Transcriber’s Note: The original publication has been replicated faithfully except as listed [here].
The text conforms to changes in window size.

1. Blind-stamped leather binding of the Winchester Domesday Book. English, 12th Century.

THE DECORATION
OF LEATHER

FROM THE FRENCH OF
GEORGES DE RÉCY
BY
MAUDE NATHAN

WITH ILLUSTRATIONS AND EXAMPLES OF
LEATHER DECORATION FROM VARIOUS
SOURCES

BUTLER & TANNER,
THE SELWOOD PRINTING WORKS,
FROME, AND LONDON.

TRANSLATOR’S NOTE

In a preface which is omitted from this translation, the author claims for his work a place between the books dealing solely with the history and development of the art of working in leather and those of which the object is to impart a knowledge of the technique of its various processes to amateurs who may be unable or unwilling to undertake a regular course of instruction. He points out that leather, in its adaptability to many different kinds of treatment, is a material eminently suited to the interpretation of the style of decoration known as “modern art.”

In the French edition there are numerous reproductions of examples of leather decoration and of ornament intended for adaptation to leather-work. In the following translation these illustrations and also a short chapter referring to them are omitted, and some examples of leather-work derived from various English sources are substituted. The text of the work has been generally somewhat abridged. The fact that there are many technical and other terms in French that have no exact equivalent in our own language, has rendered a free translation desirable, but the meaning of the original text has been carefully preserved.

CONTENTS

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

ILLUSTRATIONS IN THE TEXT

FULL-PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS

INTRODUCTION

THE DECORATION OF LEATHER IN THE PAST

The following remarks, without attempting a description in detail of the different phases through which the art of decorating leather has passed since its origin in primitive times, deal with the treatment of leather solely from the decorative point of view, the present volume being limited to the consideration of this aspect of the subject.

In all ages man has sought to develop to their fullest extent the possibilities of splendour in the materials of his dress, and an important place in the wardrobes of our early ancestors was filled by skins shorn of hair, thus lending themselves easily to decoration in many different ways.

The nomadic races, described to us as at first riding their horses barebacked to the conquest of the West, soon adopted ornamental trappings more suited to their position as conquerors, as shown by the marvellous mosaics of piqué leather which from an early date constituted the foundation of the war-like equipment of the Tartars and Moguls.

In addition to magnificently woven materials and damascened arms, the Crusaders brought back with them to Europe, leather ornamented with wool, silk and precious metals. Europe set itself to imitate this art of working in leather, and found a source of faultless taste and purest models in Spain, then occupied by the Moors.

For several centuries the art of decorating leather

remained the speciality of Spain. The word “cordwainer,” derived from Cordova, is a witness of this monopoly by the Peninsula of everything connected with leather-work, apart from the modelled and stamped leathers, introduced into Venice from the East.

Other countries, however, were doing better work than that of imitating the celebrated manufactures of Cordova. In Germany especially, leather was discovered to be an ideal material for rendering the mantles and plumed helmets of heraldry, while the marvels of carved and embossed leather preserved in the Dijon Museum are a proof of the interest taken in leather-work by the great decorative school of the court of Burgundy.

In the Middle Ages precious stuffs adorned with enamels, ivory and gold were discarded as covering for the beautiful manuscripts executed by the monks, and in their place heraldic subjects in carved and modelled leather were introduced and lent a new character to books which were no longer the exclusive property of crowned heads. The invention of printing afforded the Renaissance movement the means of attaining its full development, and soon called for a less archaic binding for its incunabula. Leather either decorated in mosaic or tooled in gold formed a perfect covering for these marvels of typography, and from the end of the fifteenth century to the present revival of decorated leather both styles have been much in use.

There are various standard works on this subject, which may be consulted by those desirous of studying its development further.

CHAPTER I

TOOLS AND LEATHER

TOOLS

The few tools essential in leather-work are illustrated in the text, where their use is described. They comprise:

1. A Lithographic Stone or a Slab of Marble (preferably the former).

2. A Tracing-point and some 6H Graphite Pencils.

3. An Incising Knife.

4. Modellers of different sizes.

5. An Opener.

Special tools, Punches, Wheels etc., are treated of at greater length in dealing with the different processes in which they are used.

CHOICE OF SKINS

The art of working in leather is now so general that it is not difficult to obtain skins specially prepared for the purpose. It is an essential qualification that nothing of a fatty nature be used in their preparation. The tanning process of the best skins, whether with a glossy surface artificially obtained by rolling or with a dull surface, should be a very simple one. Oak and sumach tannins (used especially for morocco leather) are those which best preserve the suppleness and capillarity of leather. The susceptibility of its colour to alteration from exposure

to light is greatly influenced by the materials used in tanning. Oak wood and chestnut are the tannins least influenced by light. Skins tanned with cassaigre and mimosa, light at first, become darkened in a marked degree by exposure.[1]

[1] See the observations on the importance of the tanning process in the preservation of leather, in the Note at the end of this volume.

So many varieties of leather are on the market that some guide will be found useful in selecting the most suitable for the different methods of decoration. These methods may be classified as follows:

Cut, or engraved leather. Carved leather. Punched or hammered leather. Modelled leather. Modelled leather with punched background. Leather decorated by pyrogravure and pointogravure. Stamped leather. Open-work leather. Leather mosaic.

The leathers which may be used in these various styles of decoration are

Sheep-skin. Cow-hide. Calf. Ox-hide. Morocco. Russia. Pig-skin. Chamois. Vellum.

Sheepskin does not lend itself either to incising or to carving and is only useful for cheap work; it is very malleable and models easily, but for that reason lacks the firmness of calf when modelled. It is also not possible to get such good colour results with sheep-skin as with

calf, cow-hide, or ox-hide. It can be used for large work, such as wall-hangings, screens, etc., but is not recommended. Beginners, however, will find it useful on account of its low price.

Cow and calf are the most suitable leathers for really artistic work. Cow-hide may be obtained with either a glossy or a dull surface; the dull skins are sold specially prepared for decorating and give good results, the smoothness of their surface making them particularly suitable for modelling and pyrogravure.

Calf varies greatly in thickness and colour. It should be noted that in carved and modelled work the advantages of great malleability in the material are more than counterbalanced by the disadvantages; durable results cannot be obtained with very malleable leather which yields easily to the tool, and since high relief can be worked without difficulty in comparatively thick leather by damping it, its use is much to be preferred.

Ox-hide is frequently as thick as strong cardboard and is the ideal leather for carving, hammering and pyrogravure. In cut decoration a better effect can be obtained with this leather than with thinner skins, and being very firm, it is equally suitable for modelling.

Morocco leather, which is mostly of the kind called “Cape morocco,” is goat-skin with a grained surface produced by pressing hard seeds upon the skin while it is still damp from the tanning. For bookbinding and similar purposes this grain is crushed by pressing hot plates heavily on the surface. The only way of decorating leather so treated is by an inlay (or literally onlay) of skins of other colours, and is known as Leather Mosaic.[2]

[2] See the chapter on Leather Mosaic, p. [42].

The so-called Russia leather is generally very light and soft and well adapted to modelling on wax. It should not be cut.

Pig-skin is very firm and was formerly much used for

the fine stamped bindings of the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries. It does not lend itself well to carving, but is very suitable for pyrogravure because of the contrast between its light tint and the dark brown mark produced by the hot tool.

Chamois leather, which is not always prepared from the skins of deer or chamois, is only suitable for flat ornament. It may be decorated by pyrogravure or with stencilled ornament, or used in its natural colour as background to an open-work pattern of leather of another colour.

Vellum, a very thin and stiff white skin, can be decorated with brush or pen-work. It is principally used for bookbinding. Those who wish to paint on vellum can draw their inspiration from the marvellous miniatures of the Middle Ages: a description of this style of decoration, however, does not come within the scope of the present work.

CHAPTER II

METHODS OF WORKING IN LEATHER

TRACING THE DESIGN ON THE LEATHER

In this chapter the different processes which may be used in the decoration of leather will each be described in turn.

The preliminary operation of tracing the design on the leather is however common to them all.

The design should in the first instance be drawn on fairly thick tracing-paper or architect’s linen. This should then be fixed on the leather in such a way that it does not move during the transfer of the design, but so that it is possible to lift it to ascertain the progress of the work. It will be found convenient to fold the edge of the tracing-paper over the top edge of the leather and fix it with seccotine.

The leather must be wet in order to take the impression of the tracing. A soft, slightly damp sponge is passed several times evenly over the whole surface; if only a part of the leather were wetted an aureole would form round that part and would leave a permanent mark. When the leather has once been wetted all over there is no further fear of this, and it may then be damped again in parts when necessary. Practice alone will make it possible to judge accurately the degree of saturation that each skin requires to bring it into a fit condition for working on; speaking generally, the water should have penetrated the leather so that the pressure of the tool will not bring it back to the

surface. Neglect of this rule might result in staining the leather.

FIG. 1.—TRACING-POINT

The design is transferred to the leather by means of a metal tracing-point (Fig. 1). An agate or ebony point, or an exceedingly hard 6H graphite pencil, may also be used for the purpose. The pencil possesses the additional advantage that it can be given a very fine point where an extra thin and sharp outline is required. Doubling the outline by going over it twice should be avoided. From time to time the tracing-paper or linen should be raised to see that the design is being well marked on the leather. The outline should be dark; when it comes light it is a proof that the leather is too dry and requires damping again.

INCISING THE LEATHER

This being the first operation in working thick leather by carving, engraving and modelling, it will be dealt with before passing to the different processes peculiar to these methods of decoration. The incising is done after the design has been traced. There are numerous incising knives for the purpose which vary in shape and are manipulated in different ways; no one of them can be specially recommended as notably superior to the rest, and the artist should choose the one with which he feels most likely to succeed. The knife illustrated in Fig. 2 is used with a downward movement and is held—as shown in Fig. 3—very short, so as to obtain a sufficient purchase over the blade which is guided by the middle finger. The knife illustrated in Fig. 4 is used upwards. Fig. 5 shows the manner in which it should be held to produce a vertical cut. It will be found of great assistance in making a good firm cut to guide the right hand

with the left hand as in Fig. 5. When curved lines are to be cut, the left hand must be used to turn the leather so as to present it in the most favourable position for the operation of the blade. The third knife (Fig. 6) is held like a graver with the handle supported against the palm of the hand and is pushed forward (Fig. 7). It is useful in cutting curved lines over a large surface. The depth of the incision should vary according to the effect

to be produced by the subsequent operation, but it should never exceed a third of the thickness of the skin.

2. Casket covered with stamped leather, cuir bouilli. German, 14th Century.

FIG. 2, FIG. 3.—INCISING KNIFE USED DOWNWARDS LIKE A PENCIL

Thin skins should rarely be cut, and, if they are cut, the incision should barely penetrate the surface. On ox-hide the depth of the cut may be considerable without danger of impairing the strength of the leather.

FIG. 4, FIG. 5.—INCISING KNIFE USED UPWARDS

When the leather is to be modelled in high relief, the design should be well separated from the background in the cutting process. The incision should also be deep when the outline is to be accentuated afterwards with a

tool called an “opener” (Fig. 9) to produce an effect like the leading in stained glass.

Should it be desired to raise and turn up the edge of the leather to simulate a leaf, petal, or piece of ribbon detached from the background, the knife must be held slanting, as in Fig. 8, so as to make an almost horizontal cut.

FIG. 6, FIG. 7.—INCISING KNIFE HELD LIKE A GRAVER AND PUSHED FORWARD

However thick the leather may be, it is important that two lines should never be cut quite up to the point of intersection. For example, in cutting the outline of a leaf, the points of the indentations should be left uncut to avoid the tendency of the part within the angle to project and turn back. Sufficient impression can be

obtained with the modelling tool to give a finished effect to these points.

FIG. 8.—EXECUTING A SLANTING CUT WHEN THE EDGE OF THE LEATHER IS TO BE SUBSEQUENTLY TURNED UP

The incision must be clean and sharp, and absolutely vertical, except where it is made slanting for the purpose described above.

3. Coffret covered with leather, incised, coloured and gilt. French, 14th Century.

CUT OR ENGRAVED LEATHER

FIG. 9.—OPENER
FIG. 10.—ENLARGING THE OUTLINE WITH THE OPENER

Leather with flat decoration in outline of even thickness is called cut, or engraved leather. The tool used to enlarge and accentuate the outline is called an opener. It is like a straight modeller broadened in the centre and with a blunt point (Fig. 9), or a small blade with the point

cut off square and the angles rounded. When the leather has been well wetted and the water has thoroughly soaked in, the end of the opener is inserted in the incision and pushed along it with a very slight and gentle gliding movement. The broader part of the opener will act as a wedge and widen the cut evenly. Openers can be had in various sizes to produce lines of different width. When the design is to be modelled afterwards, an opener should be used which broadens on the right side only; held slightly slanting, it will press down the outside edge of the incision which is to be sunk into the ground. Fig. 10 shows the manner of holding the tool; it should be worked backwards and forwards to make sure that the edges are evenly parted. The left hand may help to guide the point to prevent it from slipping off the line.

FIG. 11.—SLANTING CUT

FIG. 11a.—SHOWING THE DIFFICULTY OF RAISING THE INNER EDGE (A)

To be able to accomplish satisfactorily this operation of opening the outline, it will be found that the incision must be absolutely vertical. Supposing it to have been made slanting as in Fig. 11, it will be easy to sink the outer edge (B) into the ground, but when it comes to raising the inner edge (A) an excess of material will be encountered which will offer stubborn resistance to being raised in a direction contrary to that of the incision (Fig. 11a). The opener should not be moved at too great an angle in the incision as the point, though blunt, may yet be sharp enough to cut and spoil the modelling by raising the surface of the leather.

After it has been outlined, the leather may be further

decorated by variously tinting the parts within the lines, if the style of the design will admit of such treatment; an effect similar to leather mosaic is thus produced. (See Chapter III.)

Pyrogravure, or engraving with a hot tool (see p. [36]), gives a very similar effect to that of cut or engraved leather, the only difference in the appearance of the work thus decorated being due to the slight burr of the edges and the darkening of the line caused by the hot tool. This effect of dark colour can, however, be added to cut leather by colouring the lines with a dye applied with a fine brush. In order to prevent the colour penetrating and spreading beyond the lines, the latter should be lightly coated with paste before the dye is applied.

CARVED LEATHER

Great expertness is required in carving leather, that is to say, in producing lines so deep that the design stands out sufficiently from the background to allow of its being ornamented by independent lines less deeply worked.

Some leather cases from the Dijon Museum, which were exhibited at the Petit Palais in Paris in the year 1900, are good examples of carving, and the manner in which they are finished with touches of gold is very characteristic. The style and method of production of these examples may well be imitated. Decoration on ogee-shaped lines is to be avoided, as, however artistically treated, it is apt to bring to mind the stamped leather of the so-called “Cathedral Style,” specimens of which filled the libraries of the romantic period of about 1830.

Besides the tools enumerated above, some artists use the gravers and gouges employed in chasing metal and wood-carving, but a great deal of practice is necessary for their proper handling, and they cannot be recommended to the inexperienced worker.

Pyrogravure is an alternative method of producing strongly accentuated lines, and by the judicious use of punches an infinite variety of interesting background effects can be obtained.

Before leaving the subject of carved leather, mention must be made of cuir bouilli, which was used in conjunction with it during the Middle Ages, chiefly for sheaths and cases, and is now unfortunately a lost art.[3] Mons. de Saint André de Lignereux, in Le Cuir d’Art français, tells us that the leather was boiled with gums and resins obtained from the East, and moulded and cut while still soft from this treatment.[4]

[3] An example of modern English work in leather treated in a somewhat similar manner is given in Plate 15.

[4] Le Cuir d’Art français, par Saint André de Lignereux, Etampes, 1900.

PUNCHES

Punches are steel or brass tools, having at the point a design cut in relief or in intàglio, which are impressed on the leather either by the hand alone or with a hammer The design is thus reproduced on the leather with the impression contrary to that on the tool. For hand pressure only, they should be fixed in wooden handles to afford greater grip and power. They may be used hot; the design will then appear darkened on the leather.

Punches are also employed in tooling with gold leaf, or in burnishing the impression of their surface on groundwork gilded with shell gold.

HAMMERED LEATHER

Leather decorated entirely by means of punches is called hammered leather. It is used in the style of decoration described later under the name of modelled leather with punched background, and can also be employed with great advantage in conjunction with carved leather.

4. Casket covered with embossed leather, cuir bouilli. French, early 15th Century.

MODELLED LEATHER

Leather may be modelled in two ways; with a cut

outline or with the traced outline merely accentuated with the tracing-point or opener. In the former case the leather must be fairly thick, in the latter it may be thin calf or Russia, which is very soft and delicate.

FIG. 12.—LOWERING THE OUTER EDGE WITH A MODELLER

Leather modelled after being cut should, when finished, have the appearance, with regard to the relief, of a metal or modelled wax plaque. The leather takes the desired

shape easily, and should therefore be delicately handled.

The great charm of modelled leather lies in the softness of its forms, and care must be taken to avoid irregularly cut outlines which disagreeably arrest the eye by failing to merge into the ground.

Faulty incisions, or those too deeply cut, are liable to leave a light line between the modelled subject and the background, due to the cut having exposed not only the surface, but the inner substance of the leather. This light line will also have a tendency to appear if the modelling is not done directly after the opening of the lines, or if they are too widely opened, or if the opener is too sharp and unduly deepens the cut. The fault can be remedied by staining the line to match the surface of the leather.

MODELLING TOOLS

The tools used for modelling are not numerous; two or three modellers, more or less fine and of different curves, (Fig. 12) are sufficient. A special tool, called Pied de Biche (hind’s foot) in allusion to its shape, is also useful in depressing the ground at right angles to the modelling. Modellers may be either of nickelled steel or of brass, provided that the convex side with which the leather is modelled be perfectly smooth. It is better not to use ordinary steel which, when the leather is wet, might cause it to become stained through the rusting of the tool occasioned by the materials used in tanning. It may also be mentioned here that when using acids for patine,[5] steel tools should be kept away from the work. Hydrochloric acid in particular will rust them so badly in a single night as to make them unusable unless they are repolished.

[5] See note to page [64].

EMBOSSING LEATHER

When the leather is thick it must be thoroughly wetted on both sides; it is then taken in the left hand, the portion

to be embossed being between the forefinger and thumb, which are laid flat on the surface of the leather, while the other three fingers form the under part of this species of clamp, and ensure the leather remaining steady (Fig. 14). Steel clamps are made for fixing the end of the leather to the table, but the system of holding it in the

hand is preferable, except for very large work, as it can be more readily moved about.

FIG. 13.—BALL-SHAPED STEEL TOOL WITH HANDLE
FIG. 14.—POSITION OF HANDS IN EMBOSSING LEATHER

A modeller or a tool consisting of a small steel ball with a handle (Fig. 13) is then worked backwards and forwards with more or less pressure on the back of the leather until the desired degree of relief is obtained. It is possible to work very high relief by this method.

Another way of embossing in high relief, which we believe to be here described for the first time, is as follows: The outline of the design must first be traced on the flesh side of the leather. This is done by placing blue transfer paper under the leather, with the blue side uppermost, while the design is being transferred to the surface of the leather with the tracing-point in the manner described on p. [20]. A chamois leather bag, about 16 × 12 inches in size, is filled with very fine, carefully sifted sand, and then sewn up as tightly as possible, so that the surface is quite taut. The bag is placed on the table, and the leather face downwards upon it. The steel ball is then rubbed to and fro, on the flesh side of the leather, at the point to be embossed, and the relief is produced as the sand yields under the pressure of the tool. The sand gives enough support to the leather, however, to prevent it stretching too much, as it would be liable to do if merely extended over a frame.

The next process is to open the incisions. This is not done till after the leather has been embossed in order not to further impair the strength of the leather at the outline, already diminished to some extent by cutting. The object of opening the incision is to facilitate the flattening of the outer edge so that it merges into the ground and the graduated modelling of the inner edge to form the softened outline of the ornament in relief.

5. Case of cut and embossed leather, cuir bouilli. Italian, 15th Century.

To obtain this soft effect, the modeller is gently passed from left to right over the angle formed by the inner edge of the incision and the surface of the modelling. The

tool may be lifted and the leather turned about to place it in the right position for this movement. The leather is frequently wetted (but not to such a degree, however, that the water oozes out of the surface when the modeller is used), and assumes the substance of wax. Should it show a tendency to rise after it has been depressed, it must be gone over again with the tool; if the leather is of good quality, it will keep the modelling permanently when it is once dry.

Care must be taken to avoid making a false impression; the least contact of the tool with the leather will leave a mark on the damp surface, which it is not always possible to efface from beneath.

Having dealt with cut and modelled leather, we now turn to modelling without cutting, the outline of the design being first simply marked out with the tracing-point, or with the opener held very slanting to avoid wrinkling the surface of the skin. This process should be adopted in preference to the preceding one, for comparatively thin skins which would not bear cutting. The relief may be obtained in the manner described above by working it up from the back of the leather, or the leather may be laid surface upwards on a cake of wax and the design brought out in low relief by depressing the background with the tool. Better results are obtained with the latter method. The wax is applied under the parts to be modelled, which must be accurately marked out for this purpose on the under side of the leather, and thin paper is pasted underneath it to keep it in place and prevent it sticking to the table; or a very smooth, thin tablet of wax is placed on stout cardboard under the entire piece of leather; when in position, the edges of the leather should be turned over and firmly fixed underneath the cardboard in such a manner as to prevent the wax forcing itself out under the pressure of the tool. The wax must be prepared with spirit to expel the grease or contact with it would stain the leather.

After thoroughly wetting the leather, the outline

should be well accentuated with the opener and the design brought out by lowering the ground all round it with a fine modeller. The modelling is then done by working the tool with varying pressure and is held in place by the wax.

FIG. 15.—TOOL FOR WORKING REED DECORATION

Beginners are advised to start by copying a plaster cast, in order to get a full understanding of the values of relief.

The subject of wax supports brings us to that of padding the relief to preserve its form, which may be done in many different materials. The padding may be made of a special wax treated like cement, or of absorbent cotton-wool soaked in a paste made of flour and water, or of cuttings of glove skins shredded very fine[6] and mixed dry with talc, flour, dextrine, etc., forming a liquid paste when water is added which can easily be run into the hollows of the relief. This paste solidifies rapidly, and is not affected by damp. Cardboard or cork scraped very fine and mixed with paste or flour and water will also form a durable padding. A special padding made with a round cotton cord dipped in flour mixed with cold water is employed for flower stems and the so-called reed decoration—a decoration consisting of a round line in relief of uniform width, which lends itself to many combinations, and is worked with the tool illustrated in Fig. 15. It may also be used in modelling the relief by pasting it first on the back of the leather and, when dry, moulding the leather with a modeller over the projection on the surface caused by its thickness.

[6] Dollage de gants.

MODELLED LEATHER WITH PUNCHED BACKGROUND

When the leather has been cut before

being modelled, the punch completes the work of the modeller in sinking the outer edge of the incision into the background. To do this perfectly, the edge of the punch must be placed very exactly against the outline of the raised design; the handle should be held slanting slightly to the left in working; extra pressure will thus fall towards the right on that part which, in spite of having been sunk by the modeller, will always show a tendency to rise if the punch be used too flat upon the surface.

A hammer, though useful in working certain punches which depend upon being deeply impressed to produce a good effect, requires great sureness of hand when used as described above, to prevent overstepping the limits of the outline, and punches in wooden handles are much to be preferred for this work. Too deep an impression is avoided by their use, and, by guiding the end of the punch with the left hand, it can be placed more surely in the right position and worked by the steady pressure of the wrist. (Fig. 16.)

The most useful punches are those producing a powdered or a very small check pattern. With these there is no need for the impressions to be arranged in any regular order; it is indeed better that they should slightly overlap so that no part of the ground is left out. The effect of some punches is dependent on their arrangement in combination; others can be arranged independently to form a semis—a pattern made up by the repetition of some given figure at intervals.

Wheels, either plain or having a more or less broad surface engraved with any kind of pattern (such as a check diaper, pearling or arabesques), are used for outlining or for continuous patterns, or for producing imitations of shagreened leather.

An excellent effect can be obtained by varnishing the parts depressed by the punch to make the colour adhere, and then painting them with gouache or bronzes. By

rubbing the leather afterwards with a woollen cloth, the colour or bronze is easily removed from the unvarnished modelling.

PYROGRAVURE

FIG. 16.—USING A HAND PUNCH

The tools employed in pyrogravure are based on the same principle as the instrument for thermo-cautery in surgery. The apparatus in most general use consists of a platinum point mounted in a hollow metal handle connected by a rubber tube with a pear-shaped rubber

blower. This blower serves to inject through a tube the carburetted air from a small benzine reservoir attached to it. The incandescence of the point is maintained by this constant injection, and the lines are burnt more or less deeply according to the degree of incandescence, and the pressure applied. The great difficulty is to keep the line of even thickness throughout. The points are to be had of different shapes according to the effect desired. Some are pierced at the end, so that the carburetted air escaping leaves a mark on the leather similar to that which would be produced by a hot iron grazing its surface. In this way a brown tint is obtained varying in darkness in proportion to the proximity of the point to the leather.

6. Blind-stamped Morocco binding with gilt roundels and coloured cameo design. Celsus. De Medicina. Venice, 1477. Italian, 15th Century.

There are also rather large blowers which are worked automatically by compressed air, while others have a pedal action like a sewing machine.

It would be difficult to explain the many ways of handling the point so as to obtain different effects; it should, however, always be held slightly inclined to the right. It is shaped like an eagle’s beak, so that by using the point alone, fine lines of more or less depth are obtained, and by inclining it more to the right the rounded part will burn a larger surface of the leather. Very deep hollows can be made with the point highly heated. Pyrogravure is also an efficient way of depressing the ground work of thick leather when the point is worked with repeated touches over the surface. With a light hand and an accurate knowledge of the degree of heat required to produce fine lines, a skilful artist is able to draw with the point as if it were a pen.

The left hand plays a very important part in the process by controlling the injection of carburetted air through the blower, and thereby regulating the heat of the point. When the incandescence is automatically produced, equal facility in varying the degree of heat according to the requirements of the work is not possible.

POINTOGRAVURE

The following description is borrowed from Mons. E. Aumaître, the inventor of another process for the decoration of leather to which he has given the name of pointogravure.

The implements required are two graving-points, one large and one small, a modeller and a spirit-lamp.

The design having been traced on the leather, the whole of it is wetted with a sponge as described on page [19]. The point is then heated in the spirit-lamp and passed lightly over the line. It should be held like a pencil and heated sufficiently to produce a light brown mark on the leather, and it should run smoothly without sticking. The fine lines are drawn lightly and the point pressed more heavily for the deeper ones. Deep hollows can be made by sloping the tool, and using its widest side. The point being very small, it requires frequent heating to keep it in a condition to produce satisfactory results. It is not hot enough unless it runs smoothly on the leather and darkens the impression. On the other hand, overheating is to be avoided to prevent burning the surface of the leather. This process skilfully carried out will produce shading, hatching, and lines of great delicacy, also much softer effects than pyrogravure. It lends itself equally well to the broad treatment of a design.

STAMPED LEATHER

It is beyond the scope of this work to describe the process of stamping leather with a steel die and a balance-press;[7] we will therefore explain a method in which the steel die is replaced by thick cardboard or leather cut out in open-work, and the balance-press by a small one worked by hand. The cardboard or leather stencil, laid on damp leather and placed in the press, will sink in, causing

those parts of the leather which are against the open parts of the stencil to stand out in relief.

[7] Balancier.

There is another method which has been found particularly satisfactory in working a deep design on the board of a book-binding. The design is drawn sharply in outline with a pen upon very white paper. By a photographic process a metal block is produced from the drawing, on which the outline appears in relief. This block, mounted on pasteboard or wood, will form a die with which the design can be hollowed out of the leather by pressure in a copying-press, and the result subsequently perfected by cutting or modelling.

Another interesting process consists in etching a design deeply upon a copper-plate; the lines are then filled in with printing ink, the surplus removed with the palm of the hand, and the plate wiped over with a soft rag, preferably of flannel. A piece of leather is then wetted and placed under the plate and the whole heavily pressed. Since a copying-press is not sufficiently heavy to produce the relief, a bookbinder’s press should be used and tightly screwed up. When the leather has taken the impression sufficiently, the whole is removed from the press, and the copper-plate carefully raised, avoiding tearing the leather if it should have stuck to the plate. The design will then stand out in relief, coloured black or red according to the ink used. The ink must be thick enough not to spread over the leather under pressure.

There is also a method of stamping leather by means of two plaster casts prepared with stearine, both bearing the same design, one in relief and the other hollowed. A thoroughly wetted piece of thin leather is placed between these two casts and well pressed, the amalgam enabling the plaster to bear the pressure. The leather should be allowed to dry between the casts, or, if preferred, the hollow one may be removed.

The same principle can be applied without the hollow

cast, by modelling the leather with the modelling tool, so that it takes the form of the cast in relief beneath it. In some cases the plaster is left permanently under the leather to form the padding.

FIG. 17.—CUTTING-OUT KNIFE

OPEN-WORK LEATHER

The leather should be neatly and sharply cut out for open-work decoration, and placed over a groundwork of leather, stuff or metal: the last material is well adapted by its contrast of colour to show up the ornament laid over it. Open-work leather is a good material for hangings, and when destined for this purpose the design is sewn on the groundwork of leather or stuff with a sewing-machine, or stuck with gutta-percha. In the latter case the back of the leather is made quite smooth, and a layer of gutta-percha is placed on it and made to stick by means of steam produced by heating a wet pad. Well pressed down with this pad the gutta-percha will stick to the leather, and also cause it to keep in place on the groundwork, to which it is made to adhere permanently by passing a hot iron over the surface. A sheet of white blotting-paper is laid over the leather to protect it. When the leather is worked in relief, this proceeding must be reversed, that is to say, the leather is placed face downwards on a sheet of wadding with the material forming the groundwork uppermost, and the hot iron is passed over the back of the material. The relief can easily be worked on the leather before it is cut out.

The cutting out is done on a piece of strong cardboard with the knife illustrated in Fig. 17.

7. Case of cut and punched leather. German, 15th Century.

The borders of open-work leather can be ornamented

by a sort of plaiting formed by lacing thin strips of soft leather through holes made with a punch.

A very effective decoration for furniture can be made with open-work leather over a panel of wood, or a metal background.

CHAPTER III

LEATHER MOSAIC

Until recently it seemed as if this pleasing art would have to remain the monopoly of a limited number of professional craftsmen working with numerous tools, and reckoning a ten years’ apprenticeship necessary to the attainment of proficiency in their craft. But although there is small likelihood of amateurs entering the domain of the followers and emulators of artists such as John Reynes, Florimond Badier, Monnier, Padeloup and Jubert, Mons. Eugène Aumaître has invented a simpler process of leather mosaic, for which fewer tools are required and which is within the reach of artist and amateur alike. The following pages contain the result of the study of his method, with the addition of some observations based on the practical experience of the author.

LEATHER FOR GROUNDWORK

Any skin may be used for the groundwork of leather mosaic, but morocco, and especially the kind called Cape morocco, is generally preferred, because of the grained surface which shows up the inlaid decoration to the best advantage.

Other skins, however, with either dull or glossy surfaces make good backgrounds for mosaic decoration, and as they are generally fawn coloured, they may first be stained to produce shaded groundwork very attractive in effect.

The old masters of leather mosaic made great use of fawn-coloured calf, occasionally adding a touch of coloured lacquer to bring out the light parts of the design.

PREPARATION OF THE LEATHER FOR THE GROUNDWORK

The first necessity in working leather mosaic is to have a flat and rigid surface to work upon; it is indispensable therefore, when the leather is not in itself sufficiently thick and firm, to stretch it on cardboard. This rather troublesome preparatory process is best confided to an expert; we will, however, describe it for the benefit of those preferring to execute it themselves. A strong, smooth piece of cardboard called millboard is taken, and the edges rubbed down with glass paper. A thin coat of paste is applied on one side of the board and allowed to dry.

FIG. 18.—PARING KNIFE

FIG. 19.—PARING KNIFE

The edges of the leather must now be thinned so that they will more readily stick when turned over and pasted under the board, and also to avoid the unevenness which the normal thickness of the leather would produce underneath. A paring-knife with a broad, flat, very sharp blade (Figs. 18 and 19) is used for this purpose; its manipulation is difficult and requires long practice. The handle is held against the palm of the hand, and the fingers extending over the blade cause it to penetrate the leather superficially by a more or less strong pressure, the object being to take off shavings from the back of the skin, increasing towards the edge until the edge itself is reduced to the thickness of a cigarette paper.

FIG. 20.—PARING LEATHER

The leather is placed surface downwards on a lithographic stone or a slab of marble. It is held stretched with the left hand, the fingers being extended over it on the face of the stone, and the thumb pressed against the side leaving the part just in front of the fingers free to be pared (Fig. 20). It is of the first importance for the success of this operation that the leather should be kept well stretched. The knife is held almost horizontally to avoid cutting into the leather at too sharp an angle, and is worked from left to right towards the edge.

The leather is then fastened to the cardboard by pasting either the whole of it or only the edges, which are turned underneath. In any case ordinary paste should be used; seccotine or glue would sink into and harden the leather, making the subsequent outlining process difficult.

When the piece of leather is so large that it would cause the board to warp when it dries, some paper should be pasted on the other side of the board, which will keep it flat by drawing it in the opposite direction.

8. Brown leather binding, cut and engraved, with punched background. German MS. Chronicle of Events. German, 15th Century.

The work is then put into the press or under heavy boards. It is important that this should always be done after paste has been used. When it is too large to put into a copying-press, it should be laid upon a flat table and a sheet of nickelled or very smooth zinc placed against the part to be decorated. The cardboard known as Carton Jacquart may be substituted for the zinc, but there is a risk that the moisture of the paste penetrating the leather may cause it to swell, notwithstanding its glaze. The zinc plate or the board should not be smaller than the leather, for in that case the pressure would produce a ridge round its edge.

The groundwork is ready to receive the ornament as soon as it is dry. The different methods of working mosaic will now be explained in turn.

MONOCHROME MOSAIC ON CALF

In this style of decoration the leather used for the inlaid design is white or very light in tone, and may be dyed subsequently to present the appearance of a mosaic made of variously coloured leathers.

LEATHER FOR INLAYING

The skins sold for this purpose are split sheepskins. Their extreme thinness renders them liable to stretch a great deal, and therefore they are most difficult to cut out in any desired shape. To obviate this difficulty, the back of the leather is pasted over, and it is then stretched on a board and fastened with drawing-pins to prevent it from shrinking as it dries. But there is another and a better method—that of mounting the leather on paper.

MOUNTING THE LEATHER ON PAPER

Some paste is made of very light and smooth flour, diluted with half the quantity of water and beaten to a cream. The water is added in small quantities while the mixture is being stirred. Canson paper, or some other strong

drawing paper, is pasted over the whole surface of the leather, so that it adheres lightly, and can be removed afterwards without difficulty; it is then placed under boards and allowed to dry thoroughly.

TRACING THE DESIGN ON THE PAPER

The design is traced by means of carbon paper on the paper lining of the inlay leather. A hard pencil should be used in order to produce very sharp lines.

CUTTING OUT THE DESIGN

Cutting-out knives should possess a keen edge and a small blade, and should be so shaped that they can be turned freely in any direction. The knife illustrated in Fig. 21 combines all these qualities. It consists of a very fine double-edged blade, set loosely into a slit in a hard wood handle and secured with a few turns of thread; a piece of leather over the whole (A) keeps the blade in its place. The handle being loose, it is possible to give any minute movement to the blade, which can also be taken out for sharpening when necessary. It must be kept as sharp as a razor. The extreme fineness of this blade facilitates cutting out the delicate parts of a design, but if handled too vigorously it is apt to get out of shape. The second tool (Fig. 22) is a stencil-cutter’s knife, and is very similar to the one described above except in size. It is usually sold mounted in an ebony slide bound round with copper wire, but can with advantage be mounted as in Fig. 21, in a split hard-wood handle.

One little known tool deserves mention for its flexibility and lightness. This is a small scraper shaped like an unslit pen, the blade widening from the point in two very fine edges like the head of a pike. It is used by photographers and miniature painters, and is sold by the dozen in small boxes. When in use it is firmly fixed in a small pen-holder so that it does not turn when pressed upon (Fig. 23).

CUTTING-OUT KNIVES: (A), FIG. 21, FIG. 22, FIG. 23

The special knife illustrated in Fig. 17 is sometimes recommended, but it is better adapted to cutting out thick skins for open-work decoration, as the point of the blade is not sufficiently fine for use on thin leather.

FIG. 24.—CUTTING OUT INLAY

The leather to be cut out is placed on a sheet of the cardboard used in mounting drawings, which is firm, but at the same time easily penetrated by the point of the tool. The nature of the board on which the leather is laid is important, for to ensure a clean cut, the tool, as it pierces the leather, must not encounter a veined surface such as that of wood, which might deflect the point. The three middle fingers of the left hand hold the leather mounted on the paper upon the board, the thumb and little finger supporting the whole underneath (Fig. 24). The part

which is to be cut is turned towards the knife by the left hand, the right hand being held in a fixed position with the knife, slightly inclined to the right, cutting the leather as it is presented by the other hand. The lines must be cleanly cut in order that the subsequent operation of outlining may be successfully accomplished. With every care in cutting out, it may sometimes be found in detaching the cut portion that a small thread of the leather remains unsevered. In this case it should be neatly cut through, and on no account may it be pulled to make it give way, which would result in spoiling the design by either tearing or stretching the leather. When cutting out a design on a large scale it is not possible to hold the work in the manner just described; a part of the design to be cut out is therefore placed flat on a large sheet of cardboard on a smooth table and can then be turned about as required under the point of the knife.

9. Cover of Case for a cup in wood covered with leather, cuir bouilli, embossed, painted and gilt. Italian, about 1500.

When the inlay is of white or very light leather, it is extremely difficult to conceal any joins occurring in the middle of lines; care must therefore be taken that there are as few joins as possible, and that they are arranged at points where they will easily disappear in lines of the design going in an opposite direction.

The centre of the design should be cut out first, and then the outer lines, reserving the more delicate parts, such as flower stems, for the last.

PASTING THE INLAY ON THE GROUNDWORK

When the inlay is of a nature that does not require placing in any very exact position, as for instance a spray of flowers, it will be sufficient to lay it on the groundwork and mark the principal points. When it is to occupy a definite position, forming the framework of a design, for instance, it is laid upon the groundwork exactly in the right place and then given a sharp turn in a copying-press,

great care being taken that it does not get displaced during the operation. Owing to the thickness of the supporting paper, this will be sufficient to mark the outline of the design on the groundwork. Some very smooth starch paste is then applied with a flat brush on the exposed side of the cut out leather, care being taken that every part, however small, is thoroughly pasted. To facilitate this and to prevent the leather curling up when pasted, it should first be fixed to a board with drawing-pins.

The portion of the ground which is to receive the inlay is damped with a soft sponge; the inlay is then placed in position and pressed down with the palm of the hand, a modeller being used for the finer parts. If it should become displaced, the greatest care must be used in correcting it. With the small pincers used by artificial flower-makers, the minutest pieces of leather can be taken up and replaced after being repasted, if necessary.

SETTING IN THE INLAY

The next process is that of setting the inlay into the groundwork, so that no relief remains. This is done with the help of a roller with a long wooden handle held in both hands and pressed against the shoulder, as illustrated in Fig. 25. The paper on which the inlay is pasted plays an important part in this operation; the greater its thickness, the greater will be the pressure attainable, and the deeper the penetration of the inlay into the damp background.

At first the roller is worked lightly with one hand only to ensure the uniform adherence of the inlay, the movements being short, and repeated several times over the same spot. When afterwards pressing heavily over the whole surface, a piece of thin, tough paper between the roller and the work will prevent the inlay from curling up, and the paper may be lifted from time to time to see that nothing is out of place.