that the species passes the winter in the larval condition. At other seasons there is a continuous succession of broods.

The length of the caterpillar when full grown is 1½ inches. It is covered with numerous tufts of long black hair, and is black in colour, with the dorsal and lateral lines dark-red. There are several large blue spots round the middle of each of the segments, and the membrane between each segment is bluish-grey. In younger larvæ the bluish-grey colouring extends over a considerable portion of the insect.

This caterpillar may be readily found, as it feeds on the upper surface of the leaves fully exposed to view. Its hairy armour evidently renders it unpalatable to birds, and hence the secret habits we observe in most larvæ are absent in this species.

When full-fed it selects a secluded spot, generally a crevice in the trunk of a tree, where it spins an oval cocoon of silk intermixed with its own hairs. Here it changes into a shining black pupa, speckled and striped with yellow. The insect remains in this state about six weeks.

The moth first appears in September, and continues abundant until about the end of March. It is extremely common, especially during the latter end of summer, when specimens may often be seen flying in all directions. Mr. Meyrick observes[^[5]] that this species has the curious habit of soaring in the early morning sunshine, soon after sunrise, in calm, fine weather. He states that he has seen them in numbers, flying round the tops of trees, at a height of over 100 feet. I can fully corroborate the accuracy of this interesting observation, and have noticed the insect to be most active between the hours of five and eight on fine mornings in midsummer. The habit is certainly a very unusual one, as most insects are rarely seen at that time of the day.

This moth is confined to New Zealand, but two closely allied species, belonging to the same genus, are found in Australia.

Genus 2.—UTETHEISA, Hb.

"Head smooth. Ocelli large. Antennæ in ♂ ciliated, with longer setæ at joints. Palpi moderate, ascending, with loosely appressed scales. Thorax smooth beneath. Abdomen smooth-scaled. Tibiæ smooth-scaled, spurs very short. Fore-wings with veins 7 and 8 out of 9, 10 connected with 9. Hind-legs with veins 3, 4, 5 rather approximated, 6 or 7 connate or short-stalked, 8 from middle of cell."

"A small genus inhabiting the warmer regions of the world. Larva with rather scanty hairs, some finely branched."—(Meyrick.)

Represented in New Zealand by a single species of wide distribution.

UTETHEISA PULCHELLA, L.

(Deiopeia pulchella, Meyr., Trans. N. Z. Inst. xxii. 217.)

(Plate [IV]., fig. 3.)

This species was first observed in New Zealand in February, 1887, when I captured a single specimen in the Wainui-o-mata valley. Since that time Mr. A. Norris has seen two others near Petone, one of which is now in his collection. All the specimens at present noticed have consequently occurred in a very restricted portion of the Wellington District, though it is probable that the insect is far more generally distributed throughout the country than these records would seem to indicate.

The expansion of the wings is about 1¼ inches. The fore-wings are white, with five irregular transverse rows of oblong crimson spots, alternating with six irregular rows of small black dots. The hind-wings are white, irregularly clouded with black on the termen; there are two small black spots near the middle. The body is white; the head and thorax are spotted with crimson, and the antennæ are black.

The larva is thus described by Newman:—[^[6]]

"The ground colour is leaden with a covering of black hairs; there is a broad white stripe down the back, and on each segment down the side is a double scarlet spot. On the continent of Europe this caterpillar is said to feed on the forget-me-not (Myosotis arvensis)."

In New Zealand the moth appears in February. Mr. Meyrick remarks[^[7]]:—"It is probably only an occasional immigrant. Although a feeble-looking insect, it possesses extraordinary capabilities of flight, and is sometimes met with far out at sea. It occurs throughout Europe, Asia, Africa, Australia, and the Pacific Islands." It is well known to English entomologists as a great rarity, and many discussions have taken place at various times as to the propriety of retaining it on the list of British Lepidoptera.

Genus 3.—METACRIAS, Meyr.

"Tongue obsolete. Antennæ in ♂ moderately bipectinated throughout. Palpi rather short, hairy, concealed in rough hairs of head. Thorax and femora densely hairy beneath. Anterior tibiæ with developed spine beneath, and apical hook. Fore-wings with vein 2 from ⅔, 6 from point with or out of 9, 7 and 8 out of 9, 10 sometimes connected with 9 at a point above 7. Hind-wings with veins 3 and 4 almost from point, 6 and 7 from point or short-stalked, 8 from about ⅓. Wings in ♀ rudimentary. (Plate [II]., fig. 1 neuration of fore-wing, fig. 2 ditto of hind-wing.)

"An interesting and peculiar genus, apparently most allied to some Australian forms of Spilosoma, but quite distinct. Three species have been discovered, two of them quite recently, and it is not unreasonable to hope that additional forms may hereafter be found amongst the mountains, to which they seem especially attached."—(Meyrick).

METACRIAS STRATEGICA, Hdsn.

(Arctia strategica, Hdsn., Entom., 1889, 53. Metacrias strategica, Meyr., Trans. N. Z. Inst. xxii. 216.)

(Plate [IV]., fig. 4.)

This handsome species is at present only known by a single specimen, captured by Mr. W. W. Smith, near the summit of the Richardson Range, in South Canterbury, at an elevation of about 3,000 feet.

The expansion of the wings of the male is 1½ inches. The fore-wings are black, with two broad, dull yellow, longitudinal streaks; between the costa and the first streak is a very fine yellowish line, and between the two streaks there are three similar lines. The hind-wings are bright yellow, with a broad black band, parallel to the termen, interrupted just before the tornus; the vicinity of this black band is tinged with crimson. The body is black; the top of the head, collar, and sides of the thorax and abdomen are dull yellow. The female is probably apterous.

This species may be readily distinguished from the two following by the yellow collar, absence of any large spot in the centre of both fore-wings and hind-wings, and the red colouring of the termen of the hind-wings. The moth was taken in February, frequenting a species of Carmichælia. It may be looked for in the mountainous regions of South Canterbury, but at present nothing further is known of its habits.

METACRIAS ERICHRYSA, Meyr.

(Metacrias erichrysa, Meyr., Proc. Linn. Soc. N. S. W., 1886, 749; ditto, Trans. N. Z. Inst. xxii. 216.)

(Plate [IV]., fig. 5.)

This species was discovered by Mr. Meyrick on Mount Arthur in the Nelson District in 1886. Since that time I have taken eleven specimens in the same locality, and have seen several others, but as yet I have not heard of its occurrence elsewhere.

The expansion of the wings is 1½ inches. The fore-wings are black, with orange-yellow markings. These consist of a fine line near the costa, becoming very broad near the base, several elongate markings between the veins near the middle, a series of spots near the termen, and a broad streak parallel to the dorsum. The hind-wings are orange-yellow, with a curved black spot in the middle, and a broad black band on the termen, ending considerably before the tornus, and nearly broken a little before its termination. The female, according to Mr. Meyrick,[^[8]] is "wholly whitish-ochreous; wings minute, aborted; legs short, stout, well developed."

The life-history is thus described by Mr. Meyrick[^[9]]: "The larva is wholly black, clothed with long black hairs, those covering segmental incisions brownish-ochreous. It feeds on Senecio bellidioides. The pupa is enclosed in a slight cocoon."

The perfect insect occurs in January, frequenting sunny, grassy slopes on the mountain-sides, at about 4,000 feet above the sea-level. It flies with great rapidity; hence it is generally very difficult to catch.

METACRIAS HUTTONII, Butl.

(Phaos huttonii, Butl., Cist. Ent. 487; Metacrias huttonii, Meyr., Proc. Linn. Soc. N. S. W., 1886, 750; Trans. N. Z. Inst. xxii. 216.)

(Plate [IV]., fig. 6.)

This interesting species was discovered at Lake Wakatipu, by Professor Hutton.

The expansion of the wings of the male is 1⅛ inches. The fore-wings are black; there is an oblique crimson line near the base, two broad longitudinal cream-coloured lines above and below the middle, and a double transverse series of oblong cream-coloured spots near the termen. The hind-wings are pale ochreous, with a black crescent-shaped spot near the middle, and a broad black band almost touching the termen except a little before the tornus. The female is apterous.

Described and figured from a specimen in Mr. Fereday's collection.

Family 2.—CARADRINIDÆ.

The Caradrinidæ are distinguished by the following characters:—

"Ocelli usually present. Tongue usually well developed. Labial palpi moderate, more or less ascending, second joint densely scaled, usually rough, terminal rather short, obtuse. Thorax usually densely hairy beneath. Posterior tibiæ with all spurs present. Fore-wings with veins 7 and 8 out of 9, 10 connected with 9. Hind-wings with veins 3 and 4 connate or short-stalked, 5 obsolete or imperfect, parallel to 4, 6 and 7 connate or short-stalked or seldom closely approximated only, 8 shortly anastomosing with cell near base, thence evenly diverging." (Plate [II]., figs. 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11.)

"A dominant family in temperate regions, especially in the northern hemisphere, the species being very numerous and often occurring in great plenty; within the tropics, however, their place is largely taken by the Plusiadæ. The structure is in most particulars remarkably uniform, the neuration and palpi being practically identical throughout the family. The markings are usually very similar, and the colouring dull and adapted to conceal insects which are accustomed to hide amongst dead leaves or refuse; hence this family is not one of the easiest or most attractive to study. The species are the most truly nocturnal of all the Lepidoptera; few are readily obtainable by day, but at night they are found in abundance at flowers or sugar. Imago with fore-wings usually elongate, body relatively stout, and densely scaled. It may be noted as an established conclusion that antennal pectinations, if not extending to the apex of the antennæ, are in this family seldom sufficient to mark generic distinction.

"Ovum spherical, more or less distinctly ribbed, and reticulated. Larva usually with few hairs, often nocturnal, sometimes subterranean; often very polyphagous. Pupa usually subterranean."—(Meyrick.)

The family is represented in New Zealand by the following twelve genera:—

Sub-family 1.—POLIADES.

"Eyes naked, ciliated (i.e., furnished with a marginal row of long cilia curving over them)."—(Meyrick.)

Genus 1.—MISELIA, Steph.

"Antennæ in male filiform, moderately ciliated. Thorax with anterior angles projecting, somewhat crested. Abdomen not crested."—(Meyrick.)

We have at present but one New Zealand species.

MISELIA PESSOTA, Meyr.

(Miselia pessota, Meyr., Trans. N. Z. Inst. xix. 29.)

(Plate [V]., fig. 26.)

This little species has occurred at Wellington in the North Island, and at Lake Coleridge and Rakaia in the South Island.

The expansion of the wings is 1 inch. The fore-wings are dull purplish-brown; there is an oblong black mark at the base of the dorsum containing a slender curved white line; the orbicular is rather small, round, margined first with dull white and then with black; the reniform is large, oblong, dull white, margined with pale ochreous towards the base of the wing; there is a conspicuous oblong black mark between the orbicular and reniform stigmata. The hind-wings are dull grey, with the cilia paler.

The perfect insect appears in January. One specimen was taken at sugar in the Wellington Botanical Gardens, and two specimens are recorded from Canterbury. It is evidently a scarce species.

Genus 2.—ORTHOSIA, Ochs.

"Head rough-scaled; eyes naked, ciliated. Antennæ in male ciliated. Thorax with or without anterior crest. Abdomen not crested.

"A considerable genus of nearly universal distribution, though mainly found in temperate regions of both hemispheres. The imagos are almost all autumnal, and their yellow and ferruginous colouring is doubtless adapted to the autumn tints of falling leaves."—(Meyrick.)

Represented in New Zealand by three species.

ORTHOSIA MARGARITA, Hawth.

(Orthosia margarita, Hawth., Trans. N. Z. Inst. xxix. 283.)

(Plate [V]., fig. 31.)

This species was discovered at Wellington by Mr. E. F. Hawthorne.

The expansion of the wings is about 1⅓ inches. The fore-wings are dark brownish-black and rather glossy; there are several obscure dark marks near the base; the orbicular is oval, oblique, brownish-yellow, slightly darker in the middle; the claviform is almost obsolete; the reniform is rather large, bordered with dull white towards the base and termen; beyond the reniform there is a very distinct wavy transverse line; another line is situated near the termen emitting several black wedge-shaped markings from its inner edge. The hind-wings are shining white and iridescent, with the veins black and the costa and termen narrowly shaded with black.

Described and figured from specimens in Mr. Hawthorne's collection.

ORTHOSIA COMMA, Walk.

(Mamestra comma, Walk., Noct. 239; Butl., Voy. Ereb., pl. ix., 6. Graphiphora implexa, Walk., Noct. 405. Hadena plusiata, ib., Suppl. 742; Nitocris bicomma, Gn., Ent. Mon. Mag. v., 4. Orthosia comma, Meyr., Trans. N. Z. Inst. xix. 30.)

(Plate [V]., fig. 27 ♂, 28 ♀; Plate [III]., fig. 11, larva.)

This is apparently a common and generally distributed species. It has occurred plentifully at Wellington, Blenheim, Christchurch, and Rakaia.

The expansion of the wings is about 1½ inches. The fore-wings are dark grey crossed by four wavy, black-margined, transverse lines; beyond the outermost of these lines there is a black band running parallel with the termen, and beyond this again a broader band of the ground colour; the orbicular spot is very minute and dull white; the reniform, which is surrounded by a black shading, is large, yellow towards the costa, and white towards the termen. The hind-wings are dark grey. The females are generally much darker than the males, some specimens having the fore-wings very dark brownish-black.

Both sexes vary a good deal in the depth of colouring, but the markings appear to be quite constant.

The larva is dark brown, tinged with pink; the subdorsal region is paler, there are a series of diagonal blackish stripes on each segment, and the anterior portions of the larva are much darker than the rest of the body.

The specimens I reared were fed on lettuce, but I expect that the caterpillar feeds on low plants generally. It is full grown about January. The pupa state is spent in the earth.

The moth appears in January, February, and March. It is very common at the flowers of the white rata, and may also be attracted by sugar and by light.

ORTHOSIA IMMUNIS, Walk.

(Tæniocampa immunis, Walk., Noct. 430. Cerastis innocua, ib. 1710 (locality probably erroneous). Agrotis acetina, Feld., Reis. Nov. pl. cix. 6. Orthosia immunis, Meyr., Trans. N. Z. Inst. xix. 30.)

(Plate [V]., fig. 29.)

This species has occurred at Wellington in the North Island, and at Blenheim in the South Island.

The expansion of the wings is 1⅜ inches. The fore-wings vary from bright orange-brown to dull reddish-brown; there is an obscure black dot near the base, a faint transverse line at about one-fourth; the orbicular is oval, faintly outlined in brown; the claviform is very faint, its position indicated by a small brown dot; the reniform is large, oblong, much indented towards the termen, doubly outlined with dull yellow and containing a blackish spot towards its lower edge, its posterior margin is shaded with dark brown; there are several faint, wavy, transverse lines near the termen, and the termen itself is shaded with brownish-black; the cilia are reddish-brown. The hind-wings are dull grey; the cilia are pale reddish-ochreous tipped with white. The head is covered with scattered white scales, the thorax is reddish-brown, and the abdomen is grey tipped with reddish-brown; the upper joints of the tarsi of the anterior legs are white.

The perfect insect appears in January, February, and March. It frequents the blossoms of the white rata, where it occasionally may be taken in the daytime, but more frequently at night. It is not, however, a common species.

Genus 3.—XANTHIA, Tr.

"Antennæ in male filiform, moderately ciliated. Thorax with sharp compressed anterior and small posterior crest. Abdomen not crested."—(Meyrick.)

Only one New Zealand species is known at present.

XANTHIA PURPUREA, Butl.

(Graphiphora purpurea, Butl., Cist. Ent. ii. Xanthia ceramodes, Meyr., Trans. N. Z. Inst. xix. 31. X. purpurea, ib. xx. 46.)

(Plate [V]., fig. 32.)

This handsome species has been found at Wellington in the North Island, and at Dunedin in the South Island.

The expansion of the wings is 1½ inches. The fore-wings are rich, glossy reddish-brown with several scattered whitish scales; there is a distinct yellow mark on the costa at about one-fourth, forming the beginning of a broken transverse line; the orbicular is small, round, and yellowish; the reniform is small, crescentic and yellowish, the space between the orbicular and the reniform is very dark blackish-brown; beyond the reniform there is a conspicuous white mark on the costa forming the beginning of a second broken transverse line; a third shaded line is situated near the termen. The hind-wings are pale brown with a dark spot in the middle, very conspicuous on the under surface.

The perfect insect appears from September till April. It is usually taken at sugar or light, but is not a very common species.

Sub-family 2.—MELANCHRIDES.

Eyes hairy.

Genus 4.—PHYSETICA, Meyr.

"Palpi with terminal joint in male greatly swollen, as broad as second, rather short, rounded, with an orifice in outer side, in female normal. Antennæ in male filiform, simple. Thorax and abdomen smooth."—(Meyrick.) (Plate [II]., fig. 8.)

PHYSETICA CÆRULEA, Gn.

(Agrotis cærulea, Gn., Ent. Mo. Mag. v. 38. Physetica cærulea, Meyr., Trans. N. Z. Inst. xix. 5.)

(Plate [IV]., fig. 7.)

This fine species has occurred at Wellington in the North Island, and at Blenheim and Rakaia in the South Island.

The expansion of the wings is 1⅝ inches. The fore-wings are slaty-blue; there is an obscure, wavy, whitish transverse line near the base, two very wavy blackish lines at about one-third, a dark transverse shaded line across the middle, containing the orbicular spot, then a very wavy line followed by a darker space and a wavy, dull, whitish terminal line. Hind-wings dark grey, paler near the base, cilia shining white.

The perfect insect appears in October, December, and January. Mr. Fereday states that it was formerly very common at blossoms.

Genus 5.—LEUCANIA, Ochs.

"Head rough-scaled; eyes hairy. Antennæ in male ciliated. Thorax with or without slight anterior crest. Abdomen not crested.

"A very large cosmopolitan genus, equally common everywhere; it is a development of Melanchra, to which some of the New Zealand species give such a complete transition that a line of demarcation can hardly be drawn. The larvæ all feed on Gramineæ."—(Meyrick.)

We have seventeen species.

LEUCANIA GRISEIPENNIS, Feld.

(Mamestra griseipennis, Feld., pl. cix. 22. Chera virescens, Butl., Cist. Ent. ii. 489. Spælotis inconstans, ib. 545; Leucania moderata, Meyr., Trans. N. Z. Inst. xix. 7 (nec Walk.). Leucania griseipennis, Meyr., Trans. N. Z. Inst. xx. 44.)

(Plate [IV]., fig. 8.)

This species has occurred at Wellington in the North Island. In the South Island it has been taken at Mount Arthur, Lake Coleridge, Rakaia, Akaroa, and Lake Guyon.

The expansion of the wings is 1½ inches. The fore-wings are dull greenish-grey; there are two obscure blackish transverse lines near the base and several dull white dots; a very conspicuous transverse curved black shade near the middle, followed by an extremely jagged dull white transverse line, another less jagged transverse line near the termen; the orbicular is oval, pale, edged with black; the reniform and claviform are also pale but inconspicuous; the cilia are tinged with brown. The hind-wings are grey with the cilia wholly white.

The following variety, taken on Mount Arthur, is thus described by Mr. Meyrick:—

"Var. A. Thorax and fore-wings without ochreous tinge, with numerous white scales tending to form suffused spots and margins to lines; cilia distinctly barred with darker; hind-wings grey, with dark grey, irregular terminal band."[^[10]]

The perfect insect appears from November till March, and is said to be very common in certain localities. It has been taken at considerable elevations in the Nelson province (4,700 feet above the sea-level on Mount Arthur, by Mr. Meyrick and myself). In Wellington it is certainly a scarce species.

LEUCANIA MODERATA, Walk.

(Agrotis moderata, Walk., Suppl. 705. Eumichtis sistens, Gn., Ent. Mo. Mag. v. 39. Mamestra sistens, Meyr., Trans. N. Z. Inst. xix. 19. Leucania moderata, ib. xx. 45.)

This species has occurred at Rakaia in the South Island. It very closely resembles the preceding species, from which it is said to be distinguished by the cilia of the hind-wings, which are "partially grey in Leucania moderata, wholly white in L. griseipennis."—(Meyrick.)

The perfect insect appears in February. I am unacquainted with this species.

LEUCANIA TEMPERATA, Walk.

(Bryophila temperata, Walk., 1648 (nec Meyrick). Xylina inceptura, ib. 1736. X. deceptura, ib. 1737. Leucania temperata, Meyr., Trans. N. Z. Inst. xx. 45.)

"Terminal joint of palpi moderate; form of wing as in Leucania griseipennis, first and second lines whitish, inconspicuous, margined with black dots, second line evenly curved, subterminal perceptible; cilia grey, indistinctly barred with white. Hind-wings grey."—(Meyrick.)

Described by Mr. Meyrick from the British Museum specimens.

I am unacquainted with this species.

LEUCANIA NULLIFERA, Walk.

(Agrotis nullifera, Walk., Noct. 742; Butl., Voy. Ereb., pl. ix. 5. Alysia specifica, Gn., Ent. Mo. Mag. v. 3. Leucania nullifera, Meyr., Trans. N. Z. Inst. xix. 7.)

(Plate [IV]., fig. 9; head, Plate [II]., fig. 11.)

This large though sombre-looking insect has occurred in the North Island at Taupo and Wellington. In the South Island it has been taken commonly at Mount Arthur, Christchurch, and Rakaia.

The expansion of the wings is from 2½ to 2¾ inches. The fore-wings are uniform dull grey, with a double row of very faint white spots parallel to the termen; the hind-wings, head, thorax, and abdomen are pale grey.

In some specimens the fore-wings are quite destitute of markings, whilst in others the ground colouring varies considerably, and is occasionally dull brown instead of grey.

The larva is very stout, bright yellowish-brown, considerably paler on the under surface; the dorsal line is faintly indicated, the subdorsal and lateral lines are dull brown, with a chain of elongate white spots beneath each; the spiracles and dorsal surface of the posterior segments are black; there are also numerous white dots all over the larva.

This caterpillar feeds on spear-grass (Aciphylla squarrosa), and only a single individual inhabits each clump. It devours the soft, central portions of the tussock, and its presence can generally be detected by a quantity of pale brown "frass," or discoloration, which is generally visible near the bases of the leaves. Owing to the formidable array of spines presented by the spear-grass, this larva can have but few enemies. The presence of these spines makes the insect a difficult one to obtain without special apparatus. A sharp pair of strong scissors, however, will enable the collector to cut off a sufficient number of the "spears" to allow of the insertion of a small trowel or hatchet under the root. The plant can then be lifted out of the ground, and the larva afterwards carefully extracted from its burrow in the stem. These larvæ are full grown about the end of May, which is consequently the best time to obtain them for rearing. The pupa is enclosed in an earthen cell amongst the roots of the spear-grass. The moth appears in November, December, January, February, and March. It is sometimes attracted by light. I have found it commonly on the Tableland of Mount Arthur at elevations of from 3,500 to 4,000 feet above the sea-level, where its food-plant also flourishes.

LEUCANIA PURDII, Frdy.

(Leucania purdii, Frdy., Trans. N. Z. Inst. xv. 195; Meyr., ib. xix. 8.)

(Plate [IV]., fig. 11.)

This fine species was discovered at Dunedin by Mr. Purdie. A single specimen has also been taken at Wellington.

The expansion of the wings is from 2¼ to 2½ inches. The fore-wings are brownish-crimson; there are two broad, shaded, yellow, longitudinal streaks above and below the middle; the costa is margined with yellow near the base, and the dorsum is yellow throughout its entire length; the cilia are deep orange. The hind-wings are dark grey, and the cilia yellow.

The perfect insect appears in December.

Described and figured from specimens in the collections of Messrs. Fereday and Hawthorne.

LEUCANIA ATRISTRIGA, Walk.

(Xylina atristriga, Walk., Suppl. 756. Mamestra antipoda, Feld., Reis. Nov., pl. cix. 23. Leucania atristriga, Meyr., Trans. N. Z. Inst. xix. 8.)

(Plate [IV]., fig. 12.)

This smart-looking species is very common in the North Island in the neighbourhood of Wellington. In the South Island it has occurred abundantly at Nelson, Christchurch, Lake Coleridge, and Dunedin.

The expansion of the wings is about 1½ inches. The fore-wings are rich reddish-brown; there is a broad bluish-grey longitudinal streak on the costa, reaching nearly to the apex, and a very broad, pale brown, longitudinal shading on the dorsum; there is a conspicuous longitudinal black stripe in the middle of the wing from the base to one-third, the orbicular, reniform, and claviform spots are bluish-grey, edged with black, the transverse lines are very indistinct; the cilia are reddish-brown. The hind-wings are dark grey with the cilia ochreous.

This species varies slightly in the intensity of its markings and in the extent of the pale dorsal area.

The moth first appears about January and continues in great abundance until the middle or end of April, being one of the last of our Leucanias to disappear in the autumn. It is extremely partial to the flowers of the white rata (Metrosideros scandens), where, on warm, still evenings, it may be often met with in the utmost profusion. It also comes freely to sugar, and is frequently attracted by light.

LEUCANIA PROPRIA, Walk.

(Leucania propria, Walk., Noct. iii.; Gn., Ent. Mo. Mag. v. 2; Butl., Voy. Ereb., pl. ix. 4; Meyr., Trans. N. Z. Inst. xix. 9.)

(Plate [IV]., fig. 13.)

This insect has occurred in the South Island at Mount Arthur, Blenheim, and Mount Hutt.

The expansion of the wings is 1½ inches. The fore-wings are pale ochreous; there is a conspicuous longitudinal black streak in the middle of the wing, extending from the base to about one-third, and a broad, dark brown longitudinal shading, slightly above the middle, from one-fourth to the termen; the reniform is rather small, dull grey, faintly edged with darker, the orbicular and claviform are very indistinct or absent; there is a transverse series of black dots on the veins a little before the termen, and another series on the termen; the cilia are ochreous banded with brown. The hind-wings are pale grey, with a terminal series of small black marks; the cilia are ochreous. The head and thorax are pale reddish-brown, and the abdomen is ochreous.

This species varies slightly in the depth of its colouring.

The perfect insect is met with from January till March. On the Mount Arthur Tableland it occurred very commonly at about 3,800 feet above the sea-level. In this locality it was freely attracted by light, and large numbers of specimens were captured by the aid of a single candle, exhibited at the tent door during mild evenings.

LEUCANIA ACONTISTIS, Meyr.

(Leucania acontistis, Meyr., Trans. N. Z. Inst. xix. 9.)

(Plate [IV]., fig. 14.)

A single specimen of this species was captured at Castle Hill by Mr. J. D. Enys, and is now in Mr. Fereday's collection.

The expansion of the wings is 1⅜ inches. The fore-wings are dull ochreous; the veins are slightly darker; there is a fine, black, doubly-curved, longitudinal streak from the base to about one-third. The hind-wings are pale yellowish-grey. The cilia of all the wings are dull ochreous.

Described and figured from the specimen in Mr. Fereday's collection.

LEUCANIA PHAULA, Meyr.

(Leucania phaula, Meyr., Trans. N. Z. Inst. xix. 10.)

(Plate [IV]., fig. 15.)