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From the London and Country Cookbook, 1770. Courtesy of the Bryson Library.

FOODS AND HOUSEHOLD
MANAGEMENT
A TEXTBOOK
OF THE
HOUSEHOLD ARTS

BY
HELEN KINNE
PROFESSOR OF HOUSEHOLD ARTS EDUCATION
AND
ANNA M. COOLEY, B.S.
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF HOUSEHOLD ARTS EDUCATION
TEACHERS COLLEGE, COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY
New York
THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
1918
All rights reserved

Copyright, 1914,
By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY.
Set up and electrotyped. Published January, 1914. Reprinted
February, June, August, October, 1914; February, June, October,
1915; April, August, 1916; May, 1917; January, 1918.
Norwood Press
J. S. Cushing Co.—Berwick & Smith Co.
Norwood, Mass., U.S.A.

PREFACE

This volume, like its companion, Shelter and Clothing, is intended for use in the course in household arts in the high school and normal school, whether the work be vocational or general in its aim. It is hoped that both volumes will prove useful in the home as well, including as they do a treatment of the homecrafts, and the related topics now so significant to the home maker,—the cost and purchasing of foods and clothing, the cost of operating, the management of the home, and questions of state and city sanitation vital to the health of the individual family.

The volume treats specifically of foods, their production, sanitation, cost, nutritive value, preparation, and serving, these topics being closely interwoven with the practical aspects of household management, and they are followed by a study of the household budget and accounts, methods of buying, housewifery, and laundering. It includes about 160 carefully selected and tested recipes, together with a large number of cooking exercises of a more experimental nature designed to develop initiative and resourcefulness. Shelter and Clothing deals with the organization and ideals of the home, house sanitation, decoration, and furnishing; and treats in full, textiles, sewing, costume design, and dressmaking.

Some of the recipes here given are adapted from those of such authorities as Mrs. Lincoln, Miss Farmer, and Miss Barrows, and others are original and from private sources.

The authors are glad to acknowledge their indebtedness to those who have read and criticized the manuscript: Professor

Mary Swartz Rose of Teachers College, for her criticism and contributions to the book; Miss L. Ray Balderston, of Teachers College, for reading the chapters on Housewifery and Laundering; Professor May B. Van Arsdale, of Teachers College, for reading the chapters on Food; Professor Van Arsdale, Miss Bertha E. Shapleigh, and Miss Mary H. Peacock for their assistance in arranging for photographs; Miss Laura B. Whittemore, formerly of Teachers College, and Miss Amy L. Logan of the Horace Mann School for criticizing the manuscript from the point of view of the high school teacher; and also Professor Hermann Vulté for his kind assistance.

SUGGESTIONS TO TEACHERS

The topics in this volume are so arranged that they can be followed in sequence as the course of study develops through the year, with such modifications as seem necessary to the teacher in order that the work may best meet the needs of the pupils. The practice has become quite general of beginning the practical work in the autumn with the preparation and preservation of fruit, especially for those pupils who have had previous work in foods; and this plan commends itself as being seasonable and as making an appeal to the interest of the pupils. The opening chapters furnish material that is in part preliminary and that may also be studied as the practical work progresses from Chapter V onward. The preparation of a meal need not be deferred until all types of dishes have been cooked singly, as it is possible to prepare a luncheon box, to set an invalid tray, or to serve a simple breakfast quite early in the course, provided the equipment permits. If the school program allows, it is well to give a period to recitation at stated intervals, which would include a discussion of the text and of problems that arise from the laboratory work. The cost of food is a topic to be borne in mind throughout the year. It is an excellent plan for the pupils to record the current prices of each food material as it is used, and the cost of a given dish for a given number of people, the topic culminating in a detailed discussion when the chapter on the cost of food is read. A similar method may be pursued in connection with the nutritive values of food, the theme developing from lesson to lesson, until the pupils are ready for the chapter on

menus and dietaries. An occasional lesson on housewifery or laundering may be introduced from time to time, if a complete sequence of lessons on these topics does not seem practicable; and through the year the pupils may be encouraged to keep simple accounts for themselves and in connection with the supplies of the school kitchen. Those teachers are fortunate who may coöperate with a school lunch room, thus affording their pupils opportunity for dealing with practical administrative and economic problems. The way in which the topics are used must of necessity vary with the previous experience of the pupils, whether or not they have had cookery, chemistry, and physiology, and the teacher will use the exercises at the end of the chapters with freedom, omitting some questions, and adding others as the need arises.

The following references will prove useful to teachers in developing the different topics of the volume:—

Laboratory Handbook for Dietetics—Mary S. Rose. Chemistry of Food and Nutrition—Sherman. Food Products—Sherman. Science of Nutrition—Lusk. The World’s Commercial Products—Freeman and Chandler. Elementary Household Chemistry—Snell. Nutritional Physiology—Stiles. Household Bacteriology—Buchanan. Bacteria, Yeasts, and Molds in the Home—Conn. Microbiology—Marshall. Household Physics—Lynde. Selection and Preparation of Food—Bevier and Van Meter. Principles of Cookery—Anna M. Barrows. Technique of Cookery—M. B. Van Arsdale. Cost of Living—Ellen H. Richards. Cost of Food—Ellen H. Richards. Cost of Shelter—Ellen H. Richards.

Cost of Cleanness—Ellen H. Richards. Standards of Living—Chapin. The New Housekeeping—Frederick. Increasing Home Efficiency—Martha B. and Robert W. Bruere. Household Hygiene—S. Maria Elliott. Household Management—Bertha E. Terrill. The New Hostess of Today—Larned. Laundry Manual—Balderston and Limerick. Bulletins of the U. S. Department of Agriculture.

CONTENTS

FOODS AND HOUSEHOLD MANAGEMENT

CHAPTER I

Food Materials and Foodstuffs

PAGE

What Food is—Vegetable and Animal Foods—Foodstuffs—Elements in Foodstuffs—Foodstuffs in Nutrition—Food Adjuncts [1]

CHAPTER II

Kitchen Furnishings

Plans of Kitchens—Materials for Floors and Walls—The Table—The Cupboard—The Refrigerator—The Sink—The Hot Water Supply—The Utensils—Care of the Kitchen [15]

CHAPTER III

Fuels and Stoves

Economy of Fuel—The Common Fuels—Electricity for Cooking—Cooking Apparatus for all Fuels—How to Operate—Cost of Operating [33]

CHAPTER IV

Food Preparation

The Principles of Cooking—The Technique of Cooking—Care of Food in the House—The Processes of Food Preparation—How to study a Recipe—Weighing and Measuring—Preparing and Mixing—Cooking Processes—Disposal of Waste Food [54]

CHAPTER V

Water and Other Beverages

The Functions of Water in Nutrition—Uses in Cookery—Fruit Beverages—Cocoa, Coffee, and Tea [70]

CHAPTER VI

Fruit and its Preservation

Composition and Food Value—Principles of Preparation—Molds, Yeasts, and Bacteria—Methods of Preservation and Preparation [87]

CHAPTER VII

Vegetables and Vegetable Cookery

Composition and Nutritive Value—How to Buy—Principles and Methods of Preparation [109]

CHAPTER VIII

Cereal Products

The Manufactured Forms—An Economic Food—The Pure Starches—Principles and Methods of Preparation [126]

CHAPTER IX

Eggs, Milk, and Cheese

Comparative Study of their Nutritive Values—Fresh and Cold-storage Eggs—Clean Milk—Cheese a Meat Substitute—Principles and Methods of Preparation [138]

CHAPTER X

The Fats and the Sugars

Comparison of Cost of Fat Foods—Fats and Sugars the Fuel Foods—Amounts to be taken Daily—Effect of Heat upon Them—Their Uses in Cookery [158]

CHAPTER XI

Muffins, Biscuit, Cake, and Pastry

Ingredients and Proportions—Leavening Agents—Tests for Baking—Experiments and Methods [171]

CHAPTER XII

Yeast Bread

Importance of Yeast Bread—Manufacture of Flour—Experiments with Yeast—Ingredients, Proportions, and Making—Comparison of Homemade and Baker’s Bread [187]

CHAPTER XIII

Meats and Poultry

Values in the Diet—Quality and Cost—Cuts of Meat—Principles and Methods of Cooking—Poultry—Principles and Methods of Cooking [209]

CHAPTER XIV

Fish and Shellfish

Protection of the Fish Supply—Comparison of Nutritive Values—Varieties and Seasons—Methods of Preparation and Serving [231]

CHAPTER XV

Salads and Desserts

Their Place in the Menu—Materials Used—Methods of Preparation—Garnishing and Serving [247]

CHAPTER XVI

Preparation of Meals and Table Service

Preparing a Meal on Time—Serving and Garnishing Dishes—Table Equipment—Setting the Table—Duties of the Waitress [265]

CHAPTER XVII

The Cost and the Purchase of Food

Permanent and Variable Factors affecting the Price of Food—What is Cheap Food—Cost and Nutritive Value—Adulterations, Misbranding, and Preservatives—The Pure Food Laws—What to select and avoid in Shops and Markets [278]

CHAPTER XVIII

Menus and Dietaries

Food Requirements for Energy and Growth—Meals; the Number, Amount of Food, and Regularity—Balanced Meals—Uses of the 100-Calorie Portions—Making of Menus—Relation of Nutrition to Cost [295]

CHAPTER XIX

The Household Budget

Divisions of the Income—Expenditures for Food, Shelter, Clothing, and Operating Expenses—Savings and Allowances—Typical Budgets [321]

CHAPTER XX

System in Management

Business Equipment—Keeping Accounts—Methods of Payment—The Bank Account and Check Book [332]

CHAPTER XXI

How to Buy

Rules for Good Buying—Shopping Methods—Bargain Sales, Trading Stamps and Prizes—Purchasing of Clothing and Household Textiles [342]

CHAPTER XXII

Housewifery

Equipment and Materials for Cleaning—Methods of Cleaning—Care of Rooms—Household Insects—Precautions against Fire—Household Repairs [352]

CHAPTER XXIII

Laundering and Dry Cleansing

Principles of Washing and Ironing—Hard and Soft Water and Detergents—Laundry Equipment—Order of Work—Methods of Washing and Ironing—Public Laundries—Economics of Laundering [365]

Appendix [383]

Index [391]

FOODS AND HOUSEHOLD
MANAGEMENT

CHAPTER I

FOOD MATERIALS AND FOODSTUFFS

Food problems.—“What shall I plan for the three meals?” is a question as new each day as the day itself. That many women ask it, and are glad for an answer or a suggestion is proved by a glance at the daily or weekly paper or woman’s magazine, whose publishers know that it pays to print menus innumerable. Indeed, the daily press is full of signs that the food problem is an acute one, for the current joke about food prices, the accounts of boycotts by housekeepers, popular articles on nutrition and pure foods, and the records of state and national legislation, all show that as a nation we are awake and seeking a way out of our present difficulties.

Doubtless, the housekeeper has always found the task of supplying food to her family one of the most perplexing, but modern conditions have made the difficulties manifold when contrasted with olden times. A pretty picture of household management in seventeenth century England is drawn by Sir Walter Scott in “Peveril of the Peak.” The lord of the castle has invited the village people to a great feast in celebration of the restoration of Charles the Second, and Lady Peveril finds her larder rather low. To be sure, there are

carp in the pond, and deer in the park, but the beef question is puzzling, for the steward does not wish to kill his choice steer. Then appear in the courtyard two fine oxen, and several wethers, or sheep, gifts from a neighbor, and the menu is complete. Lady Peveril is described as an excellent housekeeper, and doubtless felt burdened by many cares, but how different were her problems from ours, and how simple by comparison! Beef trusts and the high price of beef, tuberculous cattle, unsanitary transportation and markets were not factors in her problem. In her day, and in the time of our grandmothers, less variety in diet was possible, and less expected except on state occasions; food was not transported over great distances, and the cost was not so much out of proportion to the average income.

Now every large city, and even the small town, is the market of the world. We have long been accustomed to the importation of oranges and lemons, and dried fruits from distant lands; but now we have peaches and pears from South Africa, melons from Spain, pineapples from the Azores, hothouse grapes from England, and apples from Australia, and in 1913, we read of the shipment of beef from Argentina. In our own country, early fruits and vegetables travel from the south to the north, so that the season of some foods is long extended. The large amount of canned food also does away with the natural limits of the season, and this is further affected by cold storage. Both the quality and the cost of food are modified by these new methods of commerce, and furthermore, modern methods of manufacture have changed the quality. In an ideal community these changes would be for the better, but manufacturers often think more of their own profit than of the quality of their goods, and as a result adulterations have crept in, making necessary the enactment and enforcement of pure food laws. This is by

no means so simple a matter as it seems, for we must first understand what pure food really is.

Instinct guides somewhat in the selection of food where conditions of living are simple. Under more complex conditions there must be a scientific study of the whole situation in order that the individual may cope with it. Then, too, with such a variety of foods from which to select, it is easy to be tempted beyond our means, and to disregard the simple and the wholesome. We know that it is easy to develop a taste for some one food in excess, as for instance, sweets or dishes rich in fat and too highly flavored, and the physician adds his word here to the plea for a study of food and its functions.

The conclusion is this, that the housekeeper who has the welfare of her family at heart will not confine her interest in food to cooking processes and new recipes. Good cooks we must have, and our standard of cooking could easily be raised. But other facts about food are important to-day, and as we learn to prepare and serve food daintily, we must study such topics as the following:

What food is, its composition and how it nourishes us; how it is manufactured and transported; “pure food”; sanitary and convenient markets; the cost of food and how to buy; principles of food preparation; suitable combinations and amounts of food. These topics are all treated in this volume, and should be considered as important as the actual preparation of food.

Food Materials

What is food?—This would seem to be a difficult question to answer as we look about a modern grocery or market with its bewildering assortment of foods. It seems hardly possible to describe such a variety of articles in a brief sentence,

or to find a definition that will apply to all. Yet we seem to know instinctively what food is, although we may not find it easy to give a definition. Even the lower animals are guided in selecting food by some natural instinct and seldom make a mistake.

A widely used government bulletin gives this definition: “Food is that which taken into the body builds tissue or yields energy or does both.” Probably we have learned this in our physiology, and admit it to be true, but for practical purposes, we need a more complete statement than this. Let us carefully determine what our foods really are, and what elements they contain, in order that we may select wisely for purposes of nutrition, and also that we may learn how to prepare food materials in a way that will utilize everything in them and waste nothing.

Vegetable and animal foods.—It is easy to divide food materials in a general way into those derived from the vegetable kingdom and those derived from the animal kingdom. In the vegetable group we have first, the different parts of many plants, and second, substances manufactured from plants. While we do not usually eat the whole of any one plant, yet there is not any part of the plant that we have not adopted as food. We use roots and tubers in beets, carrots, and potatoes, and the onion is a bulb. In celery and asparagus we eat the plant stalk. Plant leaves give us lettuce and other salads, cabbage and the like. Peas and beans and nuts are seeds, and cauliflower is a part of the flower. The fruit as a whole is familiar in many forms. Manufactured vegetable food materials include flour, meals, breakfast cereals, starch, sugar, molasses and sirups. The animal kingdom gives us the flesh of animals, fish and shell fish, and substances derived from animals, like eggs, milk, and the milk products, cream, butter, and cheese.

These materials vary so much in appearance that they would seem to have nothing in common. If, however, we compare the food of different animals and different races of men, we cannot but conclude that this is a mistaken judgment. We find an animal like the lion feeding entirely upon the flesh of other animals, and a strong creature like the ox, eating nothing but grass and grain. We also note that one race of men includes meat in its diet, and another subsists almost entirely upon vegetable food, such as rice and beans. Yet in both cases, these diverse kinds of food accomplish the same end,—body building and the supplying of energy. Let us study two common foods, from the two kingdoms, and see if through this study we can discover in what ways they are alike.

Comparison of milk and beans.—A moment’s thought enables us to see that in milk we have a food that must have all the elements needed in nutrition, since it is the only food taken by many young animals. The baby and the young calf find in it everything that is needed to build the growing body, and to give them energy. If you see a young calf frisking about the field, you can appreciate how well his food supplies his needs.

A simple experiment will help us to find some of the substances contained in milk. Let the milk stand until the cream rises on the top. Skim the cream, warm it slightly and beat it with an egg beater. Butter will soon “come,” and butter, we know, is a form of fat. Warm a pint of the skimmed milk, add to it a dissolved rennet tablet, and set it in a warm place. In a short time, the milk becomes solidified to a consistency like that of jelly. If allowed to stand longer, a watery liquid will separate itself from the solid portion. These are the “curds and whey” that result, also, from the souring of milk. The whey can be squeezed out of the

curd, leaving it quite dry. We have now found at least three constituents of milk,—water, fat, and curd.

Fig. 1.—Composition of milk.

1. Whole milk. 2. Water. 3. Fat. 4. Protein. 5. Carbohydrate. 6. Mineral matter or ash.

Courtesy of President Gulliver, Rockford College.

You may then surmise from the sweet taste of milk that sugar is present; the chemist knows how to obtain it in pure form as “sugar of milk.” The chemist also finds certain mineral substances which remain behind when all the water is evaporated and the curds and sugar burned away. These mineral substances are spoken of by the chemist as “ash,” because this is what remains after burning the other portions of a food material, as ashes remain from a wood fire. Figure 1 shows you these substances in the amounts in which each occurs in a pint of milk. The sugar is one of a class of substances to which the chemist gives the name carbohydrate. To the substance in the curd that is different from all the other substances in the milk the name “protein” is given.

We will now turn to the composition of beans, for in beans we find food stored up to nourish the young plant, which we,

also, appropriate as food. The composition of both the milk and the beans is given in this table. Compare also Figures 35 and 41.

Composition of Milk and Beans

Notice that the substances in the beans are the same in general nature as those in the milk, although the amounts are different. The water that the young plant needs is, of course, supplied from the earth. There is another difference to note although this is not shown in the table; in the beans the carbohydrate is of two kinds, sugar and starch.

Foodstuffs[1]

All the varieties of food with which we are supplied will be found to contain some of these substances: protein, fat, carbohydrate, mineral matter, water; and to these we give the name foodstuffs. Some food materials (like the milk and beans just studied) contain all the foodstuffs, some only one, as in the case of sugar. We can now define food as something that contains one or more of the substances known as foodstuffs. But what are the foodstuffs themselves?

Elements in the foodstuffs.—Although we are not chemists, and may not even have taken a course in chemistry,

yet through our nature study or physiology lessons, we are familiar with the fact that all the materials about us, including our own bodies and our food, are made up of simple substances that we call “elements.” We know, for instance, that coal is chiefly carbon, and we are familiar with such substances as sulphur, calcium, phosphorus, and iron. We know that the air contains oxygen, which we inhale, and that we breathe out a combination of carbon and oxygen called “carbon dioxide.” Since our bodies are composed of these and other elements, these elements must be supplied by our foods, and therefore, the foodstuffs in turn are composed of these same elements.

Proteins, fats, and carbohydrates all contain large amounts of carbon, and on this account are called fuel foods. But proteins are distinguished because they contain nitrogen in addition, which is found in no other foodstuff. Sulphur, too, we get only from protein, but we need less of it than of nitrogen, so we think about the nitrogen and let the sulphur take care of itself. The nitrogen that we draw in from the air with every breath, we breathe out again without being able to use it. This element is necessary to every living cell, but we can make it ours only through our protein food. Nitrogen is cheapest when obtained from the grains, from dried beans and peas. We pay a higher price for it in milk, eggs, fish, meat, and nuts. Carbon, which is found in all foodstuffs except water and some kinds of mineral matter, costs much less, especially when we take it in the form of carbohydrates such as starches and sugars. Oxygen is also abundant in our foods, but we get it even more cheaply in water and by breathing it in from the air. Phosphorus, iron, and calcium are very important elements, but we do not need them in very large quantities. We can get them cheaply in whole grains, peas and beans, some fruits and

green vegetables, but they are worth paying for in milk and eggs. The elements last mentioned are present in the food partly as constituents of certain proteins and fats, partly as mineral salts. Other elements found as mineral matter are sodium and chlorine (which we take as common salt), potassium, magnesium, and traces of iodine and fluorine. These are all necessary to keep our bodies in good working order. We shall see later how to select our food materials so as to have all the different elements in the foodstuffs present in sufficient amounts.

Functions of the Foodstuffs

Food for energy.—The first requirement of the body is for fuel, because it has a great deal of work to do. Even when one lies perfectly quiet and appears to be resting, the heart is working to keep up the circulation of the blood, the chest and diaphragm muscles are working to maintain the oxygen supply to the lungs, the alimentary tract is moving food material along, working to digest it and get rid of waste, and the skeletal muscles are being held up to “tone” so as to be ready for further action. All this work that we scarcely realize, may be called involuntary. To it we may add all sorts of voluntary movements, from simply speaking a word to turning somersaults or lifting heavy weights. All work involves energy, which we can obtain only from the fuel foods, proteins, fats, and carbohydrates.

Energy takes different forms. Our supply comes from the sun in the forms of heat and light, and plants store it up in the form of chemical energy when they build carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. This may be changed into the forms of work or of heat when we eat the food. Whenever an attempt is made to change chemical energy to work, some of it will

change to heat. So in our bodies, the fuel foods, which enable us to do both involuntary and voluntary work, furnish heat at the same time, to keep our bodies warm. When we are too cold, we can shiver or run or jump, and thus, by doing more work, get more heat too.

The unit of fuel value.—In our studies of food materials, we must find out just how much energy, or working power, can be obtained from each kind. We must have a measure of energy or fuel value; and just as the inch is a measure of length, and the pound of weight, so the Calorie serves as a measure of fuel value. This unit[2] measures energy as heat, being the amount of heat required to raise 1 kilogram of water 1° C. (or 1 pound of water about 4° F.), but we can express it also as work, being sufficient energy to raise a 1-pound weight 3087 feet into the air (or 1 ton about 1¹⁄₂ feet) if it were possible to convert it into mechanical work without loss. By burning foods in pure oxygen in a vessel placed in water so that all the heat is given off to the water, and then noting the change in temperature of the water, it is possible to find out just how much energy each will yield. Such a device is called a calorimeter. In the body there is usually a small portion of each kind of foodstuff which escapes digestion, and protein is not quite so completely burned as in the calorimeter. When allowance for the probable loss is made, the energy values of the fuel foodstuffs are as follows:

The standard portion.—Knowing the composition of any food material, it is possible from these figures to calculate

the total fuel value, or we can refer to tables in which this has been calculated, and save ourselves labor. For comparison of different foods the Standard, or 100-Calorie, Portion is used, as this corresponds very closely with the amount of food for a single serving in many cases. In the sections treating of different foods the Standard Portion will be stated.

Food for body building.—Every living cell has a little life history of its own, and constantly demands a certain amount of new material to replace old which it has worn out. Besides this, old cells die, and new ones have to be made to replace them. Hence even a full-grown person needs building material, and much more is required in proportion when the person is growing and perhaps adding several ounces a week to his weight. The foodstuffs which have especial value as building material are protein and mineral matter.

Food for body regulating.—To help in the digestion of food, to keep the blood in proper condition, the muscles supple, and all the processes of the body at their best, ash constituents and water in the diet are necessary. A tabular summary of the functions of the foodstuffs and an outline of the changes which take place in digestion will be found in the appendix.

We are now able to give a more complete answer to our question, “What is Food?”

Food has been said to be that which taken into the body builds tissue or yields energy, or both. The food as a whole must contain all the chemical elements needed by the body, these elements being supplied in substances known as foodstuffs, viz., protein, fat, carbohydrates, mineral matter or ash, water. To be a food, a substance must contain one or all of the foodstuffs.

It must be noted here that our food materials as bought,

contain inedible matter, as in the shells of eggs, the bone of meat, the skins and pods of vegetables. Moreover, the fiber that we eat in vegetable foods is not digested under ordinary circumstances, but seems rather to serve a useful purpose in giving bulk to our foods.

Food adjuncts.—In preparing foods for the table, we have the habit of adding substances to develop or give flavor. With the exception of sugar, which we use largely for its agreeable taste, these substances have no nutritive value. They are not hurtful unless used in excess, although pepper and other spices sometimes disturb digestion. Pepper, too, irritates a delicate throat.

Only a few flavors are really detected by the sense of taste. These are salt, sugar, acids, and bitter flavors; and something in the spices that gives a sensation hard to describe, but is unmistakable in an overdose of mustard or horse-radish. “Pungent” describes such a flavor.

The other flavors are really odors, and are detected by the sense of smell. Have you not at some time seemed to lose the sense of taste when suffering from a severe cold in the head? Yet even then you could taste sugar, salt, vinegar, and feel the pungency of pepper. These other flavors or odors are due to a volatile oil in the flavoring material, that is, an oil that readily evaporates, especially when heated, as distinguished from the non-volatile oils and fats like olive oil and butter. This is a practical bit of knowledge in our cookery, for whatever passes off as fragrance during the cooking process, is lost as flavor. For instance, to cook vanilla essence in a soft custard is equivalent to throwing most of it away.

Salt.—A mineral substance that develops other flavors. It should not be used in excess. A small amount is desirable even in sweet dishes.

Acids.—Vinegar, lemon juice, and juices of other sour fruits. These are pleasing in themselves, and in small quantities develop other flavors and give a certain brightness of taste. They are used with meat and fish, and in sweet dishes.

Spices.—Red, black, and white pepper, cinnamon, cloves, allspice, nutmeg, mace, and ginger are examples. They are made from the seeds of certain plants, used whole or ground. Stick cinnamon is a layer of a stem. Ginger is a root.

Herbs.—Thyme, mint, sweet marjoram, summer savory are the leaves of old-fashioned pot herbs, used either fresh or dried. There were many others used in olden days that are not common now, such as sweet basil and pot marigold. A quite complete list will be found nowadays in any good seed catalogue. These herbs are used with meat dishes.

Vegetable flavors.—Celery seeds and stalks, onions, leek and garlick, carrots and turnips, all contain flavoring oils, and we use them for their flavors in small portions, in meat dishes.

Essences.—The oils of vanilla, bitter almonds, lemon and orange peel are dissolved in alcohol, and used in liquid form in cakes and desserts. Violet leaves and violet essence are sometimes used, but are a fad as a flavor. Rose water made from rose leaves is an old-fashioned flavoring, used infrequently now in blancmanges. The fresh leaf of a rose geranium gives a pleasing flavor, for occasional use. Chocolate, coffee, and tea are used for flavorings as well as for beverages.

Coloring substances.—These come of many colors made from aniline dyes, and while probably not often hurtful, they should be used only in sweets and candies, and very seldom, if ever. It is better to depend on natural fruit coloring when color is wanted.

The fine art of cooking is to develop the natural flavor of each foodstuff by the proper application of heat, and never to use these condiments and flavorings in excess. The artist in cookery has a gift for flavoring, somewhat as the painter has for color.

Beverages.—The dictionary defines “beverage” as “drink of any kind.” The word is used in different forms in several languages and is traced back to the Latin bibere,

to drink. The common beverages will be studied in detail in connection with their preparation. They have slight nutritive value, save for the added milk, cream, and sugar. Cocoa and chocolate contain fat, and so have to be classed as foods. Milk is not a beverage, strictly speaking, but a food, and should be counted as a part of a meal.

EXERCISES

1. State the important topics in the study of foods.

2. Explain the difference between a “food material” and a “foodstuff.”

3. What are the important elements in protein, fat, and carbohydrates?

4. What food materials are rich in protein? In fat? In carbohydrate? In mineral matter?

5. Explain the meaning and use of the “Calorie.”

6. State the functions of food.

7. What is a food adjunct?

8. What is the waste material in food?

CHAPTER II

KITCHEN FURNISHINGS

There is no more attractive room than a well-fitted kitchen, shining with cleanliness; and the kitchen furnishings should have their fair share of the money spent in buying furniture for the house.

A spotless cleanliness is the standard for the kitchen, and all the equipment should be selected with the thought of making cleanliness easily possible. Next in order is forethought in securing the comfort and convenience of the worker.

Plan of the kitchen.—Here the motto should be “Save steps.” How many weary miles do women walk within their kitchen walls because the sink, the stove, the refrigerator and the closets for food and dishes are put in to fit the spaces allowed by the windows and doors, with no thought of the rapid and easy dispatch of work.

Figure 2 shows the plan of a kitchen, of the “buffet” type, suitable for a small home or apartment. As this plan is drawn it would be necessary to use either electric apparatus, or a small gas stove upon one of the tables. A large gas stove could stand in place of the table at (1), or against the wall at (2), pushing the table at (3) nearer the door. The cupboards at (4) and (5) should be raised, leaving table space at both the right and left of the sink. Notice that the ice box is in the entry, and also that there is a cupboard that could be used for food. The china cupboard is conveniently near in the dining-room.

Fig. 2.—Plan of a small kitchen. Courtesy of the House Beautiful.

Figure 3 shows a larger kitchen, with a serving room between it and the dining-room. The ice box is in the outer

wall and is filled from the outside. The cupboard at (1) could hold the cooking utensils, as it stands conveniently between the sink and the range. A kitchen as large as this should have a small table on rollers for carrying food materials and utensils back and forth. If you have ever visited the kitchen in a dining-car you will realize that compactness is one of the advantages of the small kitchen over the large, although the latter may be better ventilated and cooler.

Fig. 3.—Plan of a larger kitchen. Courtesy of the House Beautiful.

Furnishing the kitchen.—The walls and floors, and even the ceiling, should be washable. A tiled wall is as easy to wash as a china dish, but the expense is prohibitive in many cases. Table oilcloth for wall and ceiling is very satisfactory; next to this in desirability is paint, and for the last choice a washable paper. This paper will bear scarcely more than a damp cloth for cleansing purposes, however. Avoid cracks and crevices in the woodwork, having all surfaces as plain as possible.

The best floor is one covered with an inlaid linoleum, which gives warmth and comfort to the foot, is easy to clean, and wears for many years (Fig. 4). It should be cemented down at the edges that no dust may collect. The first cost is rather high, but it pays in the end. A hardwood floor of maple or yellow pine is also satisfactory. Tiling is the cleanest of all floorings, but is very fatiguing to the worker.

Fig. 4.—A kitchen corner. Courtesy of the Department of Household Science and Art, Pratt Institute.

Enamel-paint makes a smooth finish for the woodwork. In the kitchen of the future, which will be fireproof, steel fittings will probably take the place of all wood.

Have harmonious colors in the kitchen. Decide upon a cheerful color scheme, and carry it out in all the fittings. One most attractive kitchen is furnished in soft brown and buff, with a touch of blue in the linoleum on the floor. Figure 4 shows the interior of a small kitchen, practical for a family of six or eight. The curtain at the window, which gives a

touch of daintiness, is of a washable material. Figure 5 shows a much larger kitchen, with two sinks, and a work-table in the center. See how conveniently the refrigerator is placed for serving, and for returning food from the serving room to the refrigerator. The vegetable sink is near the stove, and the utensils, too, are near by. A rolling table is seen at the left.

No plan can be drawn that would be perfect in all situations. If you ever have the opportunity to plan your own kitchen, decide just what you want it to contain, and then plan the places for each article. Sometimes there are too many drawers and shelves, and these not of the right size or position.

The kitchen table.—The table should have a top with room for food materials and utensils to stand in neat order without crowding. Glass is the cleanest top, painted steel and hard maple coming next in order. Have some arrangement of shelves and drawers that small utensils and some food materials may be always at hand. Figure 6 shows a kitchen “cabinet” of painted steel with such conveniences. Notice the bin for flour, and the inverted jar for sugar, both with an opening at the bottom. Spices and flavorings and materials needed in small quantities are kept in jars on the shelves. The cupboard and drawers beneath will hold small utensils, towels, and whatever proves to be needed close by. Several makes of such cabinets are now on sale. A flat-topped table for a large kitchen, Fig. 5, could have drawers and cupboards below. If the outlay for a cabinet seems too great, the bins for sugar and flour may be purchased separately and fastened on the wall above the table, and one or two shelves screwed on the wall for the jars, with hooks fastened in underneath on which a few small utensils may be hung.

Fig. 5.—A well-equipped kitchen. Courtesy of the J. L. Mott Co.

A small rolling table may be made inexpensively by putting castors on a light table costing not more than a dollar. Put table oilcloth over the top. This is a great convenience in many ways. The height of the table should be such that the worker is not fatigued by bending over. Thirty-two inches is a good table height for a woman of five feet four or five inches. Blocks hollowed to fit the table legs may be used with a table of ordinary height for a tall person.

Cupboards and shelves.—If you purchase a cupboard see that the shelves are movable, and of varying widths. There are a few large utensils that need a deep shelf, about fifteen inches. If the shelves are to be built in, provide several widths from six to ten inches. Much space is sometimes wasted between shelves. Vary the distances here.

Fig. 6.—A kitchen cabinet. Courtesy of the Columbia School Supply Co.

Smooth paint is the best surface for the shelf. Shelf covers of paper or oilcloth look clean when they are fresh, but are less sanitary than uncovered shelves. Drawers should not be too large, for these are heavy to pull and push when

full. Cupboard shelves are on the whole more satisfactory than drawers, because this tiresome pulling out and pushing in are avoided. Towels can be piled on the shelves, and small utensils hung on right-angled screw hooks. Do not use curved hooks, except for hanging cups from the bottom of a shelf.

Fig. 7.—Section of a refrigerator wall. Courtesy of the White Enamel Refrigerator Co.

The refrigerator.—A good refrigerator is built with double walls, and has several layers of non-conducting material. Figure 7 shows the careful way in which the refrigerator wall is made. 1. Porcelain enamel lining lock joint. 2. Inside wood lining. 3. Three-ply red rope water-proof paper. 4. Wool felt deafening paper. 5. Flaxlinum insulation. 6. Dead air space. 7. Flaxlinum insulation. 8. Wool felt deafening paper. 9. Three-ply red rope water-proof paper. 10. Outside wood case. The ice chamber is arranged to be easily filled, and has a connecting pipe for carrying off the water. If this is connected with the sewerage system of the house, make sure that it is properly trapped (Fig. 8). See “Shelter and Clothing,” page 51, for description of the S trap. The closets for the food should have an enamel or tiled lining. This is non-absorptive, and may be kept perfectly clean. A large refrigerator is more economical of ice than a

small one, and in the end more than balances the few dollars extra that must be paid for the larger size. Select the coolest spot that you have for the refrigerator. Figure 9 shows the construction of a good refrigerator.

Fig. 8.—A refrigerator trap. Courtesy of the White Enamel Refrigerator Co.

Fig. 9.—A well-constructed refrigerator. Courtesy of the White Enamel Refrigerator Co.

Artificial ice is cleaner and therefore safer to use than the natural. Always wash off the block before putting it into the ice chamber. Wash out the ice chamber once a week, and pour a solution of washing soda down the waste pipe.

The food chambers should be washed out once a week and dried, and no spilled food allowed to remain a moment. Do not leave the doors open. Have a strong ice pick for breaking ice.

A window box fastened outside the window by strong iron brackets provides a convenient place for cooling food, and keeping some semi-perishable foods. It is easily made from a watertight wooden

box, painted outside and in, the opening toward the window having a curtain of table oilcloth. A piece of wire netting set in one side of the box permits of a current of air.

Fig. 10.—A sink of simple construction. Courtesy of J. L. Mott Co.

The sink.—White enameled iron and porcelain are the most desirable materials for the sink. A simply constructed sink is shown in Fig. 10. Notice that the sink is supported from the wall, leaving a free space underneath. A larger sink is shown in Fig. 11, with the draining board in the sink. The trap below the sink should be a large S trap, and the trap and faucets should be nickel plate.

Fig. 11.—A larger sink. Courtesy of the J. L. Mott Co.

An iron sink should be rubbed and polished until it becomes very smooth. Do not attempt to paint it. If it is left perfectly dry, it will not rust.

Hot water supply.—A good supply is essential to rapid and thorough work. The apartment dweller who finds it piped to the sink is most fortunate. The separate house must have a boiler connected with the coal range, or a water

tank fastened to the range. If gas is used, have some kind of gas water heater that will give a sufficient flow for dish-washing and cleaning purposes. A boiler may be heated with a kerosene stove. The boiler should be fastened above the floor with space below for a one-burner blue-flame kerosene stove. Have a faucet in the boiler. Wherever a boiler is used it is economy to have it covered with some non-conducting material, just as steam pipes are packed.

Utensils.—The expert cook is known by the small number of utensils that she uses. If you watch the expert at work, you will see too, that each utensil is exactly fitted to its use.

The skilled cook is like the carpenter or painter, and her set of tools is individual. The list given on page [28] is a sample one, to be changed to suit the individual preference, and increased as the need arises; it could be smaller, if

necessary. When you first furnish a kitchen, avoid an elaborate display of tools, beginning with the few essentials only.

No one material is suitable for the construction of all utensils. Those subjected to intense heat must be of material able to resist it. The material for a given utensil must be selected with the purpose of the utensil in mind. The material should be durable, easy to clean, and of such a nature that it does not affect chemically the food material cooked in it.

Aluminium.—A white metal, fairly durable, very light in weight. Discolors easily, and is not easy to clean. Expensive. Used for all kinds of utensils.

Copper.—Endures heat, durable, fairly light to handle. Hard to keep clean. Expensive. Used for kettles. Not desirable for family use.

Earthenware.—Will not endure the highest temperatures without crackling. Easily breakable. Easy to clean, unless crackled. Inexpensive. Useful for slow oven processes, for pitchers and mixing bowls.

Enamel.—A vitrified material upon iron or steel. The English enamel ware upon iron is durable, excellent for preserving, heavy. The German and American enamels are lighter. Avoid the attractive blue, and blue and white except for pitchers, cups, bowls, and plates. They crackle and chip off more easily with heat then the gray enamels. One German make, of a dark mottled gray, is less brittle in the finish than most American makes. All the enamels are easy to keep clean. Used for kettles, saucepans, roasting, and baking. Less durable than steel and iron.

Iron.—Endures intense heat. Durable. Heavy to handle. Becomes smooth with long use, and then is not difficult to clean. Affects the color of acid fruits. Not expensive. Used for frying kettles and pans and kettles for boiling.

Russia iron is a sheet iron of good quality for roasting and bread pans. Expensive.

Steel.—Endures intense heat. Durable. Medium weight. Fairly easy to clean. Affects acid fruits. Medium cost. Same uses as iron, also for roasting and baking pans, and smaller kettles.

Tin.—Tin, a “useful metal,” is plated on thin sheet iron for utensils. So-called block tin is the best quality. Will not endure intense heat. The tin wears and scratches off with use. Not easy to clean. Discolors easily, and colors acid fruit. Poor tin ware is not worth buying. Good quality is not cheap. May be used for measures, and for small saucepans, but is less desirable than other wares.

Wooden ware.—Used for molding boards, meat boards, and spoons.

The patterns of utensils.—Select those made without seams, or flutings, where food particles collect. Bowls, saucepans, and kettles should have a lip on the side, for the pouring out of liquids. A pitcher should be of such shape that it can be easily washed, and it should have a lip that will pour well. A pot for boiling coffee should have a lip and not a spout. Select utensils with non-conducting handles.

Study carefully the selection of knives, and do not try to economize in their purchase. Knives must be sharp, and poor quality steel will never take a good edge. A worn table knife of Sheffield steel, when ground down, makes the best of kitchen knives. Buy a good sharpener and use it frequently.

Labor-saving devices.—A good machine saves the wear and tear of human muscle, and also much time. If you have studied the principles of the lever and other mechanical devices, you will understand why this is.[3]

Learn to pay for, use, and clean good machines.

A “Dover” egg beater is built on the principle of the “wheel and axle.” The large wheel has five times as many

cogs as the small, one revolution of the large wheel giving five of the small, and one turn of the handle five revolutions of the blades. It saves your wrist, and saves time to use the “Dover” in place of a fork. It is more trouble to wash the Dover beater than the fork. Yet a cook may object to a bread mixer and meat chopper, because they are harder to clean than the bowl and spoon and knife.

A good bread mixer saves strength and is sanitary. Fig. 12.

Fig. 12.—An inexpensive bread mixer, cover on and off. Courtesy of Landers, Frary and Clark.

A meat chopper or grinder also saves strength and time, and is cleaner than the wooden chopping bowl.

LIST OF UTENSILS[4]

For preparing and mixing.

1 can opener. 1 corkscrew. 1 vegetable knife, pointed. 1 steel table knife, broad blade. 1 meat knife and fork. 1 bread knife, or slicer. 1 small meat axe. 1 knife sharpener.

1 3-bladed chopping knife, or meat grinder. 1 apple corer. 2 plated or steel forks, table. 1 long-handled fork, three-pronged. 1 palette knife. 1 pair heavy scissors. 1 set skewers. 1 large mixing spoon, enamel ware. 6 plated tablespoons, or German silver. 6 plated teaspoons, or German silver. 1 saltspoon, bone. 1 wooden spatula. 1 Dover egg beater, large size. 1 wire egg beater. 1 wire potato masher. 1 colander. 1 wire strainer. 1 wire strainer, cup size. 1 flour sifter. 1 flour dredger. 1 salt shaker. 1 coffee mill. 1 grater. 1 nutmeg grater. 1 glass lemon squeezer. 1 large mixing bowl for bread. 1 medium bowl for cake. 2 pint bowls. 1 quart measure. 1 half-pint measuring cup. 1 molding board. 1 rolling pin. 1 meat board. 1 or 2 plates. 1 or 2 china molds. 1 kitchen scales.

Other conveniences.

6 small hand towels. Towel racks. 1 high stool. 1 or 2 comfortable chairs. A clock. Sheets of paper, tissue and heavier. Heavy linen thread and large needle. Ball of soft, strong twine. A shelf for cook books.

For stewing, steaming, and boiling.

(Sizes dependent on number in family.)

1 teakettle, enamel or aluminium. 1 double-boiler, enamel ware. 1 pint saucepan, enamel covered. 1 or 2 stewpans, enamel covered. 1 kettle, covered. 1 steamer.

For broiling, pan broiling, the sauté, and frying.

(Broiler and toaster supplied with gas range.)

1 wire toaster. 1 heavy wire broiler. 1 frying pan, with lip, steel or iron. 1 frying kettle and basket.

For roasting, braising, and baking.

(Roasting pan provided with gas range.)

1 roasting pan, covered, steel or iron. 1 or 2 heavy earthen pots, covered. 1 baking pan for fish, iron, or heavy earthenware. 2 or 3 bread pans (for loaf cake also). 1 shallow pan for cake. 1 muffin pan. 1 flat cooky tin. 3 round pans, for layer cake, enamel. 2 pie pans. 2 or 3 pitchers. 6-12 heavy earthen cups, for popovers and custards. 2 round baking dishes, earthen or enamel.

For holding food materials.

A few cheap saucers, plates, and bowls for food in the refrigerator. Bins for flour, meals, and sugar. A dozen glass wide-mouthed preserving jars. Jelly glasses for spices, etc. Tin boxes can be kept for such purposes. (Use gummed labels on these jars and glasses.)

For washing dishes.

1 dishpan, enamel. 1 shallow rinsing pan. 1 soap shaker. 2 soap dishes. 1 shaker for washing powder. 6 glass towels. 6 heavier towels. 6 loose weave dishcloths.

Care of the kitchen.—The daily cleaning must include the care of the sink and traps, the cleaning of the stove, brushing the floor, and washing off of tables. More thorough cleaning includes the scrubbing of the floor, washing of walls, woodwork, and windows, cleaning of closets and drawers.

The stoves should be rubbed often with paper, and washed thoroughly when necessary. Great pains must be taken to keep the ovens clean, by frequent washing out. Gas burners must be taken off and boiled in a solution of sal soda once in a while. The top and bottom of coal ovens should be cleaned out once a month. Kerosene stoves need constant cleaning. Stove blacking makes the stove more attractive.

Dish-washing.—It is not difficult to wash dishes well, although many people make it a very disagreeable process. The necessary apparatus is given in the utensil list. The cleansing materials include a plentiful supply of hot water, a good soap, ammonia or borax to soften the water, a gritty soap or powder. Have a pan for washing and another for rinsing, and a tray for draining if there is no drainer attached to the sink.

Order of work.—Prepare the dishes by scraping and neatly piling articles of a kind together. Rub greasy dishes with soft paper, and put water and ammonia or washing powder into utensils that need soaking. Have clean towels at hand. Make ready a pan of hot soap suds, by using a soap shaker, or soap solution, but do not put the cake of soap in the pan. Have rinsing water ready.

Wash the cleanest dishes first, usually the glasses, next the cups and saucers, and the silver next. Have the soiled dishes near the pan, and put in only one or two articles at a time, washing with mop or dish cloth. To pile in a number means the nicking of china, and scratching of silver. Dip each dish in the rinsing water and then put in the drainer. If there is not room for two pans, the dishes may be piled on the drainer not too many at a time, and the rinsing water poured over. Be careful not to use too hot water for delicate china and glass. Change the soapy water when it becomes in the least greasy.

Wipe the dishes while they are still warm, and use dry towels.

Wash the utensils thoroughly, especially on the bottom. Heavy utensils can be dried without wiping, on or near the stove. Do not put any utensils away until they are perfectly dry.

Steel knives should be scoured and thoroughly rinsed and dried. Wash out the towels and dishpan, and leave the sink and drainboard perfectly clean. It does take time and work for this whole process, but spotless cleanliness is our aim.[5]

Home dish-washers are being devised, and should save some of the labor. None as yet has proved very satisfactory.

EXERCISES

1. What is essential to the planning of a convenient kitchen?

2. How may cleanliness be secured through the furnishings?

3. What are the requisites in a good work table?

4. Explain the construction of a refrigerator. Of a good sink.

5. Compare the materials used in utensils.

6. What is the advantage of a machine compared with hand power?

7. Make an estimate of the cost of utensils for the home kitchen from a price list obtained from some standard furnishing shop.

8. Examine the utensils in the school kitchen and at home. Consider the material and shape with reference to durability and convenience.

9. What are the important points in cleaning the kitchen?

10. What are the important points in good dish-washing?

11. What is a good order of work in dish-washing?

CHAPTER III

FUEL AND STOVES

The fuels most widely used in this country are coal, gas, and kerosene. Wood is still used for cooking by those who own wood lots, or who live in a district where wood is abundant, but in a sense it is the fuel of the past. Electricity is generated from coal except in the few communities where the electric current is derived through machinery from the energy of falling water but electricity is not in common household use, and is still the method of the future for the average family. Other substances are burned for fuel occasionally or in restricted localities. Corn cobs are used sometimes in the corn belt. Peat is an old-world fuel. It is a vegetable substance taken in blocks from marshes, in reality the first stage of coal formation. It is a slow-burning fuel which is cheap in its own locality.

Economy of fuel is a world problem, for it is evident that the coal supply will be exhausted in course of time, and this is true also of coal oil or petroleum. Scientists are experimenting to discover practical methods, not dependent upon the burning of coal, for generating electricity. Water power is the only practicable method so far, and to make it permanently available we must conserve the forests still remaining to us, and thus safeguard the sources of our rivers.