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THE WORKS OF HENRY HALLAM.

INTRODUCTION

TO THE

LITERATURE OF EUROPE

IN THE FIFTEENTH, SIXTEENTH,
AND
SEVENTEENTH CENTURIES.

HENRY HALLAM, F.R.A.S.,

CORRESPONDING MEMBER OF THE ACADEMY OF MORAL AND POLITICAL SCIENCES
IN THE FRENCH INSTITUTE

VOLUME I.

WARD, LOCK & CO.,

LONDON: WARWICK HOUSE, SALISBURY SQUARE, E.C.
NEW YORK: BOND STREET.

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER I.
ON THE GENERAL STATE OF LITERATURE IN THE MIDDLE AGES TO THE END OF THEFOURTEENTH CENTURY.
	Page
Retrospect of Learning in Middle Ages Necessary	[1]
Loss of learning in Fall of Roman Empire	[1]
Boethius—his Consolation of Philosophy	[1]
Rapid Decline of Learning in Sixth Century	[2]
A Portion remains in the Church	[2]
Prejudices of the Clergy against Profane Learning	[2]
Their Uselessness in preserving it	[3]
First Appearances of reviving Learning in Ireland and England	[3]
Few Schools before the Age of Charlemagne	[3]
Beneficial Effects of those Established by him	[4]
The Tenth Century more progressive than usually supposed	[4]
Want of Genius in the Dark Ages	[5]
Prevalence of bad Taste	[5]
Deficiency of poetical Talent	[5]
Imperfect State of Language may account for this	[6]
Improvement at beginning of Twelfth Century	[6]
Leading Circumstances in Progress of Learning	[6]
Origin of the University of Paris	[6]
Modes of treating the Science of Theology	[6]
Scholastic Philosophy—its Origin	[7]
Roscelin	[7]
Progress of Scholasticism; Increase of University of Paris	[8]
Universities founded	[8]
Oxford	[8]
Collegiate Foundations not derived from the Saracens	[9]
Scholastic Philosophy promoted by Mendicant Friars	[9]
Character of this Philosophy	[10]
It prevails least in Italy	[10]
Literature in Modern Languages	[10]
Origin of the French, Spanish, and Italian Languages	[10]
Corruption of colloquial Latin in the Lower Empire	[11]
Continuance of Latin in Seventh Century	[12]
It is changed to a new Language in Eighth and Ninth	[12]
Early Specimens of French	[13]
Poem on Boethius	[13]
Provençal Grammar	[14]
Latin retained in use longer in Italy	[14]
French of Eleventh Century	[14]
Metres of Modern Languages	[15]
Origin of Rhyme in Latin	[16]
Provençal and French Poetry	[16]
Metrical Romances—Havelok the Dane	[18]
Diffusion of French Language	[19]
German Poetry of Swabian Period	[19]
Decline of German Poetry	[20]
Poetry of France and Spain	[21]
Early Italian Language	[22]
Dante and Petrarch	[22]
Change of Anglo-Saxon to English	[22]
Layamon	[23]
Progress of English Language	[23]
English of the Fourteenth Century—Chaucer, Gower	[24]
General Disuse of French in England	[24]
State of European Languages about 1400	[25]
Ignorance of Reading and Writing in darker Ages	[25]
Reasons for supposing this to have diminished after 1100	[26]
Increased Knowledge of Writing in Fourteenth Century	[27]
Average State of Knowledge in England	[27]
Invention of Paper	[28]
Linen Paper when first used	[28]
Cotton Paper	[28]
Linen Paper as old as 1100	[28]
Known to Peter of Clugni	[29]
And in Twelfth and Thirteenth Century	[29]
Paper of mixed Materials	[29]
Invention of Paper placed by some too low	[29]
Not at first very important	[30]
Importance of Legal Studies	[30]
Roman Laws never wholly unknown	[31]
Irnerius—his first Successors	[31]
Their Glosses	[31]
Abridgements of Law—Accursius’s Corpus Glossatum	[31]
Character of early Jurists	[32]
Decline of Jurists after Accursius	[32]
Respect paid to him at Bologna	[33]
Scholastic Jurists—Bartolus	[33]
Inferiority of Jurists in Fourteenth and Fifteenth Centuries	[34]
Classical Literature and Taste in dark Ages	[34]
Improvement in Tenth and Eleventh Centuries	[34]
Lanfranc and his Schools	[35]
Italy—Vocabulary of Papias	[36]
Influence of Italy upon Europe	[36]
Increased copying of Manuscripts	[36]
John of Salisbury	[36]
Improvement of Classical Taste in Twelfth Century	[37]
Influence of increased Number of Clergy	[38]
Decline of Classical Literature in Thirteenth Century	[38]
Relapse into Barbarism	[38]
No Improvement in Fourteenth Century—Richard of Bury	[39]
Library formed by Charles V. at Paris	[39]
Some Improvement in Italy during Thirteenth Century	[40]
Catholicon of Balbi	[40]
Imperfection of early Dictionaries	[40]
Restoration of Letters due to Petrarch	[40]
Character of his Style	[41]
His Latin Poetry	[41]
John of Ravenna	[41]
Gasparin of Barziza	[42]
CHAPTER II.
ON THE LITERATURE OF EUROPE FROM 1400 TO 1440.
Zeal for Classical Literature in Italy	[42]
Poggio Bracciolini	[42]
Latin Style of that Age indifferent	[43]
Gasparin of Barziza	[43]
Merits of his Style	[43]
Victorin of Feltre	[44]
Leonard Aretin	[44]
Revival of Greek Language in Italy	[44]
Early Greek Scholars of Europe	[44]
Under Charlemagne and his Successors	[45]
In the Tenth and Eleventh Centuries	[45]
In the Twelfth	[46]
In the Thirteenth	[46]
Little Appearance of it in the Fourteenth Century	[47]
Some Traces of Greek in Italy	[47]
Corruption of Greek Language itself	[47]
Character of Byzantine Literature	[48]
Petrarch and Boccace learn Greek	[48]
Few acquainted with the Language in their Time	[49]
It is taught by Chrysoloras about 1395	[49]
His Disciples	[49]
Translations from Greek into Latin	[50]
Public Encouragement delayed	[51]
But fully accorded before 1440	[51]
Emigration of learned Greeks to Italy	[52]
Causes of Enthusiasm for Antiquity in Italy	[52]
Advanced State of Society	[52]
Exclusive Study of Antiquity	[53]
Classical Learning in France low	[53]
Much more so in England	[53]
Library of Duke of Gloucester	[54]
Gerard Groot’s College at Deventer	[54]
Physical Sciences in Middle Ages	[55]
Arabian Numerals and Method	[55]
Proofs of them in Thirteenth Century	[56]
Mathematical Treatises	[56]
Roger Bacon	[57]
His Resemblance to Lord Bacon	[57]
English Mathematicians of Fourteenth Century	[57]
Astronomy	[58]
Alchemy	[58]
Medicine	[58]
Anatomy	[58]
Encyclopædic Works of Middle Ages	[58]
Vincent of Beauvais	[59]
Berchorius	[59]
Spanish Ballads	[59]
Metres of Spanish Poetry	[60]
Consonant and assonant Rhymes	[60]
Nature of the Glosa	[61]
The Cancionero General	[61]
Bouterwek’s Character of Spanish Songs	[61]
John II.	[62]
Poets of his Court	[62]
Charles, Duke of Orleans	[62]
English Poetry	[62]
Lydgate	[63]
James I. of Scotland	[63]
Restoration of Classical Learning due to Italy	[63]
Character of Classical Poetry lost in Middle Ages	[64]
New School of Criticism in Modern Languages	[64]
Effect of Chivalry on Poetry	[64]
Effect of Gallantry towards Women	[64]
Its probable Origin	[64]
It is shown in old Teutonic Poetry; but appears in the Stories of Arthur	[65]
Romances of Chivalry of two Kinds	[65]
Effect of Difference of Religion upon Poetry	[66]
General Tone of Romance	[66]
Popular Moral Fictions	[66]
Exclusion of Politics from Literature	[67]
Religious Opinions	[67]
Attacks on the Church	[67]
Three Lines of Religious Opinions in Fifteenth Century	[67]
Treatise de Imitatione Christi	[68]
Scepticism—Defences of Christianity	[69]
Raimond de Sebonde	[69]
His Views misunderstood	[69]
His real Object	[70]
Nature of his Arguments	[70]
CHAPTER III.
ON THE LITERATURE OF EUROPE FROM 1440 TO THE CLOSE OF THE FIFTEENTH CENTURY.
The year 1440 not chosen as an Epoch	[71]
Continual Progress of Learning	[71]
Nicolas V.	[71]
Justice due to his Character	[72]
Poggio on the Ruins of Rome	[72]
Account of the East, by Conti	[72]
Laurentius Valla	[72]
His Attack on the Court of Rome	[72]
His Treatise on the Latin Language	[73]
Its Defects	[73]
Heeren’s Praise of it	[73]
Valla’s Annotations on the New Testament	[73]
Fresh Arrival of Greeks in Italy	[74]
Platonists and Aristotelians	[74]
Their Controversy	[74]
Marsilius Ficinus	[75]
Invention of Printing	[75]
Block Books	[75]
Gutenberg and Costar’s Claims	[75]
Progress of the Invention	[76]
First printed Bible	[76]
Beauty of the Book	[77]
Early printed Sheets	[77]
Psalter of 1547—Other early Books	[77]
Bible of Pfister	[77]
Greek first taught at Paris	[78]
Leave unwillingly granted	[78]
Purbach—his Mathematical Discoveries	[78]
Other Mathematicians	[78]
Progress of Printing in Germany	[79]
Introduced into France	[79]
Caxton’s first Works	[79]
Printing exercised in Italy	[79]
Lorenzo de’ Medici	[80]
Italian Poetry of Fifteenth Century	[80]
Italian Prose of same Age	[80]
Giostra of Politian	[80]
Paul II. persecutes the Learned	[81]
Mathias Corvinus	[81]
His Library	[81]
Slight Signs of Literature in England	[81]
Paston Letters	[82]
Low Condition of Public Libraries	[83]
Rowley	[83]
Clotilde de Surville	[83]
Number of Books printed in Italy	[83]
First Greek printed	[84]
Study of Antiquities	[84]
Works on that Subject	[84]
Publications in Germany	[85]
In France	[85]
In England, by Caxton	[85]
In Spain	[85]
Translations of Scripture	[85]
Revival of Literature in Spain	[86]
Character of Labrixa	[86]
Library of Lorenzo	[87]
Classics corrected and explained	[87]
Character of Lorenzo	[87]
Prospect from his Villa at Fiesole	[87]
Platonic Academy	[88]
Disputationes Camaldulenses of Landino	[88]
Philosophical Dialogues	[89]
Paulus Cortesius	[89]
Schools in Germany	[89]
Study of Greek at Paris	[91]
Controversy of Realists and Nominalists	[91]
Scotus	[91]
Ockham	[92]
Nominalists in University of Paris	[92]
Low State of Learning in England	[92]
Mathematics	[93]
Regiomontanus	[93]
Arts of Delineation	[93]
Maps	[94]
Geography	[94]
Greek printed in Italy	[94]
Hebrew printed	[95]
Miscellanies of Politian	[95]
Their Character, by Heeren	[95]
His Version of Herodian	[96]
Cornucopia of Perotti	[96]
Latin Poetry of Politian	[96]
Italian Poetry of Lorenzo	[97]
Pulci	[97]
Character of Morgante Maggiore	[97]
Platonic Theology of Ficinus	[98]
Doctrine of Averroes on the Soul	[98]
Opposed by Ficinus	[99]
Desire of Man to explore Mysteries	[99]
Various Methods employed	[99]
Reason and Inspiration	[99]
Extended Inferences from Sacred Books	[99]
Confidence in Traditions	[100]
Confidence in Individuals as inspired	[100]
Jewish Cabbala	[100]
Picus of Mirandola	[101]
His Credulity in the Cabbala	[101]
His Literary Performances	[102]
State of Learning in Germany	[102]
Agricola	[103]
Renish Academy	[103]
Reuchlin	[104]
French Language and Poetry	[104]
European Drama	[104]
Latin	[104]
Orfeo of Politian	[105]
Origin of Dramatic Mysteries	[105]
Their early Stage	[105]
Extant English Mysteries	[105]
First French Theatre	[106]
Theatrical Machinery	[107]
Italian Religious Dramas	[107]
Moralities	[107]
Farces	[107]
Mathematical Works	[107]
Leo Baptista Alberti	[108]
Lionardo da Vinci	[108]
Aldine Greek Editions	[109]
Decline of Learning in Italy	[110]
Hermolaus Barbarus	[111]
Mantuan	[111]
Pontanus	[111]
Neapolitan Academy	[112]
Boiardo	[112]
Francesco Bello	[113]
Italian Poetry near the End of the Century	[113]
Progress of Learning in France and Germany	[113]
Erasmus—his Diligence	[114]
Budæus—his early Studies	[114]
Latin not well written in France	[115]
Dawn of Greek Learning in England	[115]
Erasmus comes to England	[116]
He publishes his Adages	[116]
Romantic Ballads of Spain	[116]
Pastoral Romances	[117]
Portuguese Lyric Poetry	[117]
German popular Books	[117]
Historical Works	[118]
Philip de Comines	[118]
Algebra	[118]
Events from 1490 to 1500	[119]
Close of Fifteenth Century	[119]
Its Literature nearly neglected	[119]
Summary of its Acquisitions	[119]
Their Imperfection	[120]
Number of Books printed	[120]
Advantages already reaped from Printing	[120]
Trade of Bookselling	[121]
Books sold by Printers	[121]
Price of Books	[122]
Form of Books	[122]
Exclusive Privileges	[122]
Power of Universities over Bookselling	[123]
Restraints on Sale of Printed Books	[124]
Effect of Printing on the Reformation	[124]
CHAPTER IV.
ON THE LITERATURE OF EUROPE FROM 1500 TO 1520.
Decline of Learning in Italy	[125]
Press of Aldus	[125]
His Academy	[126]
Dictionary of Calepio	[126]
Books printed in Germany	[126]
First Greek Press at Paris	[126]
Early Studies of Melanchthon	[127]
Learning in England	[127]
Erasmus and Budæus	[128]
Study of Eastern Languages	[128]
Dramatic Works	[128]
Calisto and Melibœa	[128]
Its Character	[129]
Juan de la Enzina	[129]
Arcadia of Sanazzaro	[129]
Asolani of Bembo	[130]
Dunbar	[130]
Anatomy of Zerbi	[130]
Voyages of Cadamosto	[130]
Leo X., his Patronage of Letters	[131]
Roman Gymnasium	[131]
Latin Poetry	[132]
Italian Tragedy	[132]
Sophonisba of Trissino	[132]
Rosmunda of Rucellai	[132]
Comedies of Ariosto	[132]
Books printed in Italy	[133]
Cælius Rhodiginus	[133]
Greek printed in France and Germany	[133]
Greek Scholars in these Countries	[134]
College at Alcala and Louvain	[134]
Latin Style in France	[135]
Greek Scholars in England	[135]
Mode of Teaching in Schools	[136]
Few Classical Works printed here	[137]
State of Learning in Scotland	[137]
Utopia of More	[137]
Inconsistency in his Opinions	[138]
Learning restored in France	[138]
Jealousy of Erasmus and Budæus	[138]
Character of Erasmus	[139]
His Adages severe on Kings	[139]
Instances in illustration	[140]
His Greek Testament	[142]
Patrons of Letters in Germany	[142]
Resistance to Learning	[143]
Unpopularity of the Monks	[145]
The Book excites Odium	[145]
Erasmus attacks the Monks	[145]
Their Contention with Reuchlin	[145]
Origin of the Reformation	[146]
Popularity of Luther	[147]
Simultaneous Reform by Zwingle	[147]
Reformation prepared beforehand	[147]
Dangerous Tenets of Luther	[148]
Real Explanation of them	[149]
Orlando Furioso	[150]
Its Popularity	[150]
Want of Seriousness	[150]
A Continuation of Boiardo	[150]
In some Points inferior	[151]
Beauties of its Style	[151]
Accompanied with Faults	[151]
Its Place as a Poem	[152]
Amadis de Gaul	[152]
Gringore	[152]
Hans Sachs	[152]
Stephen Hawes	[153]
Change in English Language	[153]
Skelton	[154]
Oriental Languages	[154]
Pomponatius	[155]
Raymond Lully	[155]
His Method	[155]
Peter Martyr’s Epistles	[156]
CHAPTER V.
HISTORY OF ANCIENT LITERATURE IN EUROPE FROM 1520 TO 1550.
Superiority of Italy in Taste	[157]
Admiration of Antiquity	[158]
Sadolet	[158]
Bembo	[159]
Ciceronianus of Erasmus	[159]
Scaliger’s Invective against it	[160]
Editions of Cicero	[160]
Alexander ab Alexandro	[160]
Works on Roman Antiquities	[161]
Greek less Studied in Italy	[161]
Schools of Classical Learning	[161]
Budæus—his Commentaries on Greek	[161]
Their Character	[162]
Greek Grammars and Lexicons	[162]
Editions of Greek Authors	[163]
Latin Thesaurus of R. Stephens	[163]
Progress of Learning in France	[164]
Learning in Spain	[165]
Effects of Reformation on Learning	[165]
Sturm’s Account of German Schools	[165]
Learning in Germany	[166]
In England—Linacre	[166]
Lectures in the Universities	[166]
Greek perhaps Taught to Boys	[167]
Teaching of Smith at Cambridge	[167]
Succeeded by Cheke	[168]
Ascham’s Character of Cambridge	[168]
Wood’s Account of Oxford	[168]
Education of Edward and his Sisters	[169]
The Progress of Learning is still slow	[169]
Want of Books and Public Libraries	[169]
Destruction of Monasteries no Injury to Learning	[169]
Ravisius Textor	[170]
Conrad Gesner	[170]
CHAPTER VI.
HISTORY OF THEOLOGICAL LITERATURE IN EUROPE FROM 1520 TO 1550.
Progress of the Reformation	[171]
Interference of Civil Power	[171]
Excitement of Revolutionary Spirit	[172]
Growth of Fanaticism	[172]
Differences of Luther and Zwingle	[172]
Confession of Augsburg	[173]
Conduct of Erasmus	[173]
Estimate of it	[174]
His Controversy with Luther	[174]
Character of his Epistles	[176]
His Alienation from the Reformers increases	[176]
Appeal of the Reformers to the Ignorant	[176]
Parallel of those Times with the Present	[177]
Calvin	[177]
His Institutes	[177]
Increased Differences among Reformers	[178]
Reformed Tenets spread in England	[178]
In Italy	[178]
Italian Heterodoxy	[179]
Its Progress in the Literary Classes	[180]
Servetus	[180]
Arianism in Italy	[181]
Protestants in Spain and Low Countries	[181]
Order of Jesuits	[181]
Their Popularity	[181]
Council of Trent	[182]
Its Chief Difficulties	[182]
Character of Luther	[182]
Theological Writings—Erasmus	[183]
Melanchthon—Romish Writers	[183]
This Literature nearly forgotten	[184]
Sermons	[184]
Spirit of the Reformation	[184]
Limits of Private Judgment	[185]
Passions instrumental in Reformation	[185]
Establishment of new Dogmatism	[186]
Editions of Scripture	[186]
Translations of Scripture	[186]
In English	[187]
In Italy and Low Countries	[187]
Latin Translations	[187]
French Translations	[188]
CHAPTER VII.
HISTORY OF SPECULATIVE, MORAL, AND POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY, AND OF JURISPRUDENCE, INEUROPE, FROM 1520 TO 1550.
Logic included under this head	[188]
Slow Defeat of Scholastic Philosophy	[188]
It is sustained by the Universities and Regulars	[188]
Commentators on Aristotle	[188]
Attack of Vives on Scholastics	[189]
Contempt of them in England	[189]
Veneration for Aristotle	[189]
Melanchthon countenances him	[189]
His own Philosophical Treatises	[190]
Aristotelians of Italy	[190]
University of Paris	[190]
New Logic of Ramus	[190]
It meets with unfair treatment	[191]
Its Merits and Character	[191]
Buhle’s account of it	[191]
Paracelsus	[191]
His Impostures	[192]
And Extravagancies	[192]
Cornelius Agrippa	[192]
His pretended Philosophy	[193]
His Sceptical Treatise	[193]
Cardan	[193]
Influence of Moral Writers	[194]
Cortegiano of Castiglione	[194]
Marco Aurelio of Guevara	[194]
His Menosprecio di Corte	[194]
Perez d’Oliva	[195]
Ethical Writings of Erasmus and Melanchthon	[195]
Sir T. Elyot’s Governor	[195]
Severity of Education	[196]
He seems to avoid Politics	[196]
Nicholas Machiavel	[196]
His motives in writing the Prince	[197]
Some of his Rules not immoral	[197]
But many dangerous	[197]
Its only Palliation	[198]
His Discourses on Livy	[198]
Their leading Principles	[198]
Their Use and Influence	[199]
His History of Florence	[199]
Treatises on Venetian Government	[199]
Calvin’s Political Principles	[199]
Jurisprudence confined to Roman Law	[200]
The Laws not well arranged	[200]
Adoption of the entire System	[200]
Utility of General Learning to Lawyers	[200]
Alciati—his Reform of Law	[201]
Opposition to him	[201]
Agustino	[201]
CHAPTER VIII.
HISTORY OF THE LITERATURE OF TASTE IN EUROPE FROM 1520 TO 1550.
Poetry of Bembo	[201]
Its Beauties and Defects	[202]
Character of Italian Poetry	[202]
Alamanni	[202]
Vittoria Colonna	[202]
Satires of Ariosto and Alamanni	[203]
Alamanni	[203]
Rucellai	[203]
Trissino	[203]
Berni	[203]
Spanish Poets	[204]
Boscan and Garcilasso	[204]
Mendoza	[204]
Saa di Miranda	[205]
Ribeyro	[205]
French Poetry	[205]
Marot	[206]
Its Metrical Structure	[206]
German Poetry	[206]
Hans Sachs	[206]
German Hymn	[206]
Theuerdanks of Pfintzing	[206]
English Poetry—Lyndsay	[206]
Wyatt and Surrey	[207]
Dr. Nott’s Character of them	[207]
Perhaps rather exaggerated	[208]
Surrey improves our versification	[208]
Introduces Blank Verse	[208]
Dr. Nott’s Hypothesis as to his Metre	[208]
It seems too extensive	[209]
Politeness of Wyatt and Surrey	[209]
Latin Poetry	[210]
Sannazarius	[210]
Vida	[210]
Fracastorius	[210]
Latin Verse not to be disdained	[210]
Other Latin Poets in Italy	[211]
In Germany	[211]
Italian Comedy	[211]
Machiavel	[211]
Aretin	[211]
Tragedy	[212]
Sperone	[212]
Cinthio	[212]
Spanish Drama	[212]
Torres Naharro	[212]
Lope de Rueda	[212]
Gil Vicente	[213]
Mysteries and Moralities in France	[213]
German Theatre—Hans Sachs	[213]
Moralities and Similar Plays in England	[214]
They are turned to religious Satire	[214]
Latin Plays	[214]
First English Comedy	[215]
Romances of Chivalry	[215]
Novels	[215]
Rabelais	[216]
Contest of Latin and Italian Languages	[216]
Influence of Bembo in this	[217]
Apology for Latinists	[217]
Character of the Controversy	[217]
Life of Bembo	[217]
Character of Italian and Spanish Style	[218]
English Writers	[218]
More	[218]
Ascham	[218]
Italian Criticism	[218]
Bembo	[218]
Grammarians and Critics in France	[219]
Orthography of Meigret	[219]
Cox’s Art of Rhetoric	[219]
CHAPTER IX.
ON THE SCIENTIFIC AND MISCELLANEOUS LITERATURE OF EUROPE FROM 1520 TO 1550.
Geometrical Treatises	[220]
Fernel Rhœticus	[220]
Cardan and Tartaglia	[220]
Cubic Equations	[220]
Beauty of the Discovery	[221]
Cardan’s other Discoveries	[221]
Imperfections of Algebraic Language	[222]
Copernicus	[222]
Revival of Greek Medicine	[223]
Linacre and other Physicians	[223]
Medical Innovators	[224]
Paracelsus	[224]
Anatomy	[224]
Berenger	[224]
Vesalius	[224]
Portal’s Account of him	[225]
His Human Dissections	[225]
Fate of Vesalius	[225]
Other Anatomists	[225]
Imperfection of the Science	[225]
Botany—Botanical Gardens	[226]
Ruel	[226]
Fuchs	[226]
Matthioli	[226]
Low State of Zoology	[226]
Agricola	[227]
Hebrew	[227]
Elias Levita—Pellican	[227]
Arabic and Oriental Literature	[227]
Geography of Grynæus	[228]
Apianus	[228]
Munster	[228]
Voyages	[228]
Oviedo	[228]
Historical Works	[228]
Italian Academies	[229]
They pay regard to the Language	[229]
Their fondness for Petrarch	[229]
They become numerous	[229]
Their Distinctions	[230]
Evils connected with them	[230]
They succeed less in Germany	[230]
Libraries	[230]
CHAPTER X.
HISTORY OF ANCIENT LITERATURE IN EUROPE FROM 1550 TO 1600.
Progress of Philology	[231]
First Editions of Classics	[231]
Change in Character of Learning	[232]
Cultivation of Greek	[232]
Principal Scholars—Turnebus	[232]
Petrus Victorius	[233]
Muretus	[233]
Gruter’s Thesaurus Criticus	[234]
Editions of Greek and Latin Authors	[235]
Tacitus of Lipsius	[235]
Horace of Lambinus	[235]
Of Cruquius	[236]
Henry Stephens	[236]
Lexicon of Constantin	[237]
Thesaurus of Stephens	[237]
Abridged by Scapula	[238]
Hellenismus of Caninius	[239]
Vergara’s Grammar	[239]
Grammars of Ramus and Sylburgius	[239]
Camerarius—Canter—Robortellus	[240]
Editions by Sylburgius	[241]
Neander	[241]
Gesner	[241]
Decline of Taste in Germany	[242]
German Learning	[242]
Greek Verses of Rhodomanu	[242]
Learning Declines	[243]
Except in Catholic Germany	[243]
Philological Works of Stephens	[243]
Style of Lipsius	[244]
Minerva of Sanctius	[244]
Orations of Muretus	[244]
Panegyric of Ruhnkenius	[244]
Defects of his Style	[245]
Epistles of Manutius	[245]
Care of the Italian Latinists	[245]
Perpinianus—Osorius—Maphœus	[246]
Buchanan—Haddon	[246]
Sigonius, De Consolatione	[246]
Decline of Taste and Learning in Italy	[247]
Joseph Scaliger	[247]
Isaac Casaubon	[248]
General Result	[249]
Learning in England under Edward and Mary	[249]
Revival under Elizabeth	[249]
Greek Lectures at Cambridge	[250]
Few Greek Editions in England	[250]
School Books enumerated	[250]
Greek taught in Schools	[251]
Greek better known after 1580	[251]
Editions of Greek	[252]
And of Latin Classics	[252]
Learning lower than in Spain	[252]
Improvement at the End of the Century.	[253]
Learning in Scotland	[253]
Latin little used in Writing	[253]
Early Works on Antiquities	[254]
P. Manutius on Roman Laws	[254]
Manutius, De Civitate	[254]
Panvinius—Sigonius	[255]
Gruchius	[255]
Sigonius on Athenian Polity	[256]
Patrizzi and Lipsius on Roman Militia	[256]
Lipsius and other Antiquaries	[256]
Saville on Roman Militia	[257]
Numismatics	[257]
Mythology	[257]
Scaliger’s Chronology	[258]
Julian Period	[258]
CHAPTER XI.
HISTORY OF THEOLOGICAL LITERATURE IN EUROPE FROM 1550 TO 1600.
Diet of Augsburg in 1555	[259]
Progress of Protestantism	[259]
Its Causes	[260]
Wavering of Catholic Princes	[260]
Extinguished in Italy and Spain	[260]
Reaction of Catholicity	[260]
Especially in Germany	[261]
Discipline of the Clergy	[261]
Influence of Jesuits	[261]
Their Progress	[262]
Their Colleges	[262]
Jesuit Seminary at Rome	[262]
Patronage of Gregory XIII.	[262]
Conversions in Germany and France	[263]
Causes of this Reaction	[263]
A rigid Party in the Church	[264]
Its Efforts at Trent	[264]
No Compromise in Doctrine	[265]
Consultation of Cassander	[265]
Bigotry of Protestant Churches	[266]
Tenets of Melanchthon	[266]
A Party hostile to him	[267]
Form of Concord, 1576	[267]
Controversy raised by Baius	[267]
Treatise of Molina on Free will	[268]
Protestant Tenets	[268]
Trinitarian Controversy	[268]
Religious Intolerance	[270]
Castalio	[270]
Answered by Beza	[271]
Aconcio	[271]
Minus Celsus, Koornhert	[271]
Decline of Protestantism	[272]
Desertion of Lipsius	[272]
Jewell’s Apology	[272]
English Theologians	[272]
Bellarmin	[273]
Topics of Controversy changed	[273]
It turns on Papal Power	[274]
This upheld by the Jesuits	[274]
Claim to depose Princes	[274]
Bull against Elizabeth	[274]
And Henry IV.	[275]
Deposing Power owned in Spain	[275]
Asserted by Bellarmin	[275]
Methods of Theological Doctrine	[275]
Loci Communes	[275]
In the Protestant and Catholic Church	[276]
Catharin	[276]
Critical and Expository Writings	[276]
Ecclesiastical Historians	[277]
Le Clerc’s Character of them	[277]
Deistical Writers	[277]
Wierus, De Præstigiis	[278]
Scot on Witchcraft	[278]
Authenticity of Vulgate	[278]
Latin Versions and Editions by Catholics	[278]
By Protestants	[279]
Versions into Modern Languages	[279]
CHAPTER XII.
HISTORY OF SPECULATIVE PHILOSOPHY FROM 1550 TO 1600.
Predominance of Aristotelian Philosophy	[279]
Scholastic and genuine Aristotelians	[280]
The former class little remembered	[280]
The others not much better known	[280]
Schools of Pisa and Padua	[280]
Cesalpini	[280]
Sketch of his System	[280]
Cremonini	[281]
Opponents of Aristotle	[281]
Patrizzi	[281]
System of Telesio	[281]
Jordano Bruno	[282]
His Italian Works—Cena de li Ceneri	[282]
Della Causa, Principio ed Uno	[282]
Pantheism of Bruno	[283]
Bruno’s other Writings	[284]
General Character of his Philosophy	[285]
Sceptical Theory of Sanchez	[286]
Logic of Aconcio	[286]
Nizolius on the Principles of Philosophy	[286]
Margarita Antoniana of Pereira	[287]
Logic of Ramus—its Success	[288]
CHAPTER XIII.
HISTORY OF MORAL AND POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY AND OF JURISPRUDENCE FROM 1550 TO 1600.
Soto, De Justitia	[289]
Hooker	[290]
His Theory of Natural Law	[290]
Doubts felt by others	[290]
Essays of Montaigne	[290]
Their Characteristics	[290]
Writers on Morals in Italy	[293]
In England	[293]
Bacon’s Essays	[293]
Number of Political Writers	[294]
Oppression of Governments	[294]
And Spirit generated by it	[294]
Derived from Classic History	[294]
From their own and the Jewish	[294]
Franco Gallia of Hossoman	[295]
Vindiciæ of Languet	[295]
Contr’Un of Boetie	[295]
Buchanan, De Jure Regni	[296]
Poynet, on Politique Power	[296]
Its liberal Theory	[296]
Argues for Tyrannicide	[297]
The Tenets of Parties swayed by Circumstances	[297]
Similar Tenets among the Leaguers	[298]
Rose on the Authority of Christian States over Kings	[298]
Treatise of Boucher in the same Spirit	[299]
Answered by Barclay	[299]
The Jesuits adopt these Tenets	[299]
Mariana, De Rege	[299]
Popular Theories in England	[300]
Hooker	[300]
Political Memoirs	[301]
La Noue	[301]
Lipsius	[301]
Botero	[301]
His Remarks on Population	[301]
Paruta	[302]
Bodin	[302]
Analysis of his Treatise called the Republic	[302]
Authority of Heads of Families	[302]
Domestic Servitude	[303]
Origin of Commonwealths	[303]
Privileges of Citizens	[303]
Nature of Sovereign Power	[304]
Forms of Government	[304]
Despotism and Monarchy	[304]
Aristocracy	[305]
Senates and Councils of State	[305]
Duties of Magistrates	[305]
Corporations	[305]
Slaves, part of the State	[305]
Rise and Fall of States	[306]
Causes of Revolution	[306]
Astrological Fancies of Bodin	[306]
Danger of sudden Changes	[307]
Judicial Power of the Sovereign	[307]
Toleration of Religions	[307]
Influence of Climate on Government	[307]
Means of obviating Inequality	[308]
Confiscations—Rewards	[308]
Fortresses	[308]
Necessity of Good Faith	[309]
Census of Property	[309]
Public Revenues	[309]
Taxation	[309]
Adulteration of Coin	[310]
Superiority of Monarchy	[310]
Conclusion of the Work	[310]
Bodin compared with Aristotle and Machiavel	[310]
And with Montesquieu	[310]
Golden Age of Jurisprudence	[311]
Cujacius	[311]
Eulogies bestowed upon him	[311]
Cujacius, an Interpreter of Law rather than a Lawyer	[312]
French Lawyers below Cujacius—Govca and others	[312]
Opponents of the Roman Law	[313]
Faber of Savoy	[313]
Anti-Tribonianus of Hottoman	[313]
Civil Law not countenanced in France	[314]
Turamini	[314]
Cau Law	[314]
Law of Nations; its early State	[314]
Francis a Victoria	[314]
His Opinions on Public Law	[315]
Ayala, on the Rights of War	[315]
Albericus Gentilis on Embassies	[316]
His Treatise on the Rights of War	[317]
CHAPTER XIV.
HISTORY OF POETRY FROM 1550 TO 1600.
General Character of Italian Poets in this Age	[318]
Their usual Faults	[318]
Their Beauties	[318]
Character given by Muratori	[318]
Poetry of Casa	[318]
Of Costanzo	[319]
Baldi	[319]
Caro	[319]
Odes of Celio Magus	[319]
Coldness of the Amatory Sonnets	[320]
Studied Imitation of Petrarch	[320]
Their Fondness for Description	[320]
Judgment of Italian Critics	[320]
Bernardino Rota	[320]
Gaspara Stampa; her Love for Collalto	[321]
Is ill-requited	[322]
Her Second Love	[322]
Style of Gaspara Stampa	[322]
La Nautica of Baldi	[322]
Amadigi of Bernardo Tasso	[323]
Satirical and burlesque Poetry; Aretin	[323]
Other burlesque Writers	[324]
Attempts at Latin Metres	[324]
Poetical Translations	[324]
Torquato Tasso	[324]
The Jerusalem excellent in Choice of Subject	[324]
Superior to Homer and Virgil in some Points	[324]
Its Characters	[325]
Excellence of its Style	[325]
Some Faults in it	[325]
Defects of the Poem	[326]
It indicates the peculiar Genius of Tasso	[326]
Tasso compared to Virgil	[326]
To Ariosto	[326]
To the Bolognese Painters	[327]
Poetry Cultivated under Charles and Philip	[327]
Luis de Leon	[328]
Herrera	[328]
General Tone of Castilian Poetry	[329]
Castillejo	[329]
Araucana of Ercilla	[329]
Many epic Poems in Spain	[329]
Camœns	[330]
Defects of the Lusiad	[330]
Its Excellencies	[330]
Mickle’s Translation	[330]
Celebrated Passage in the Lusiad	[331]
Minor Poems of Camœns	[331]
Ferreira	[331]
Spanish Ballads	[331]
French Poets numerous	[332]
Change in the Tone of French Poetry	[333]
Ronsard	[333]
Other French Poets	[334]
Du Bartas	[334]
Pibrac; Desportes	[335]
French Metre and Versification	[335]
General character of French Poetry	[335]
German Poetry	[336]
Paradise of Dainty Devices	[336]
Character of this Collection	[336]
Sackville’s Induction	[336]
Inferiority of Poets in early years of Elizabeth	[337]
Gascoyne	[337]
Spenser’s Shepherd’s Kalendar	[337]
Sydney’s Character of Contemporary Poets	[338]
Improvement soon after this Time	[338]
Relaxation of Moral Austerity	[339]
Serious Poetry	[339]
Poetry of Sydney	[339]
Epithalanium of Spenser	[340]
Poems of Shakspeare	[340]
Daniel and Drayton	[340]
Nosce Teipsum of Davies	[340]
Satires of Hall, Marston, and Donne	[341]
Modulation of English Verse	[341]
Translations of Homer by Chapman	[341]
Of Tasso by Fairfax	[342]
Employment of Ancient Measures	[342]
Number of Poets in this Age	[342]
Scots and English Ballads	[343]
The Faery Queen	[343]
Superiority of the First Book	[343]
The succeeding Books	[344]
Spenser’s Sense of Beauty	[344]
Compared to Ariosto	[344]
Style of Spenser	[345]
Inferiority of the latter Books	[345]
Allegories of the Faery Queen	[346]
Blemishes in the Diction	[346]
Admiration of the Faery Queen	[346]
General Parallel of Italian and English Poetry	[347]
Decline of Latin Poetry in Italy	[347]
Compensated in other Countries	[347]
Lotichius	[347]
Collections of Latin Poetry by Gruter	[348]
Characters of some Gallo-Latin Poets	[348]
Sammarthanus	[349]
Belgic Poets	[349]
Scots Poets—Buchanan	[349]
CHAPTER XV.
HISTORY OF DRAMATIC LITERATURE FROM 1550 TO 1600.
Italian Tragedy	[350]
Pastoral Drama	[351]
Aminta of Tasso	[351]
Pastor Fido of Guarini	[352]
Italian Opera	[352]
The National Taste revives in the Spanish Drama	[353]
Lope de Vega	[353]
His Extraordinary Fertility	[353]
His Versification	[354]
His Popularity	[354]
Character of his Comedies	[354]
Tragedy of Don Sancho Ortiz	[355]
His Spiritual Plays	[356]
Numancia of Cervantes	[356]
French Theatre—Jodelle	[357]
Garnier	[357]
Comedies of Larivey	[358]
Theatres in Paris	[358]
English Stage	[359]
Gammar Gurton’s Needle	[359]
Gorboduc of Sackville	[359]
Preference given to the Irregular Form	[359]
First Theatres	[360]
Plays of Whetstone and Others	[360]
Marlowe and his Contemporaries	[360]
Tamburlaine	[361]
Blank Verse of Marlowe	[361]
Marlowe’s Jew of Malta	[361]
And Faustus	[361]
His Edward II.	[361]
Plays whence Henry VI. was taken	[361]
Peele	[362]
Greene	[362]
Other Writers of this Age	[363]
Heywood’s Woman Killed with Kindness	[363]
William Shakspeare	[364]
His First Writings for the Stage	[364]
Comedy of Errors	[365]
Love’s Labour Lost	[365]
Taming of the Shrew	[365]
Midsummer Night’s Dream	[365]
Its Machinery	[366]
Its Language	[366]
Romeo and Juliet	[366]
Its Plot	[367]
Its Beauties and Blemishes	[367]
The Characters	[367]
The Language	[367]
Second Period of Shakspeare	[368]
The Historical Plays	[368]
Merchant of Venice	[368]
As You Like It	[369]
Jonson’s Every Man in his Humour	[369]
CHAPTER XVI.
HISTORY OF POLITE LITERATURE IN PROSE FROM 1550 TO 1600.
Italian Writers	[369]
Casa	[369]
Tasso	[370]
Firenzuola	[370]
Character of Italian Prose	[370]
Italian Letter Writers	[370]
Davanzati’s Tacitus	[371]
Jordano Bruno	[371]
French Writers—Amyot	[371]
Montaigne; Du Vair	[371]
Satire Menippée	[372]
English Writers	[372]
Ascham	[372]
Euphues of Lilly	[373]
Its Popularity	[373]
Sydney’s Arcadia	[374]
His Defence of Poesie	[374]
Hooker	[374]
Character of Elizabethan Writers	[374]
State of Criticism	[375]
Scaliger’s Poetics	[375]
His Preference of Virgil to Homer	[375]
His Critique on Modern Latin Poets	[376]
Critical Influence of the Academics	[376]
Dispute of Caro and Castelvetro	[377]
Castelvetro on Aristotle’s Poetics	[377]
Severity of Castelvetro’s Criticism	[377]
Ercolano of Varchi	[378]
Controversy about Dante	[378]
Academy of Florence	[378]
Salviati’s Attack on Tasso	[379]
Pinciano’s Art of Poetry	[379]
French Treatises of Criticism	[379]
Wilson’s Art of Rhetorique	[379]
Gascoyne; Webbe	[380]
Puttenham’s Art of Poesie	[380]
Sydney’s Defence of Poesy	[380]
Novels of Bandello	[380]
Of Cinthio	[381]
Of the Queen of Navarre	[381]
Spanish Romances of Chivalry	[381]
Diana of Monte-Mayor	[382]
Novels in the Picaresque Style	[382]
Guzman d’Alfarache	[382]
Las Guerras de Granada	[383]
Sydney’s Arcadia	[383]
Its Character	[383]
Inferiority of other English Fictions	[384]
CHAPTER XVII.
HISTORY OF PHYSICAL AND MISCELLANEOUS LITERATURE FROM 1500 TO 1600.
Tartaglia and Cardan	[385]
Algebra of Pelletier	[385]
Record’s Whetstone of Wit	[385]
Vieta	[385]
His Discoveries	[386]
Geometers of this Period	[388]
Joachim Rhœticus	[388]
Copernican Theory	[388]
Tycho Brahe	[389]
His System	[389]
Gregorian Calendar	[390]
Optics	[390]
Mechanics	[390]
Statics of Stevinus	[391]
Hydrostatics	[392]
Gilbert on the Magnet	[392]
Gesner’s Zoology	[392]
Its Character by Cuvier	[392]
Gesner’s Arrangement	[393]
His Additions to known Quadrupeds	[393]
Belon	[394]
Salviani and Rondelet’s Ichthyology	[394]
Aldrovandus	[394]
Botany—Turner	[395]
Maranta—Botanical Gardens	[395]
Gesner	[396]
Dodœns	[396]
Lobel	[396]
Clusius	[396]
Cæsalpin	[396]
Dalechamps—Bauhin	[397]
Gerard’s Herbal	[397]
Anatomy—Fallopius	[397]
Eustachius	[397]
Coiter	[398]
Columbus	[398]
Circulation of the Blood	[398]
Medicinal Science	[398]
Syriac Version of New Testament	[399]
Hebrew Critics	[399]
Its Study in England	[399]
Arabic begins to be Studied	[399]
Collection of Voyages by Ramusio	[400]
Curiosity they awakened	[400]
Other Voyages	[401]
Accounts of China	[401]
India and Russia	[401]
English Discoveries in the Northern Seas	[401]
Geographical Books—Ortelius	[401]
Guicciardini	[402]
French Memoirs	[403]
Universities in Italy	[403]
In other Countries	[403]
Libraries	[403]
Collections of Antiquities in Italy	[404]
Pinelli	[404]
Italian Academies	[405]
Society of Antiquaries in England	[405]
New Books and Catalogues of them	[406]
Literary Correspondence	[406]
Bibliographical Works	[406]
Restraints on the Press	[407]
Index Expurgatorius	[407]
Its Effects	[407]
Restrictions in England	[407]
Latin more employed on this account	[408]
Influence of Literature	[408]
CHAPTER XVIII.
HISTORY OF ANCIENT LITERATURE IN EUROPE FROM 1600 TO 1650.
Learning of 17th Century less Philological	409
Popularity of Comenius	409
Decline of Greek Learning	410
Casaubon	410
Viger de Idiotismis	411
Weller’s Greek Grammar	411
Labbe and Others	411
Salmasius de Lingua Hellenistica	412
Greek Editions—Savile’s Chrysostom	412
Greek Learning in England	413
Latin Editions—Torrentius	413
Gruter	413
Heinsius	413
Grotius	414
Rutgersius—Reinesius—Barthius	414
Other Critics—English	414
Salmasius	415
Good Writers of Latin	415
Scioppius	416
His Philosophical Grammar	416
His Infamia Famiani	416
Judicium de Stylo Historico	416
Gerard Vossius, de Vitiis Sermonis	417
His Aristarchus	417
Progress of Latin Style	418
Gruter’s Collection of Inscriptions	418
Assisted by Scaliger	419
Works on Roman Antiquity	419
Geography of Cluversius	420
Meursius	420
Ubbo Emmius	420
Chronology of Lydiat—Calvisius	420
Petavius	421
Character of this Work	421
CHAPTER XIX.
HISTORY Of THEOLOGICAL LITERATURE IN EUROPE FROM 1600 TO 1650.
Temporal Supremacy of Rome	422
Contest with Venice	423
Father Paul Sarpi	423
History of Council of Trent	424
Gallican Liberties—Richter	424
Perron	425
Decline of Papal Power	425
Unpopularity of the Jesuits	426
Richelieu’s Care of Gallican Liberties	426
Controversy of Catholics and Protestants	426
Increased respect for the Fathers	426
Especially in England—Laud	427
Defections to the Catholic Church	427
Wavering of Casaubon	428
And of Grotius	429
Calixtus	434
His Attempts at Concord	434
High Church Party in England	435
Daillé on the Right Use of the Fathers	435
Chillingworth’s Religion of Protestants	436
Character of this Work	436
Hales on Schism	438
Controversies on Grace and Free will—Augustinian Scheme	438
Semi-pelagian Hypothesis	439
Tenets of the Reformers	439
Rise of Arminianism	440
Episcopius	440
His Writings	440
Their Spirit and Tendency	440
Great Latitude allowed by them	441
Progress of Arminianism	441
Cameron	441
Rise of Jansenism	441
Socinus—Volkelius	442
Crellius—Ruarus	442
Erastianism maintained by Hooker	443
And Grotius	444
His Treatise on Ecclesiastical Power of the State	444
Remark upon this Theory	446
Toleration of Religious Tenets	446
Claimed by the Arminians	446
By the Independents	447
And by Jeremy Taylor	447
His Liberty of Prophesying	447
Boldness of his Doctrines	447
His Notions of Uncertainty in Theological Tenets	448
His low Opinion of the Fathers	448
Difficulty of Finding out Truth	449
Grounds of Toleration	449
Inconsistency of One Chapter	450
His General Defence of Toleration	450
Effect of this Treatise	451
Its Defects	451
Great Erudition of this Period	452
Usher—Petavius	452
Sacred Criticism	452
Grotius—Coccejus	452
English Commentators	453
Style of Preaching	453
English Sermons	453
Of Donne	454
Of Jeremy Taylor	454
Devotional Writings of Taylor and Hall	454
In the Roman	455
And Lutheran Church	455
Infidelity of some Writers—Charron—Vanini	455
Lord Herbert of Cherbury	456
Grotius de Veritate	457
English Translation of the Bible	457
Its Style	457
CHAPTER XX.
HISTORY OF SPECULATIVE PHILOSOPHY FROM 1600 TO 1650.
Subjects of this Chapter	458
Aristotelians and Ramists	458
No improvement till near the End of the Century	459
Methods of the Universities	459
Scholastic Writers	459
Treatises on Logic	460
Campanella	460
His Theory taken from Telesio	460
Notion of Universal Sensibility	461
His Imagination and Eloquence	461
His Works Published by Admai	462
Basson	463
Berigard	463
Magnen	463
Paracelsists	463
And Theosophists	463
Fludd	464
Jacob Behmen	464
Lord Herbert de Veritate	464
His Axioms	465
Conditions of Truth	465
Instinctive Truths	466
Internal Perceptions	466
Five Notions of Natural Religion	466
Remarks of Gassendi on Herbert	467
Gassendi’s Defence of Epicurus	468
His chief Works after 1650	468
Preparation for the Philosophy of Lord Bacon	468
His Plan of Philosophy	468
Time of its Conception	469
Instauratio Magna	470
First Part—Partitiones Scientiarum	470
Second Part—Novum Organum	470
Third Part—Natural History	470
Fourth Part—Scala Intellectûs	471
Fifth Part—Anticipationes Philosophiæ	471
Sixth Part—Philosophia Secunda	471
Course of studying Lord Bacon	472
Nature of the Baconian Induction	472
His Dislike of Aristotle	474
His Method much required	474
Its Objects	474
Sketch of the Treatise De Augmentis	474
History	474
Poetry	475
Fine Passage on Poetry	475
Natural Theology and Metaphysics	475
Form of Bodies might sometimes be inquired into	475
Final Causes too much slighted	476
Man not included by him in Physics	476
Man—in Body and Mind	476
Logic	476
Extent given it by Bacon	476
Grammar and Rhetoric	477
Ethics	477
Politics	477
Theology	478
Desiderata enumerated by him	478
Novum Organum—First Book	478
Fallacies—Idola	478
Confounded with Idols	478
Second Book of Novum Organum	479
Confidence of Bacon	479
Almost justified of late	480
But should be kept within Bounds	481
Limits to our Knowledge by Sense	481
Inductive Logic—whether confined to Physics	481
Baconian Philosophy built on Observation and Experiment	482
Advantages of the latter	482
Sometimes applicable to Philosophy of Human Mind	483
Less so to Politics and Morals	483
Induction less conclusive on these Subjects	483
Reasons for this Difference	484
Considerations on the other Side	484
Result of the whole	485
Bacon’s Aptitude for Moral Subjects	486
Comparison of Bacon and Galileo	487
His Prejudice against Mathematics	488
Bacon’s Excess of Wit	488
Fame of Bacon on the Continent	489
Early Life of Descartes	491
His beginning to philosophise	491
He retires to Holland	491
His Publications	492
He begins by doubting all	492
His First Step in Knowledge	492
His Mind not Sceptical	493
He arrives at more Certainty	493
His Proof of a Deity	493
Another Proof of it	494
His Deductions from this	494
Primary and Secondary Qualities	495
Objections made to his Meditations	495
Theory of Memory and Imagination	496
Seat of Soul in Pineal Gland	497
Gassendi’s Attacks on the Meditations	497
Superiority of Descartes	497
Stewart’s Remarks on Descartes	498
Paradoxes of Descartes	499
His Just Notions and Definitions	500
His Notion of Substances	501
Not Quite Correct	501
His Notions of Intuitive Truth	501
Treatise on Art of Logic	502
Merits of his Writings	502
His Notions of Free will	502
Fame of his System, and Attacks upon it	503
Controversy with Voet	503
Charges of Plagiarism	504
Recent Increase of his Fame	505
Metaphysical Treatises of Hobbes	505
His Theory of Sensation	506
Coincident with Descartes	506
Imagination and Memory	506
Discourse or Train of Imagination	507
Experience	507
Unconceivableness of Infinity	507
Origin of Language	508
His Political Theory interferes	508
Necessity of Speech exaggerated	509
Use of Names	509
Names Universal not Realities	509
How imposed	510
The Subject continued	510
Names differently imposed	511
Knowledge	511
Reasoning	512
False Reasoning	512
Its frequency	513
Knowledge of Fact not derived from Reasoning	514
Belief	514
Chart of Science	515
Analysis of Passions	515
Good and Evil relative Terms	515
His Paradoxes	515
His Notion of Love	516
Curiosity	516
Difference of Intellectual Capacities	516
Wit and Fancy	517
Differences in the Passions	517
Madness	517
Unmeaning Language	517
Manners	517
Ignorances and Prejudice	518
His Theory of Religion	518
Its supposed Sources	518
CHAPTER XXI.
HISTORY OF MORAL AND POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY AND OF JURISPRUDENCE FROM 1600 TO 1650.
Casuistical Writers	521
Importance of Confession	521
Necessity of Rules for the Confessor	521
Increase of Casuistical Literature	521
Distinction of subjective and objective Morality	522
Directory Office of the Confessor	522
Difficulties of Casuistry	522
Strict and Lax Schemes of it	523
Convenience of the latter	523
Favoured by the Jesuits	523
The Causes of this	523
Extravagance of the strict Casuists	524
Opposite Faults of Jesuits	524
Suarez, De Legibus	524
Titles of his Ten Books	524
Heads of the Second Book	525
Character of such Scholastic Treatises	525
Quotations of Suarez	525
His Definition of Eternal Law	526
Whether God is a Legislator	526
Whether God could permit or commend wrong Actions	527
English Casuists—Perkins—Hall	527
Selden, De Jure Naturali Juxta Hebræos	528
Jewish Theory of Natural Law	528
Seven Precepts of the Sons of Noah	528
Character of Selden’s Work	528
Grotius and Hobbes	528
Charron on Wisdom	[29]
La Mothe le Vayer—his Dialogues	529
Bacon’s Essays	529
Their Excellence	530
Feltham’s Resolves	530
Browne’s Religio Medici	531
Selden’s Table Talk	532
Osborn’s Advice to his Son	532
John Valentine Andrax	532
Abandonment of Anti-Monarchical Theories	533
Political Literature becomes historical	533
Bellenden De Statu	534
Campanella’s Politics	534
La Mothe le Vayer	534
Naude’s Coups d’Etat	534
Patriarchal Theory of Government	534
Refuted by Suarez	535
His Opinion of Law	535
Bacon	536
Political Economy	536
Serra on the Means of obtaining Money without Mines	537
His Causes of Wealth	537
His Praise of Venice	537
Low Rate of Exchange not essential to wealth	587
Hobbes.—His Political Works	538
Analysis of his Three Treatises	538
Civil Jurists of this period	543
Suarez on Laws	544
Grotius—De Jure Belli et Pacis	544
Success of this Work	544
Its Originality	545
Its Motive and Object	545
His Authorities	545
Foundation of Natural Law	546
Positive Law	546
Perfect and Imperfect Rights	546
Lawful Cases of War	546
Resistance by Subjects unlawful	547
All Men naturally have Right of War	547
Right of Self-Defence	548
Its Origin and Limitations	548
Right of Occupancy	549
Relinquishment of it	549
Right over Persons—By Generation	549
By Consent	549
In Marriage	549
In Commonwealths	549
Right of Alienating Subjects	549
Alienation by Testament	550
Rights of Property by Positive Law	550
Extinction of Rights	550
Some Casuistical Questions	550
Promises	550
Contracts	551
Considered ethically	551
Promissory Oaths	552
Engagements of Kings towards Subjects	552
Public Treaties	552
Their Interpretation	553
Obligation to repair Injury	553
Rights by Law of Nations	554
Those of Ambassadors	554
Right of Sepulture	554
Punishments	554
Their Responsibility	555
Insufficient Causes of War	556
Duty of avoiding it	556
And Expediency	556
War for the sake of other Subjects	556
Allies	556
Strangers	556
None to Serve in an Unjust War	556
Rights in War	557
Use of Deceit	557
Rules and Customs of Nations	557
Reprisals	557
Declarations of War	557
Rights by law of nations over Enemies	558
Prisoners become Slaves	558
Rights of Postliminium	558
Moral Limitation of Rights in War	558
Moderation required as to spoil	559
And as to Prisoners	559
Also in Conquest	559
And in Restitution to right Owners	559
Promises to Enemies and Pirates	559
Treaties concluded by competent Authority	560
Matters relating to them	561
Truces and Conventions	561
Those of Private persons	561
Objections to Grotius made by Paley unreasonable	561
Reply of Mackintosh	561
Censures of Stewart	562
Answer to them	562
Grotius vindicated against Rousseau	565
His Arrangement	565
His Defects	565
CHAPTER XXII.
HISTORY OF POETRY FROM 1600 TO 1650.
Low Estimation of the Seicentisti	566
Not quite so great as formerly	566
Praise of them by Rubbi	566
Also by Salfi	566
Adone of Marini	567
Its Character	567
And Popularity	567
Secchia Rapita of Tassoni	568
Chiabrera	569
His Followers	569
The Styles of Spanish Poetry	570
The Romances	570
The Brothers Argensola	570
Villegas	571
Quevedo	571
Defects of Taste in Spanish Verse	571
Pedantry and far-fetched Allusions	572
Gongora	572
The Schools formed by him	573
Malherbe	573
Criticisms upon his Poetry	574
Satires of Regnier	574
Racan—Maynard	574
Voiture	574
Sarrasin	575
Low state of German Literature	575
Literary Societies	575
Opitz	575
His Followers	576
Dutch Poetry	576
Spiegel	576
Hooft-Cats-Vondel	577
Danish Poetry	577
English Poets numerous in this age	577
Phineas Fletcher	577
Giles Fletcher	578
Philosophical Poetry	578
Lord Brooke	578
Denham’s Cooper’s Hill	579
Poets called Metaphysical	579
Donne	580
Crashaw	580
Cowley	580
Johnson’s Character of him	580
Narrative Poets—Daniel	580
Drayton’s Polyolbion	581
Browne’s Britannia’s Pastorals	581
Sir John Beaumont	582
Davenant’s Gondibert	582
Sonnets of Shakspeare	582
The person whom they address	583
Sonnets of Drummond and others	584
Carew	584
Ben Jonson	585
Wither	585
Habington	585
Earl of Pembroke	585
Suckling	586
Lovelace	586
Herrick	586
Milton	586
His Comus	586
Lycidas	587
Allegro and Penseroso	587
Ode on the Nativity	588
His Sonnets	588
Anonymous Poetry	588
Latin Poets of France	588
In Germany and Italy	588
In Holland—Heinsius	589
Casimir Sarbievius	589
Barlæus	589
Balde—Greek Poems of Heinsius	590
Latin Poets of Scotland—Jonston’s Psalms	590
Owen’s Epigrams	590
Alabaster’s Roxana	590
May’s Supplement to Lucan	590
Milton’s Latin Poems	591
CHAPTER XXIII.
HISTORY OF DRAMATIC LITERATURE FROM 1600 TO 1650.
Decline of the Italian Theatre	591
Filli de Sciro	592
Translations of Spanish Dramas	592
Extemporaneous Comedy	593
Spanish Stage	593
Calderon—Number of his Pieces	593
His Comedies	593
La Vida es Sueno	594
A Secreto agravio secreta vengança	595
Style of Calderon	595
His Merits sometimes overrated	596
Plays of Hardy	596
The Cid	597
Style of Corneille	598
Les Horaces	598
Cimia	598
Polyeucte	599
Rodogune	599
Pompey	599
Heraclius	599
Nicomède	600
Faults and Beauties of Corneille	600
Le Menteur	600
Other French Tragedies	600
Wenceslas of Rotron	600
Popularity of the Stage under Elizabeth	601
Number of Theatres	601
Encouraged by James	601
General Taste for the Stage	601
Theatres closed by the Parliament	602
Shakspeare’s Twelfth Night	602
Merry Wives of Windsor	603
Measure for Measure	604
Lear	604
Timon of Athens	604
Pericles	605
His Roman Tragedies—Julius Cæsar	606
Antony and Cleopatra	606
Coriolanus	606
His Retirement and Death	607
Greatness of his Genius	607
His Judgment	607
His Obscurity	608
His Popularity	608
Critics on Shakspeare	609
Ben Jonson	609
The Alchemist	609
Volpone, or The Fox	610
The Silent Woman	610
Sad Shepherd	611
Beaumont and Fletcher	611
Corrupt State of their Text	611
The Maid’s Tragedy	611
Philaster	612
King and no King	613
The Elder Brother	613
The Spanish Curate	613
The Custom of the Country	613
The Loyal Subject	613
Beggar’s Bush	613
The Scornful Lady	614
Valentinian	614
The Two Noble Kinsmen	615
The Faithful Shepherdess	615
Rule a Wife, and have a Wife	616
Some other Plays	616
Origin of Fletcher’s Plays	616
Defects of their plots	616
Their Sentiments and Style Dramatic	617
Their Characters	617
Their Tragedies	617
Inferior to their Comedies	618
Their Female Characters	618
Massinger—Nature of his Dramas	619
His Delineations of Character	619
His Subjects	619
Beauty of His Style	620
Inferiority of his Comic Powers	620
Some of his Tragedies particularized	620
And of his other Plays	620
Ford	621
Shirley	621
Heywood	622
Webster	622
His Duchess of Malfy	622
Vittoria Corombona	622
CHAPTER XXIV.
HISTORY OF POLITE LITERATURE IN PROSE FROM 1600 TO 1650.
Decline of Taste in Italy	623
Style of Galileo	624
Bentivoglio	624
Boccalini’s News from Parnassus	624
His Pietra del Paragone	625
Terrante Pallavicino	625
Dictionary Delia Crusca	625
Grammatical Works—Buonmattei—Bartoli	626
Tassoni’s Remarks on Petrarch	626
Galileo’s Remarks on Tasso	626
Sforza Pallavicino	626
And other Critical Writers	626
Prolusiones of Strada	627
Spanish Prose—Gracian	627
French Prose—Du Vair	627
Balzac	628
Character of his Writings	628
His Letters	628
Voiture—Hotel Rambouillet	629
Establishment of French Academy	630
Its objects and Constitution	630
It publishes a Critique on the Cid	631
Vaugelas’s Remarks on the French Language	631
La Mothe le Vayer	632
Legal Speeches of Patru	632
And of Le Maistre	632
Improvement in English Style	633
Earl of Essex	633
Knolles’s History of the Turks	634
Raleigh’s History of the World	635
Daniel’s History of England	635
Bacon	635
Milton	636
Clarendon	636
The Icon Basilice	636
Burton’s Anatomy of Melancholy	637
Earle’s Characters	637
Overbury’s Characters	637
Jonson’s Discoveries	637
Publication of Don Quixote	638
Its Reputation	638
New Views of its Design	638
Probably erroneous	638
Difference between the two Parts	639
Excellence of this Romance	639
Minor Novels of Cervantes	639
Other Novels—Spanish	639
And Italian	639
French Romances—Astrée	639
Heroic Romances—Gomberville	640
Calprenède	640
Scuderi	641
Argenis of Barclay	641
His Euphormis	643
Campanella’s City of the Sun	643
Few Books of Fiction in England	643
Mundus Alter et Idem of Hall	644
Godwin’s Journey to the Moon	644
Howell’s Dodona’s Grove	644
Adventures of Baron de Fænesle	644
CHAPTER XXV.
HISTORY OF MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCE FROM 1600 TO 1650.
State of Science in 16th Century	645
Tediousness of Calculations	645
Napier’s Invention of Logarithms	645
Their Nature	645
Property of Numbers discovered by Stifelius	645
Extended to Magnitudes	646
By Napier	646
Tables of Napier and Briggs	646
Kepler’s New Geometry	647
Its Difference from the Ancient	647
Adopted by Galileo	648
Extended by Cavalieri	648
Applied to the Ratios of Solids	648
Problem of the Cycloid	648
Progress of Algebra	649
Briggs—Girard	649
Harriott	649
Descartes	650
His Application of Algebra to Curves	650
Suspected Plagiarism from Harriot	650
Fermat	651
Algebraic Geometry not successful at first	652
Astronomy—Kepler	652
Conjectures as to Comets	652
Galileo’s Discovery of Jupiter’s Satellites	653
Other Discoveries by him	653
Spots of the Sun discovered	653
Copernican System held by Galileo	654
His Dialogues, and Persecution	654
Descartes alarmed by this	655
Progress of Copernican System	655
Descartes denies General Gravitation	655
Cartesian Theory of the World	655
Transits of Mercury and Venus	656
Laws of Mechanics	656
Statics of Galileo	657
His Dynamics	657
Mechanics of Descartes	658
Law of Motion laid down by Descartes	658
Also those of Compound Forces	659
Other Discoveries in Mechanics	659
In Hydrostatics and Pneumatics	659
Optics—Discoveries of Kepler	660
Invention of the Telescope	660
Of the Microscope	660
Antonio de Dominis	660
Dioptrics of Descartes—Law of Refraction	661
Disputed by Fermat	661
Curves of Descartes	661
Theory of the Rainbow	661
CHAPTER XXVI.
HISTORY OF SOME OTHER PROVINCES OF LITERATURE FROM 1600 TO 1650.
Aldrovandus	662
Clusius	662
Rio and Marcgraf	662
Jonston	662
Fabricius on the Language of Brutes	663
Botany—Columna	664
John and Gaspar Bauhin	664
Parkinson	664
Valves of the Veins discovered	665
Theory of the Blood’s Circulation	665
Sometimes ascribed to Servetus	665
To Columbus	666
And to Cæsalpin	666
Generally unknown before Harvey	667
His Discovery	667
Unjustly doubted to be Original	667
Harvey’s Treatise on Generation	668
Lacteals discovered by Asellius	668
Optical Discoveries of Scheiner	669
Medicine—Van Helmont	669
Diffusion of Hebrew	669
Language not studied in the best method	669
The Buxtorfs	670
Vowel Points rejected by Cappel	670
Hebrew Scholars	671
Chaldee and Syriac	671
Arabic	671
Erpenius	671
Golius	671
Other Eastern Languages	672
Purchas’s Pilgrim	672
Olearius and Pietro della Valle	672
Lexicon of Ferrari	672
Maps of Blaew	672
Davila and Bentivoglio	673
Mendoza’s Wars of Granada	673
Mezeray	673
English Historians	673
English Histories	673
Universities	673
Bodleian Library founded	674
Casaubon’s Account of Oxford	674
Catalogue of Bodleian Library	674
Continental Libraries	675
Italian Academies	675
The Lincei	675
Prejudice for Antiquity diminished	676
Browne’s Vulgar Errors	677
Life and Character of Peiresc	677
CHAPTER XXVII.
HISTORY OF ANCIENT LITERATURE IN EUROPE FROM 1650 TO 1700.
James Frederic Gronovius	678
James Gronovius	679
Grævius	679
Isaac Vossius	679
Decline of German Learning	679
Spanheim	679
Jesuit Colleges in France	679
Port-Royal Writers—Lancelot	679
Latin Writers—Perizonius	680
Delphin Editions	680
Le Fevre and the Daciers	680
Henry Valois—Complaints of Decay of Learning	680
English Learning—Duport	681
Greek not much studied	681
Gataker’s Cinnus and Antoninus	681
Stanley’s Æschylus	682
Other English Philologers	682
Bentley	682
His Epistle to Mill	682
Dissertation on Phalaris	682
Disadvantages of Scholars in that Age	683
Thesauri of Grævius and of Gronovius	683
Fabretti	684
Numismatics, Spanheim—Vaillant	684
Chronology—Usher	684
Pezron	685
Marsham	685
CHAPTER XXVIII.
HISTORY OF THEOLOGICAL LITERATURE FROM 1650 TO 1700.
Decline of Papal Influence	685
Dispute of Louis XIV. with Innocent XI.	686
Four Articles of 1682	686
Dupin on the ancient Discipline	686
Dupin’s Ecclesiastical Library	687
Fleury’s Ecclesiastical History	687
His Dissertations	687
Protestant Controversy in France	688
Bossuet’s Exposition of Catholic Faith	688
His Conference with Claude	688
Correspondence with Molanus and Leibnitz	689
His Variations of Protestant Churches	690
Anglican Writings against Popery	690
Taylor’s Dissuasive	690
Barrow—Stillingfleet	690
Jansenius	691
Condemnation of his Augustinus in France	691
And at Rome	691
The Jansenists take a Distinction	692
And are Persecuted	692
Progress of Arminianism	692
Courcelles	693
Limborch	693
Le Clerc	693
Sancroft’s Fur Prædestinatus	693
Arminianism in England	694
Bull’s Harmonia Apostolica	694
Hammond—Locke—Wilkins	694
Socinians in England	695
Bull’s Defensio Fidei Nicenæ	695
Not Satisfactory to all	695
Mystics	696
Fenelon	696
Change in the Character of Theological Literature	696
Freedom of many Writings	696
Thoughts of Pascal	697
Vindications of Christianity	699
Progress of Tolerant Principles	700
Bayle’s Philosophical Commentary	700
Locke’s Letter on Toleration	700
French Sermons	701
Bourdaloue	701
Compared with Bossuet	702
Funeral Discourses of Bossuet	702
Fléchier	703
English Sermons—Barrow	703
South	704
Tillotson	704
Expository Theology	704
Pearson on the Creed	704
Simon’s Critical Histories	705
CHAPTER XXIX.
HISTORY OF SPECULATIVE PHILOSOPHY FROM 1650 TO 1700.
Aristotelian Metaphysics	705
Their Decline. Thomas White	706
Logic	706
Stanley’s History of Philosophy	707
Gale’s Court of Gentiles	707
Cudworth’s Intellectual System	707
Its object	708
Sketch of it	708
His plastic nature	708
His account of old Philosophy	708
His Arguments against Atheism	709
More	709
Gassendi	710
His Logic	710
His Theory of Ideas	710
And of the Nature of the Soul	710
Distinguishes Ideas of Reflection	711
Also Intellect from Imagination	711
His Philosophy misunderstood by Stewart	712
Bernier’s Epitome of Gassendi	713
Process of Cartesian Philosophy	713
La Forge—Regis	714
Huet’s Censure of Cartesianism	715
Port-Royal Logic	716
Malebranche	717
His Style	717
Sketch of his Theory	717
Character of Malebranche	724
Compared with Pascal	724
Arnauld on True and False ideas	725
Norris	725
Pascal	725
Spinosa’s Ethics	726
Its general Originality	726
View of his Metaphysical Theory	727
Spinosa’s Theory of action and Passion	731
Character of Spinosism	732
Glanvil’s Scepsis Scientifica	733
His Plus Ultra	734
Dalgarno	735
Wilkins	736
Locke on Human Understanding	736
Its merits	736
Its Defects	737
Origin of Ideas according to Locke	737
Vague Use of the Word Idea	738
An Error as to Geometrical Figure	739
His Notions as to the Soul	740
And its Immateriality	740
His Love of Truth and Originality	741
Defended in two cases	742
His View of Lunatic Ideas	742
General Praise	743
Locke’s Conduct of Understanding	743
CHAPTER XXX.
HISTORY OF MORAL AND POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY AND OF JURISPRUDENCE FROM 1650 TO 1700.
Casuistry of the Jesuits	744
Pascal’s Provincial Letters	744
Their Truth questioned by some	744
Taylor’s Ductor Dubitantium	745
Its Character and Defects	745
Cudworth’s immutable Morality	745
Nicole—La Placette	746
Other Writers	746
Moral System of Spinosa	746
Cumberland’s De Legibus Naturæ	747
Analysis of Prolegomena	748
His Theory expanded afterwards	749
Remarks on Cumberland’s Theory	752
Puffendorf’s Law of Nature and Nations	753
Analysis of this Work	754
Puffendorf and Paley compared	757
Rochefoucault	757
La Bruyère	758
Education—Milton’s Tractrate	758
Locke on Education—Its merits	759
And Defects	759
Fenelon on Female Education	761
Puffendorf’s Theory of Politics	762
Politics of Spinosa	764
His Theory of a Monarchy	766
Amelot de la Houssaye	766
Harrington’s Oceana	766
Patriarcha of Filmer	767
Sydney’s Discourses on Government	767
Locke on Government	768
Observations on this Treatise	771
Avis auz Refugiéz, perhaps by Bayle	772
Political Economist’s	772
Mun on Foreign Trade	773
Child on Trade	773
Locke on the Coin	773
Statistical Tracts	774
Works of Leibnitz on Roman Law	775
Civil Jurists—Godefroy—Domat	775
Noodt of Usury	776
Law of Nations—Puffendorf	776
CHAPTER XXXI.
HISTORY OF POETRY FROM 1650 TO 1700.
Improved Tone of Italian Poetry	776
Filicaja	777
Guidi	777
Menzini	778
Salvator Rosa—Redi	778
Other Poets	778
Christina’s Patronage of Letters	778
Society of Arcadians	778
La Fontaine	779
Character of his Fables	779
Boileau: His Epistles	780
His Art of Poetry	780
Comparison with Horace	780
The Lutrin	780
General Character of his Poetry	780
Lyric Poetry lighter than before	781
Benserade	781
Chaulieu	781
Pastoral Poetry	781
Segrais	781
Deshouliéres	781
Fontenelle	782
Bad Epic Poems	782
German Poetry	782
Waller	782
Butler’s Hudibras	783
Paradise Lost—Choice of Subject	783
Open to some Difficulties	783
Its Arrangement	783
Characters of Adam and Eve	784
He owes less to Homer than the Tragedians	784
Compared with Dante	784
Elevation of his Style	785
His Blindness	786
His Passion for Music	786
Faults in Paradise Lost	786
Its Progress to Fame	786
Paradise Regained	787
Samson Agonistes	787
Dryden—His earlier Poems	787
Absalom and Achitophel	788
Mac Flecknoe	788
The Hind and Panther	789
Its Singular Fable	789
Its Reasoning	789
The Fables	789
His Odes—Alexander’s Feast	790
His Translation of Virgil	790
Decline of Poetry from the Restoration	790
Some Minor Poets enumerated	790
Latin Poets of Italy	791
Ceva	791
Sergardi	791
Of France—Quillet	791
Menage	792
Rapin on Gardens	792
Santeul	793
Latin Poetry in England	793
CHAPTER XXXII.
HISTORY OF DRAMATIC LITERATURE FROM 1650 TO 1700.
Italian and Spanish Drama	793
Racine’s first Tragedies	793
Andromaque	794
Britannicus	795
Berenice	795
Bajazet	795
Mithridate	796
Iphigénie	796
Phédre	797
Esther	797
Athalie	797
Racine’s Female Characters	798
Racine compared with Corneille	798
Beauty of his Style	798
Thomas Corneille—His Ariane	799
Manlius of La Fosse	799
Molière	799
L’Avare	799
L’Ecole des Femmes	800
Le Misanthrope	800
Les Femmes Savantes	801
Tartuffe	801
Bourgeois Gentilhomme—George Dandin	801
Character of Molière	802
Les Plaideurs of Racine	802
Regnard—Le Joueur	802
His Other Plays	803
Quinault—Boursault	803
Dancourt	803
Brueys	804
Operas of Quinault	804
Revival of the English Theatre	804
Change of Public Taste	804
Its Causes	805
Heroic Tragedies of Dryden	805
His later Tragedies	805
Don Sebastian	806
Spanish Friar	806
Otway	806
Southern	807
Lee	807
Congreve	807
Comedies of Charles II.’s Reign	807
Wycherley	808
Improvement after the Revolution	808
Congreve	808
Love for Love	808
His other Comedies	808
Farquhar—Vanbrugh	809
CHAPTER XXXIII.
HISTORY OF POLITE LITERATURE IN PROSE FROM 1650 TO 1700.
Low State of Literature in Italy	809
Crescimbeni	810
Age of Louis XIV. in France	810
Fontenelle—his Character	810
His Dialogues of the Dead	811
Those of Fenelon	811
Fontenelle’s Plurality of Worlds	811
His History of Oracles	811
St. Evremond	812
Madame de Sevigné	812
The French Academy	812
French Grammars	813
Bouhour’s Entretiens d’Ariste et d’Eugène	813
Attacked by Barbier d’Ancour	814
La Manière de Bien Penser	815
Rapin’s Reflections on Eloquence and Poetry	815
His Parallel’s of Great Men	815
Bossu on Epic Poetry	816
Fontenelle’s Critical Writings	816
Preference of French Language to Latin	816
General Superiority of Ancients disputed	816
Charles Perrault	816
Fontenelle	817
Boileau’s Defence of Antiquity	817
First Reviews—Journal des Sçavans	817
Reviews Established by Bayle	818
Reviews Established by Le Clerc	818
Leipsic Acts	819
Bayle’s Thoughts on the Comet	819
His Dictionary	819
Baillet—Morhof	820
The Ana	820
English Style in this Period	820
Hobbes	821
Cowley	821
Evelyn	821
Dryden	821
His Essay on Dramatic Poesy	822
Improvements in his Style	823
His Critical Character	823
Rymer on Tragedy	823
Sir William Temple’s Essays	824
Style of Locke	824
Sir George Mackenzie’s Essays	824
Andrew Fletcher	824
Walton’s Complete Angler	824
Wilkins’ New World	824
Antiquity defended by Temple	825
Wotton’s Reflection’s	825
Quevedo’s Visions	825
French Heroic Romances	826
Novels of Madame La Fayette	826
Scarron’s Roman Comique	826
Cyrano de Bergerac	827
Segrais	827
Perrault	827
Hamilton	827
Télémaque of Fenelon	827
Deficiency of English Romances	828
Pilgrim’s Progress	828
Turkish Spy	829
Chiefly of English Origin	830
Swift’s Tale of a Tub	831
CHAPTER XXXIV.
HISTORY OF PHYSICAL AND OTHER LITERATURE FROM 1650 TO 1700.
Reasons for omitting Mathematics	831
Academy del Cimento	831
Royal Society	832
Academy of Sciences at Paris	832
State of Chemistry	832
Becker	833
Boyle	833
His Metaphysical Works	833
Extract from one of them	833
His Merits in Physics and Chemistry	834
General Character of Boyle	834
Of Hooke and Others	834
Lemery	835
Slow Progress of Zoology	835
Before Ray	835
His Synopsis of Quadrupeds	835
Merits of this Work	835
Redi	836
Swammerdam	836
Lister	836
Comparative Anatomy	836
Botany	837
Jungius	837
Morison	837
Ray	837
Rivinus	838
Tournefort	838
Vegetable Physiology	839
Grew	839
His Anatomy of Plants	840
He discovers the Sexual System	840
Camerarius confirms this	840
Predecessors of Grew	840
Malpighi	840
Early Notions of Geology	840
Burnet’s Theory of Earth	840
Other Geologists	841
Protogæa of Leibnitz	841
Circulation of Blood Established	842
Willis—Vieussens	842
Malpighi	842
Other Anatomists	842
Medical Theories	843
Polyglott of Walton	843
Hottinger	844
Spencer	844
Bochart	844
Pococke	844
D’Herbelot	844
Hyde	844
Maps of the Sansons	844
De Lisle’s Map of the World	845
Voyages and Travels	845
Historians	845
De Solis	845
Memoirs of De Retz	845
Bossuet on Universal History	846
English Historical Works	846
Burnet	846
General Character of 17th Century	846
Conclusion	847

PREFACE.

The advantages of such a synoptical view of literature as displays its various departments in their simultaneous condition through an extensive period, and in their mutual dependency, seem too manifest to be disputed. And, as we possess little of this kind in our own language, I have been induced to undertake that to which I am in some respects, at least, very unequal, but which no more capable person, as far as I could judge, was likely to perform. In offering to the public this introduction to the literary history of three centuries—for I cannot venture to give it a title of more pretension—it is convenient to state my general secondary sources of information, exclusive of the acquaintance I possess with original writers; and, at the same time, by showing what has already been done, and what is left undone, to furnish a justification of my own undertaking.

The history of literature belongs to modern, and chiefly to almost recent times. The nearest approach to it that the ancients have left us is contained in a single chapter of Quintilian, the first of the tenth book, wherein he passes rapidly over the names and characters of the poets, orators, and historians of Greece and Rome. This, however, is but a sketch; and the valuable work of Diogenes Laertius preserves too little of chronological order to pass for a history of ancient philosophy, though it has supplied much of the materials for all that has been written on the subject.

In the sixteenth century, the great increase of publications, and the devotion to learning which distinguished that period, might suggest the scheme of a universal literary history. Conrad Gesner, than whom no one, by extent and variety of erudition, was more fitted for the labour, appears to have framed a plan of this kind. What he has published, the Bibliotheca Universalis, and the Pandectæ Universales, are, taken together, the materials that might have been thrown into an historical form; the one being an alphabetical catalogue of authors and their writings; the other a digested and minute index to all departments of knowledge, in twenty-one books, each divided into titles, with short references to the texts of works on every head in his comprehensive classification. The order of time is therefore altogether disregarded. Possevin, an Italian Jesuit, made somewhat a nearer approach to this in his Bibliotheca Selecta, published at Rome in 1593. Though his partitions are rather encyclopædic than historical, and his method, especially in the first volume, is chiefly argumentative, he gives under each chapter a nearly chronological catalogue of authors, and sometimes a short account of their works.

Lord Bacon, in the second book De Augmentis Scientiarum, might justly deny, notwithstanding these defective works of the preceding century, that any real history of letters had been written; and he compares that of the world, wanting this, to a statue of Polypheme deprived of his single eye. He traces the method of supplying this deficiency in one of those luminous and comprehensive passages which bear the stamp of his vast mind: the origin and antiquities of every science, the methods by which it has been taught, the sects and controversies it has occasioned, the colleges and academies in which it has been cultivated, its relation to civil government and common society, the physical or temporary causes which have influenced its condition, form, in his plan, as essential a part of such a history, as the lives of famous authors, and the books they have produced.

No one has presumed to fill up the outline which Bacon himself could but sketch; and most part of the seventeenth century passed away with few efforts on the part of the learned to do justice to their own occupation; for we can hardly make an exception for the Prodromus Historiæ Literariæ (Hamburg, 1659) of Lambecius, a very learned German, who, having framed a magnificent scheme of a universal history of letters, was able to carry it no farther than the times of Moses and Cadmus. But, in 1688, Daniel Morhof, professor at Kiel in Holstein, published his well-known Polyhistor, which received considerable additions in the next age at the hands of Fabricius, and is still found in every considerable library.

Morhof appears to have had the method of Possevin in some measure before his eyes; but the lapse of a century, so rich in erudition as the seventeenth, had prodigiously enlarged the sphere of literary history. The precise object, however, of the Polyhistor, as the word imports, is to direct, on the most ample plan, the studies of a single scholar. Several chapters, that seem digressive in an historical light, are to be defended by this consideration. In his review of books in every province of literature, Morhof adopts a sufficiently chronological order; his judgments are short, but usually judicious; his erudition so copious, that later writers have freely borrowed from, and, in many parts, added little to the enumeration of the Polyhistor. But he is far more conversant with writers in Latin than the modern languages; and, in particular, shows a scanty acquaintance with English literature.

Another century had elapsed, when the honour of first accomplishing a comprehensive synopsis of literary history in a more regular form than Morhof, was the reward of Andrès, a Spanish Jesuit, who, after the dissolution of his order, passed the remainder of his life in Italy. He published at Parma, in different years, from 1782 to 1799, his Origine Progresso e Stato attuale d’ogni Litteratura. The first edition is in five volumes quarto; but I have made use of that printed at Prato, 1806, in twenty octavo volumes. Andrès, though a Jesuit, or perhaps because a Jesuit, accommodated himself in some measure to the tone of the age wherein his book appeared, and is always temperate, and often candid. His learning is very extensive in surface, and sometimes minute and curious, but not, generally speaking, profound; his style is flowing, but diffuse and indefinite; his characters of books have a vagueness unpleasant to those who seek for precise notions; his taste is correct, but frigid; his general views are not injudicious, but display a moderate degree of luminousness or philosophy. This work is, however, an extraordinary performance, embracing both ancient and modern literature in its full extent, and, in many parts, with little assistance from any former publication of the kind. It is far better known on the Continent than in England, where I have not frequently seen it quoted; nor do I believe it is common in our private libraries.

A few years after the appearance of the first volumes of Andrès, some of the most eminent among the learned of Germany projected a universal history of modern arts and sciences on a much larger scale. Each single province, out of eleven, was deemed sufficient for the labours of one man, if they were to be minute and exhaustive of the subject: among others, Bouterwek undertook poetry and polite letters; Buhle speculative philosophy; Kästner the mathematical sciences; Sprengel anatomy and medicine; Heeren classical philology. The general survey of the whole seems to have been assigned to Eichhorn. So vast a scheme was not fully executed; but we owe to it some standard works, to which I have been considerably indebted. Eichhorn published, in 1796 and 1799, two volumes, intended as the beginning of a General History of the Cultivation and Literature of modern Europe, from the twelfth to the eighteenth century. But he did not confine himself within the remoter limit; and his second volume, especially, expatiates on the dark ages that succeeded the fall of the Roman empire. In consequence, perhaps, of this diffuseness, and also of the abandonment, for some reason with which I am unacquainted, of a large portion of the original undertaking, Eichhorn prosecuted this work no farther in its original form. But, altering slightly its title, he published, some years afterwards, an independent universal “History of Literature” from the earliest ages to his own. This is comprised in six volumes, the first having appeared in 1805, the last in 1811.

The execution of these volumes is very unequal. Eichhorn was conversant with oriental, with theological literature, especially of his own country, and in general with that contained in the Latin language. But he seems to have been slightly acquainted with that of the modern languages, and with most branches of science. He is more specific, more chronological, more methodical in his distribution than Andrès: his reach of knowledge, on the other hand, is less comprehensive; and though I could praise neither highly for eloquence, for taste, or for philosophy, I should incline to give the preference in all these to the Spanish Jesuit. But the qualities above mentioned render Eichhorn, on the whole, more satisfactory to the student.

These are the only works, as far as I know, which deserve the name of general histories of literature, embracing all subjects, all ages, and all nations. If there are others, they must, I conceive, be too superficial to demand attention. But in one country of Europe, and only in one, we find a national history so comprehensive as to leave uncommemorated no part of its literary labour. This was first executed by Tiraboschi, a Jesuit born at Bergamo, and, in his later years, librarian of the Duke of Modena, in twelve volumes quarto: I have used the edition published at Rome in 1785. It descends to the close of the seventeenth century. In full and clear exposition, in minute and exact investigation of facts, Tiraboschi has few superiors; and such is his good sense in criticism, that we must regret the sparing use he has made of it. But the principal object of Tiraboschi was biography. A writer of inferior reputation, Corniani, in his Secoli della litteratura Italiana dopo il suo risorgimento (Brescia, 9 vols., 1804-1813), has gone more closely to an appreciation of the numerous writers whom he passes in review before our eyes. Though his method is biographical, he pursues sufficiently the order of chronology to come into the class of literary historians. Corniani is not much esteemed by some of his countrymen, and does not rise to a very elevated point of philosophy; but his erudition appears to me considerable, his judgments generally reasonable; and his frequent analyses of books gives him one superiority over Tiraboschi.

The Histoire Littéraire de l’Italie, by Ginguéné, is well known: he had the advantage of following Tiraboschi; and could not so well, without his aid, have gone over a portion of the ground, including in his scheme, as he did, the Latin learning of Italy; but he was very conversant with the native literature of the language, and has, not a little prolixly, doubtless, but very usefully, rendered much of easy access to Europe, which must have been sought in scarce volumes, and was, in fact, known by name to a small part of the world. The Italians are ungrateful if they deny their obligations to Ginguéné.

France has, I believe, no work of any sort, even an indifferent one, on the universal history of her own literature; nor can we claim for ourselves a single attempt of the most superficial kind. Warton’s History of Poetry contains much that bears on our general learning; but it leaves us about the accession of Elizabeth.

Far more has been accomplished in the history of particular departments of literature. In the general history of philosophy, omitting a few older writers, Brucker deserves to lead the way. There has been, of late years, some disposition to depreciate his laborious performance, as not sufficiently imbued with a metaphysical spirit, and as not rendering, with clearness and truth, the tenets of the philosophers whom he exhibits. But the Germany of 1744 was not the Germany of Kant and Fichte; and possibly Brucker may not have proved the worse historian for having known little of recent theories. The latter objection is more material; in some instances he seems to me not quite equal to his subject. But, upon the whole, he is of eminent usefulness; copious in his extracts, impartial and candid in his judgments.

In the next age after Brucker, the great fondness of the German learned both for historical and philosophical investigation produced more works of this class than I know by name, and many more than I have read. The most celebrated, perhaps, is that of Tennemann; but of which I only know the abridgment, translated into French by M. Victor Cousin, with the title Manuel de l’Histoire de Philosophie. Buhle, one of the society above mentioned, whose focus was at Göttingen, contributed his share to their scheme in a History of Philosophy from the revival of letters. This I have employed through the French translation in six volumes. Buhle, like Tennemann, has very evident obligations to Brucker; but his own erudition was extensive, and his philosophical acuteness not inconsiderable.

The history of poetry and eloquence, or fine writing, was published by Bouterwek, in twelve volumes octavo. Those parts which relate to his own country, and to Spain and Portugal, have been of more use to me than the rest. Many of my readers must be acquainted with the Littérature du Midi, by M. Sismondi; a work written in that flowing and graceful style which distinguishes the author, and succeeding in all that it seeks to give—a pleasing and popular, yet not superficial or unsatisfactory, account of the best authors in the southern languages. We have nothing historical as to our own poetry but the prolix volumes of Warton. They have obtained, in my opinion, full as much credit as they deserve. Without depreciating a book in which so much may be found and which has been so great a favourite with the literary part of the public, it may be observed that its errors as to fact, especially in names and dates, are extraordinarily frequent, and that the criticism, in points of taste, is not of a very superior kind.

Heeren undertook the history of classical literature—a great desideratum, which no one had attempted to supply. But, unfortunately, he has only given an introduction, carrying us down to the close of the fourteenth century, and a history of the fifteenth. These are so good, that we must much lament the want of the rest; especially as I am aware of nothing to fill up the vacuity. Eichhorn, however, is here of considerable use.

In the history of mathematical science, I have had recourse chiefly to Montucla and, as far as he conducts us, to Kästner, whose catalogue and analysis of mathematical works is far more complete, but his own observations less perspicuous and philosophical. Portal’s History of Anatomy, and some other books, to which I have always referred, and which it might be tedious to enumerate, have enabled me to fill a few pages with what I could not be expected to give from any original research. But several branches of literature, using the word, as I generally do, in the most general sense for the knowledge imparted through books, are as yet deficient in anything that approaches to a real history of their progress.

The materials of literary history must always be derived in great measure from biographical collections, those especially which intermix a certain portion of criticism with mere facts. There are some, indeed, which are almost entirely of this description. Adrian Baillet, in his Jugemens des Sçavans, published in 1685, endeavoured to collect the suffrages of former critics on the merits of all past authors. His design was only executed in a small part, and hardly extends beyond grammarians, translators, and poets; the latter but imperfectly. Baillet gives his quotations in French, and sometimes mingles enough of his own to raise him above a mere compiler, and to have drawn down the animosity of some contemporaries. Sir Thomas Pope Blount is a perfectly unambitious writer of the same class. His Censura Celebriorum Autorum, published in 1690, contains nothing of his own, except a few short dates of each author’s life, but diligently brings together the testimonies of preceding critics. Blount omits no class, nor any age; his arrangement is nearly chronological, and leads the reader from the earliest records of literature to his own time. The polite writers of modern Europe, and the men of science, do not receive their full share of attention; but this volume, though not, I think, much in request at present, is a very convenient accession to any scholar’s library.

Bayle’s Dictionary, published in 1697, seems at first sight an inexhaustible magazine of literary history. Those who are conversant with it know that it frequently disappoints their curiosity; names of great eminence are sought in vain, or are very slightly treated; the reader is lost in episodical notes, perpetually frivolous, and disgusted with an author who turns away at every moment from what is truly interesting to some idle dispute of his own time, or some contemptible indecency. Yet the numerous quotations contained in Bayle, the miscellaneous copiousness of his erudition, as well as the good sense and acuteness he can always display when it is his inclination to do so, render his Dictionary of great value, though, I think, chiefly to those who have made a tolerable progress in general literature.

The title of a later work by Père Niceron, Mémoires Pour Servir à l’Histoire des Hommes Illustres de la République des Lettres, avec un Catalogue Raisonné de leurs Ouvrages, in forty-three volumes 12mo, published at Paris from 1727 to 1745, announces something rather different from what it contains. The number of “illustrious men” recorded by Niceron is about 1600, chiefly of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The names, as may be anticipated, are frequently very insignificant; and, in return, not a few of real eminence, especially when Protestant, and, above all, English, are overlooked, or erroneously mentioned. No kind of arrangement is observed; it is utterly impossible to conjecture in what volume of Niceron any article will be discovered. A succinct biography, though fuller than the mere dates of Blount, is followed by short judgments on the author’s works, and by a catalogue of them far more copious, at least, than had been given by any preceding bibliographer. It is a work of much utility; but the more valuable parts have been transfused into later publications.

The English Biographical Dictionary was first published in 1761. I speak of this edition with some regard from its having been the companion of many youthful hours; but it is rather careless in its general execution. It is sometimes ascribed to Birch; but I suspect that Heathcote had more to do with it. After several successive enlargements, an edition of this Dictionary was published in thirty-two volumes from 1812 to 1817, by Alexander Chalmers, whose name it now commonly bears. Chalmers was a man of very slender powers, relatively to the magnitude of such a work; but his life had been passed in collecting small matters of fact, and he has added much of this kind to British biography. He inserts, beyond any one else, the most insignificant names, and quotes the most wretched authorities. But as the faults of excess, in such collections, are more pardonable than those of omission, we cannot deny the value of his Biographical Dictionary, especially as to our own country, which has not fared well at the hands of foreigners.

Coincident nearly in order of time with Chalmers, but more distinguished in merit, is the Biographie Universelle. The eminent names appended to a large proportion of the articles contained in its fifty-two volumes, are vouchers for the ability and erudition it displays. There is, doubtless, much inequality in the performance; and we are sometimes disappointed by a superficial notice where we had a right to expect most. English literature, though more amply treated than had been usual on the Continent, and with the benefit of Chalmer’s contemporaneous volumes, is still not fully appreciated: our chief theological writers, especially, are passed over almost in silence. There seems, on the other hand, a redundancy of modern French names; those, above all, who have, even obscurely and insignificantly been connected with the history of the Revolution: a fault, if it be one, which is evidently gaining ground in the supplementary volumes. But I must speak respectfully of a work to which I owe so much, and without which, probably, I should never have undertaken the present.

I will not here characterise several works of more limited biography; among which are the Bibliotheca Hispana Nova of Antonio, the Biographia Britannica, the Bibliothèque Française of Goujet; still less is there time to enumerate particular lives, or those histories which relate to short periods, among the sources of literary knowledge. It will be presumed, and will appear by my references, that I have employed such of them as came within my reach. But I am sensible that, in the great multiplicity of books of this kind, and especially in their prodigious increase on the Continent of late years, many have been overlooked from which I might have improved these volumes. The press is indeed so active, that no year passes without accessions to our knowledge, even historically considered upon some of the multifarious subjects which the present volumes embrace. An author who waits till all requisite materials are accumulated to his hands, is but watching the stream that will run on for ever; and though I am fully sensible that I could have much improved what is now offered to the public by keeping it back for a longer time, I should but then have had to lament the impossibility of exhausting my subject. Epoiei, the modest phrase of the Grecian sculptors, but expresses the imperfection that attaches to every work of literary industry or of philosophical investigation. But I have other warnings to bind up my sheaves while I may—my own advancing years, and the gathering in the heavens.

I have quoted, to my recollection, no passage which I have not seen in its own place; though I may possibly have transcribed in some instances, for the sake of convenience, from a secondary authority. Without censuring those who suppress the immediate source of their quotations, I may justly say that in nothing I have given to the public has it been practised by myself. But I have now and then inserted in the text characters of books that I have not read, on the faith of my guides; and it may be the case that intimation of this has not been always given to the reader.

It is very likely that omissions, not, I trust, of great consequence, will be detected; I might in fact say that I am already aware of them; but perhaps these will be candidly ascribed to the numerous ramifications of the subject, and the necessity of writing in a different order from that in which the pages are printed. And I must add that some omissions have been intentional: an accumulation of petty facts, and especially of names to which little is attached, fatigues unprofitably the attention; and as this is very frequent in works that necessarily demand condensation, and cannot altogether be avoided, it was desirable to make some sacrifice in order to palliate the inconvenience. This will be found, among many other instances, in the account of the Italian learned of the fifteenth century where I might easily have doubled the enumeration, but with little satisfaction to the reader.

But, independently of such slight omissions, it will appear that a good deal is wanting in these volumes which some might expect in a history of literature. Such a history has often contained so large a proportion of biography, that a work in which it appears very scantily, or hardly at all, may seem deficient in necessary information. It might be replied, that the limits to which I have confined myself, and beyond which it is not easy perhaps in the present age to obtain readers, would not admit to this extension; but I may add, that any biography of the authors of these centuries, which is not servilely compiled from a few known books of that class, must be far too immense an undertaking for one man, and besides its extent and difficulty, would have been particularly irksome to myself, from the waste of time, as I deem it, which an inquiry into trifling facts entails. I have more scruple about the omission of extracts from some of the poets and best writers in prose, without which they can be judged very unsatisfactorily: but in this also I have been influenced by an unwillingness to multiply my pages beyond a reasonable limit. But I have, in some instances, at least in the later periods, gone more largely into analysis of considerable works than has hitherto been usual. These are not designed to serve as complete abstracts, or to supersede, instead of exciting, the reader’s industry; but I have felt that some books of traditional reputation are less fully known than they deserve.

Some departments of literature are passed over, or partially touched. Among the former are books relating to particular arts, as agriculture or painting, or to subjects of merely local interest, as those of English law. Among the latter is the great and extensive portion of every library, the historical. Unless where history has been written with peculiar beauty of language, or philosophical spirit, I have generally omitted all mention of it: in our researches after truth of fact, the number of books that possess some value is exceedingly great, and would occupy a disproportionate space in such a general view of literature as the present. For a similar reason, I have not given its numerical share to theology.

It were an impertinence to anticipate, for the sake of obviating, the possible criticism of the public which has a right to judge, and for those judgments I have had so much cause to be grateful, nor less so to dictate how it should read what it is not bound to read at all; but perhaps I may be allowed to say, that I do not wish this to be considered as a book of reference on particular topics, in which point of view it must often appear to disadvantage; and that, if it proves of any value, it will be as an entire and synoptical work.

INTRODUCTION
TO THE
LITERATURE OF EUROPE
IN THE FIFTEENTH, SIXTEENTH, AND
SEVENTEENTH CENTURIES.

CHAPTER I.

ON THE GENERAL STATE OF LITERATURE IN THE MIDDLE AGES TO THE END OF THE FOURTEENTH CENTURY.

Loss of Ancient Learning in the Fall of the Roman Empire—First Symptoms of its Revival—Improvement in the Twelfth Century—Universities and Scholastic Philosophy—Origin of Modern Languages—Early Poetry—Provençal, French, German, and Spanish—English Language and Literature—Increase of Elementary Knowledge—Invention of Paper—Roman Jurisprudence—Cultivation of Classical Literature—Its Decline after the Twelfth Century—Less visible in Italy—Petrarch.

Retrospect of learning in middle ages necessary.

1. Although the subject of these volumes does not comprehend the literary history of Europe, anterior to the commencement of the fifteenth century, a period as nearly coinciding as can be expected in any arbitrary division of time, with what is usually denominated the revival of letters, it appears necessary to prefix such a general retrospect of the state of knowledge for some preceding ages, as will illustrate its subsequent progress. In this, however, the reader is not to expect a regular history of mediæval literature, which would be nothing less than the extension of a scheme already, perhaps, too much beyond my powers of execution.[1]

[1] The subject of the following chapter has been already treated by me in another work, the History of Europe during the Middle Ages. I have not thought it necessary to repeat all that is there said: the reader, if he is acquainted with those volumes, may consider the ensuing pages partly as supplemental, and partly as correcting the former where they contain anything inconsistent.

Loss of learning in fall of Roman empire. 2. Every one is well aware, that the establishment of the barbarian nations on the ruins of the Roman empire in the West, was accompanied or followed by an almost universal loss of that learning which had been accumulated in the Latin and Greek languages, and which we call ancient or classical; a revolution long prepared by the decline of taste and knowledge for several preceding ages, but accelerated by public calamities in the fifth century with overwhelming rapidity. The last of the ancients, and one who forms a link between the classical period of literature and that of the Middle Ages, in which he was a favourite author, is Boethius, a man of fine genius, and interesting both from his character and his death. It is well known, that, after filling the dignities of Consul and Senator in the court of Theodoric, he fell a victim to the jealousy of a sovereign, from whose memory, in many respects glorious, the stain of that blood has never been effaced. |Boethius—his Consolation of Philosophy.| The Consolation of Philosophy, the chief work of Boethius, was written in his prison. Few books are more striking from the circumstances of their production. Last of the classic writers, in style not impure, though displaying too lavishly that poetic exuberance which had distinguished the two or three preceding centuries, in elevation of sentiment equal to any of the philosophers, and mingling a Christian sanctity with their lessons, he speaks from his prison in the swan-like tones of dying eloquence. The philosophy that consoled him in bonds, was soon required in the sufferings of a cruel death. Quenched in his blood, the lamp he had trimmed with a skilful hand gave no more light; the language of Tully and Virgil soon ceased to be spoken; and many ages were to pass away, before learned diligence restored its purity, and the union of genius with imitation taught a few modern writers to surpass in eloquence the latinity of Boethius.

Rapid decline of learning in sixth century. 3. The downfall of learning and eloquence, after the death of Boethius in 524, was inconceivably rapid. His contemporary Cassiodorus, Isidore of Seville, and Martianus Capella, the earliest, but worst, of the three, by very indifferent compilations, and that encyclopedic method which Heeren observes to be an usual concomitant of declining literature, superseded the use of the great ancient writers, with whom, indeed, in the opinion of Meiners, they were themselves acquainted only through similar productions of the fourth and fifth centuries. Isidore speaks of the rhetorical works of Cicero and Quintilian as too diffuse to be read.[2] The authorities upon which they founded their scanty course of grammar, logic, and rhetoric were chiefly obscure writers, no longer extant. But themselves became the oracles of the succeeding period, wherein the trivium and quadrivium, a course of seven sciences, introduced in the sixth century, were taught from their jejune treatises.[3]

[2] Meiners, Vergleichung der sitten, &c., des mittelalters mit denen unsers Jahrhunderts, 3 vols. Hanover, 1793. Vol. ii p. 333. Eichhorn, Allgemeine Geschichte der Cultur und Litteratur, vol. ii. p. 29. Heeren, Geschichte des studium der classischen Litteratur. Göttingen, 1797. These three books, with the Histoire Littéraire de la France, Brucker’s History of Philosophy, Turner’s and Henry’s Histories of England, Muratori’s 43d Dissertation, Tiraboschi, and some few others, who will appear in the notes, are my chief authorities for the dark ages. But none, in a very short compass, is equal to the third discourse of Fleury, in the 13th volume of the 12mo edition of his Ecclesiastical History.

[3] The trivium contained grammar, logic, and rhetoric; the quadrivium, arithmetic, geometry, music, and astronomy, as in these two lines, framed to assist the memory:—

“Gramm. loquitur; Dia. vera docet; Rhet. verba colorat; Mus. canit; Ar. numerat; Geo. ponderat; Ast. colit astra.”

But most of these sciences, as such, were hardly taught at all. The arithmetic, for instance, of Cassiodorus or Capella is nothing but a few definitions mingled with superstitious absurdities about the virtues of certain numbers and figures. Meiners, ii. 339. Kästner, Geschichte der Mathematik, p. 8.

The arithmetic of Cassiodorus occupies little more than two folio pages, and does not contain one word of the common rules. The geometry is much the same; in two pages we have some definitions and axioms, but nothing farther. His logic is longer and better, extending to sixteen folio pages. The grammar is very short and trifling, the rhetoric the same.

A portion remains in the church. 4. This state of general ignorance lasted, with no very sensible difference, on a superficial view, for about five centuries, during which every sort of knowledge was almost wholly confined to the ecclesiastical order. But among them, though instances of gross ignorance were exceedingly frequent, the necessity of preserving the Latin language, in which the Scriptures, the canons, and other authorities of the church, and the regular liturgies, were written, and in which alone the correspondence of their well organised hierarchy could be conducted, kept flowing, in the worst seasons, a slender but living stream; and though, as has been observed, no great difference may appear, on a superficial view, between the seventh and eleventh centuries, it would easily be shown that, after the first prostration of learning, it was not long in giving signs of germinating afresh, and that a very slow and gradual improvement might be dated farther back than is generally believed.[4]

[4] M. Guizot confirms me in a conclusion to which I had previously come, that the seventh century is the nadir of the human mind in Europe, and that its movement in advance began before the end of the next, or, in other words, with Charlemagne. Hist. de la Civilisation en France, ii. 345. A notion probably is current in England, on the authority of the older writers, such as Cave or Robertson, that the greatest darkness was later; which is true as to England itself. It was in the seventh century that the barbarians were first tempted to enter the church, and obtain bishoprics, which had, in the first age after their invasion, been reserved to Romans. Fleury, p. 18.

Prejudices of the clergy against profane learning. 5. Literature was assailed in its downfall by enemies from within as well as from without. A prepossession against secular learning had taken hold of those ecclesiastics who gave the tone to the rest; it was inculcated in the most extravagant degree by Gregory I., the founder, in a great measure, of the papal supremacy, and the chief authority in the dark ages;[5] it is even found in Alcuin, to whom so much is due, and it gave way very gradually in the revival of literature. In some of the monastic foundations, especially in that of Isidore, though himself a man of considerable learning, the perusal of heathen authors was prohibited. Fortunately Benedict, whose order became the most widely diffused, while he enjoined his brethren to read, copy, and collect books, was silent as to their nature, concluding, probably, that they would be wholly religious. This, in course of time, became the means of preserving and multiplying classical manuscripts.[6]

[5] Gregory has been often charged, on the authority of a passage in John of Salisbury, with having burned a library of heathen authors. He has been warmly defended by Tiraboschi, iii. 102. Even if the assertion of our countryman were more positive, he is of too late an age to demand much credit. Eichhorn, however, produces vehement expressions of Gregory’s disregard for learning, and even for the observance of grammatical rules. ii. 443.

[6] Heeren, p. 59. Eichhorn, ii. 11, 12, 40, 49, 50.

Their usefulness in preserving it. 6. If, however, the prejudices of the clergy stood in the way of what we more esteem than they did, the study of philological literature, it is never to be forgotten, that but for them the records of that very literature would have perished. If they had been less tenacious of their Latin liturgy, of the vulgate translation of Scripture, and of the authority of the fathers, it is very doubtful whether less superstition would have grown up, but we cannot hesitate to pronounce, that all grammatical learning would have been laid aside. The influence of the church upon learning, partly favourable, partly the reverse, forms the subject of Eichhorn’s second volume; whose comprehensive views and well directed erudition, as well as his position in a great protestant university, give much weight to his testimony. But we should remember also, that it is, as it were, by striking a balance that we come to this result; and that, in many respects, the clergy counteracted that progress of improvement which, in others, may be ascribed to their exertions.

First appearances of reviving learning in Ireland and England. 7. It is not unjust to claim for these islands the honour of having first withstood the dominant ignorance, and even led the way in the restoration of knowledge. As early as the sixth century, a little glimmer of light was perceptible in the Irish monasteries: and in the next, when France and Italy had sunk in deeper ignorance, they stood, not quite where national prejudice has sometimes placed them, but certainly in a very respectable position.[7] That island both drew students from the Continent, and sent forth men of comparative eminence into its schools and churches. I do not find, however, that they contributed much to the advance of secular, and especially of grammatical learning. This is rather due to England, and to the happy influence of Theodore, our first primate, an Asiatic Greek by birth, sent hither by the pope in 668, through whom and his companion Adrian, some knowledge of the Latin and even Greek languages was propagated in the Anglo-Saxon church. The Venerable Bede, as he was afterwards styled, early in the eighth century, surpasses every other name of our ancient literary annals; and, though little more than a diligent compiler from older writers, may perhaps be reckoned superior to any man the world (so low had the east sunk like the west) then possessed. A desire of knowledge grew up; the school of York, somewhat later, became respectable, before any liberal education had been established in France; and from this came Alcuin, a man fully equal to Bede in ability, though not, probably, in erudition.[8] By his assistance, and that of one or two Italians, Charlemagne laid in his vast dominions the foundations of learning, according to the standard of that age, which dispelled, at least for a time, some part of the gross ignorance wherein his empire had been enveloped.[9]

[7] Eichhorn, ii. 176, 188. See also the first volume of Moore’s History of Ireland, where the claims of his country are stated favourably, and with much learning and industry, but not with extravagant partiality.

[8] Eichhorn, ii. 188, 207, 263. Hist. Litt. de la France, vols. iii. and iv. Henry’s History of England, vol. iv. Turner’s History of Anglo-Saxons. No one, however, has spoken so highly or so fully of Alcuin’s merits as M. Guizot in his Histoire de la Civilisation en France, vol. ii. p. 344-385.

[9] Besides the above authors, see, for the merits of Charlemagne as a restorer of letters, his Life by Gaillard, and Andrés, Origine, &c., della Litteratura, i. 165.

Few schools before the age of Charlemagne. 8. The praise of having originally established schools belongs to some bishops and abbots of the sixth century. They came in place of the imperial schools overthrown by the barbarians.[10] In the downfall of that temporal dominion, a spiritual aristocracy was providentially raised up, to save from extinction the remains of learning, and religion itself. Some of those schools seem to have been preserved in the south of Italy, though merely, perhaps, for elementary instruction. But in France the barbarism of the later Merovingian period was so complete, that, before the reign of Charlemagne, all liberal studies had come to an end.[11] Nor was Italy in a much better state at his accession, though he called two or three scholars from thence to his literary councils: the libraries were destroyed, the schools chiefly closed; wherever the Lombard dominion extended, illiteracy was its companion.[12]

[10] Eichhorn, ii. 5, 45. Guizot (vol. ii. p. 116) gives a list of the episcopal schools in France before Charlemagne.

[11] Ante ipsum Carolum regem in Galliâ nullum fuerat studium liberalium artium. Monachus Engolimensis, apud Launoy de Scholis celebrioribus.

[12] Tiraboschi. Eichhorn. Heeren.

Beneficial effects of those established by him. 9. The cathedral and conventual schools, created or restored by Charlemagne, became the means of preserving that small portion of learning which continued to exist. They flourished most, having had time to produce their fruits, under his successors, Louis the Debonair, Lothaire, and Charles the Bald.[13] It was, doubtless, a fortunate circumstance, that the revolution of language had now gone far enough to render Latin unintelligible without grammatical instruction. Alcuin and others who, like him, endeavoured to keep ignorance out of the church, were anxious, we are told, to restore orthography; or, in other words, to prevent the written Latin from following the corruptions of speech. They brought back, also, some knowledge of better classical authors than had been in use. Alcuin’s own poems could at least not have been written by one unacquainted with Virgil:[14] the faults are numerous, but the style is not always inelegant; and from this time, though quotations from the Latin poets, especially Ovid and Virgil, and sometimes from Cicero, are not very frequent, they occur sufficiently to show that manuscripts had been brought to this side of the Alps. They were, however, very rare: Italy was still, as might be expected, the chief depository of ancient writings; and Gerbert speaks of the facility of obtaining them in that country.[15]

[13] The reader may find more of the history of these schools in a little treatise by Launoy, De Scholis celebrioribus a Car. Mag. et post Car. Mag. instauratis; also in Hist. Litt. de la France, vols. iii. and iv.; Crevier, Hist. de l’Université de Paris, vol. i.; Brucker’s Hist. Phil. iii.; Muratori, Dissert. xliii.; Tiraboschi, iii. 158; Eichhorn, 261, 295; Heeren, and Fleury.

[14] A poem by Alcuin, De Pontificibus Ecclesiæ Eboracensis, is published in Gale’s xv. Scriptores, vol. iii. Henry quotes a passage from this, describing the books at York, in which we read this line—

Acer Atistoteles, rhetor atque Tullius ingens. Such a verse could not have come from Alcuin; though he errs in the quantity of syllables, where memory alone could set him right, he was not ignorant of common rules. It is found in Gale:

Rhetor quoque Tullius ingens.

[15] Nosti quot scriptores in urbibus aut in agris Italise passim habeantur. Gerbert, Epist. 130, apud Heeren, p. 166.

The tenth century more progressive than usually supposed. 10. The tenth century used to be reckoned by mediæval historians the darkest part of this intellectual night. It was the iron age, which they vie with one another in describing as lost in the most consummate ignorance. This, however, is much rather applicable to Italy and England, than to France and Germany. The former were both in a deplorable state of barbarism. And there are, doubtless, abundant proofs of ignorance in every part of Europe. But, compared with the seventh and eighth centuries, the tenth was an age of illumination in France. And Meiners, who judged the middle ages somewhat, perhaps, too severely, but with a penetrating and comprehensive observation, of which there had been few instances, has gone so far as to say, that “in no age, perhaps, did Germany possess more learned and virtuous churchmen of the episcopal order, than in the latter half of the tenth, and beginning of the eleventh century.”[16] Eichhorn points out indications of a more extensive acquaintance with ancient writers in several French and German ecclesiastics of this period.[17] In the eleventh century, this continued to increase; and, towards its close, we find more vigorous and extensive attempts at throwing off the yoke of barbarous ignorance, and either retrieving what had been lost of ancient learning, or supplying its place by the original powers of the mind.

[16] Vergleichung der Sitten, ii. 384. The eleventh century he holds far more advanced in learning than the sixth. Books were read in the latter which no one looked at in the earlier. P. 399.

[17] Allg. Gesch. ii. 335, 398.

Want of genius in the dark ages. 11. It is the most striking circumstance in the literary annals of the dark ages, that they seem to us still more deficient in native, than in acquired ability. The mere ignorance of letters has sometimes been a little exaggerated, and admits of certain qualifications; but a tameness and mediocrity, a servile habit of merely compiling from others, runs through the writers of these centuries. It is not only that much was lost, but that there was nothing to compensate for it; nothing of original genius in the province of imagination; and but two extraordinary men, Scotus Erigena and Gerbert, may be said to stand out from the crowd in literature and philosophy. It must be added, as to the former, that his writings contain, at least in such extracts as I have seen, unintelligible rhapsodies of mysticism, in which, perhaps, he should not even have the credit of originality. Eichhorn, however, bestows great praise on Scotus; and the modern historians of philosophy treat him with respect.[18]

[18] Extracts from John Scotus Erigena will be found in Brucker, Hist. Philosophiæ, vol. iii. p. 619; in Meiners, ii. 373; or more fully, in Turner’s History of England, vol. i. 447, and Guizot, Hist. de la Civilisation en France, iii. 137, 178. The reader may consult also Buhle, Tennemann, and the article on Thomas Aquinas in the Encyclopædia Metropolitana, ascribed to Dr. Hampden. But, perhaps, Mr. Turner is the only one of them who has seen, or at least read the metaphysical treatise of John Scotus, entitled De Divisione Naturæ, in which alone we find his philosophy. It is very rare out of England.

Prevalence of bad taste. 12. It would be a strange hypothesis, that no man endowed with superior gifts of nature lived in so many ages. Though the pauses of her fertility in these high endowments are more considerable, I am disposed to think, that any previous calculation of probabilities would lead us to anticipate, we could not embrace so extreme a paradox. Of military skill, indeed, and civil prudence, we are not now speaking. But, though no man appeared of genius sufficient to burst the fetters imposed by ignorance and bad taste, some there must have been, who, in a happier condition of literature, would have been its legitimate pride. We perceive, therefore, in the deficiencies of these writers, the effect which an oblivion of good models, and the prevalence of a false standard of merit, may produce in repressing the natural vigour of the mind. Their style, where they aim at eloquence, is inflated and redundant, formed upon the model of the later fathers, whom they chiefly read; a feeble imitation of that vicious rhetoric which had long overspread the latinity of the empire.[19]

[19] Fleury, l. xlv. § 19, and Troisième Discours (in vol. xiii.), p. 6. Turner’s History of England, iv. 137, and History of Anglo-Saxons, iii. 403. It is sufficient to look at any extracts from these writers of the dark ages to see the justice of this censure. Fleury, at the conclusion of his excellent third discourse, justly and candidly apologises for these five ages, as not wholly destitute of learning, and far less of virtue. They have been, he says, outrageously depreciated by the humanists of the sixteenth century, who thought good Latin superior to every thing else; and by protestant writers, who laid the corruptions of the church on its ignorance. Yet there is an opposite extreme into which those who are disgusted with the commonplaces of superficial writers sometimes run; an estimation of men by their relative superiority above their own times, so as to forget their position in comparison with a fixed standard.

An eminent living writer, who has carried the philosophy of history, perhaps, as far as any other, has lately endeavoured, at considerable length, to vindicate in some measure the intellectual character of this period. (Guizot, vol. ii. p. 123-224.) It is with reluctance that I ever differ from M. Guizot; but the passages adduced by him, (especially if we exclude those of the fifth century, the poems of Avitus, and the homilies of Cæsarius,) do not appear adequate to redeem the age by any signs of genius they display. It must always be a question of degree; for no one is absurd enough to deny the existence of a relative superiority of talent, or the power of expressing moral emotions, as well as relating facts, with some warmth and energy. The legends of saints, an extensive though quite neglected portion of the literature of the dark ages, to which M. Guizot has had the merit of directing our attention, may probably contain many passages, like those he has quoted, which will be read with interest; and it is no more than justice, that he has given them in French, rather than in that half-barbarous Latin, which, though not essential to the author’s mind, never fails, like an unbecoming dress, to show the gifts of nature at a disadvantage. But the questions still recur: Is this in itself excellent? Would it indicate, wherever we should meet with it, powers of a high order? Do we not make a tacit allowance in reading it, and that very largely, for the mean condition in which we know the human mind to have been placed at the period? Does it instruct us, or give us pleasure?

In what M. Guizot has said of the moral influence of these legends, in harmonising a lawless barbarian race (p. 157), I should be sorry not to concur: it is a striking instance of that candid and catholic spirit with which he has always treated the mediæval church.

Deficiency of poetical talent. 13. It might naturally be asked, whether fancy and feeling were extinct among the people, though a false taste might reign in the cloister. Yet it is here that we find the most remarkable deficiency, and could appeal scarce to the vaguest tradition, or the most doubtful fragment, in witness of any poetical talent worthy of notice, except a very little in the Teutonic languages. The Anglo-Saxon poetry has occasionally a wild spirit, rather impressive, though it is often turgid and always rude. The Scandinavian, such as the well-known song of Regner Lodbrog, if that be as old as the period before us, which is now denied, displays a still more poetical character. Some of the earliest German poetry, the song on the victory of Louis III. over the Normans in 883, and, still more, the poem in praise of Hanno, archbishop of Cologne, who died in 1075, are warmly extolled by Herder and Bouterwek.[20] In the Latin verse of these centuries, we find, at best, a few lines among many, which show the author to have caught something of a classical style: the far greater portion is very bad.[21]

[20] Herder, Zerstreute Blätter, vol. v. p. 169, 184. Heinsius, Lehrbuch der Deutschen Sprachwissenschaft, iv. 29. Bouterwek Geschichte der Poesie und Beredsamkeit, vol. ix. p. 78, 82. The author is unknown; aber dem unbekannten sichert sein werk die unsterblichkeit, says the latter critic. One might raise a question as to the capacity of an anonymous author to possess immortal fame. Nothing equal to this poem, he says occurs in the earlier German poetry: it is an outpouring of genius, not without faults, but full of power and feeling: the dialect is still Frankish, but approaches to Swabian. Herder calls it “a truly Pindaric song.” He has given large extracts from it in the volume above quoted, which glows with his own fine sense of beauty.

[21] Tiraboschi supposes Latin versifiers to have been common in Italy. Le Città al pari che le campagne risonavan di versi. iii. 207.

The specimens he afterwards produces, p. 219, are miserable. Hroswitha, abbess of Gandersheim, has, perhaps, the greatest reputation among these Latin poets. She wrote, in the tenth century, sacred comedies in imitation of Terence, which I have not seen, and other poetry which I saw many years since, and thought very bad. Alcuin has now and then a Virgilian cadence.

Imperfect state of language may account for this. 14. The very imperfect state of language, as an instrument of refined thought, in the transition of Latin to the French, Castilian, and Italian tongues, seems the best means of accounting in any satisfactory manner for this stagnation of the poetical faculties. The delicacy that distinguishes in words the shades of sentiment, the grace that brings them to the soul of the reader with the charm of novelty united to clearness, could not be attainable in a colloquial jargon, the offspring of ignorance, and indeterminate possibly in its forms, which those who possessed any superiority of education would endeavour to avoid. We shall soon have occasion to advert again to this subject.

Improvement at beginning of twelfth century. 15. At the beginning of the twelfth century, we enter upon a new division in the literary history of Europe. From this time we may deduce a line of men, conspicuous, according to the standard of their times, in different walks of intellectual pursuit, and the commencement of an interesting period, the later Middle Ages; in which, though ignorance was very far from being cleared away, the natural powers of the mind were developed in considerable activity. |Leading circumstances in progress of learning.| We shall point out separately the most important circumstances of this progress; not all of them concurrent in efficacy with each other, for they were sometimes opposed, but all tending to arouse Europe from indolence, and to fix its attention on literature. These are, 1st. The institution of universities, and the methods pursued in them: 2d. The cultivation of the modern languages, followed by the multiplication of books, and the extension of the art of writing: 3d. The investigation of the Roman law: And lastly, the return to the study of the Latin language in its ancient models of purity. We shall thus come down to the fifteenth century, and judge better of what is meant by the revival of letters, when we apprehend with more exactness their previous condition.

Origin of the university of Paris. 16. Among the Carlovingian schools it is doubtful whether we can reckon one at Paris; and though there are some traces of public instruction in that city about the end of the ninth century, it is not certain that we can assume it to be more ancient. For two hundred years more, indeed, it can only be said, that some persons appear to have come to Paris for the purposes of study.[22] The commencement of this famous university, like that of Oxford, has no record. But it owes its first reputation to the sudden spread of what is usually called the scholastic philosophy.

[22] Crevier, i. 13-75.

Modes of treating the science of theology. 17. There had been hitherto two methods of treating theological subjects: one that of the fathers, who built them on scripture, illustrated and interpreted by their own ingenuity, and in some measure also on the traditions and decisions of the church; the other, which is said by the Benedictines of St. Maur to have grown up about the eighth century (though Mosheim seems to refer it to the sixth), using the fathers themselves, that is the chief writers of the first six hundred years, who appear now to have acquired that distinctive title of honour, as authority, conjointly with scripture and ecclesiastical determinations, by means of extracts or compends of their writings. Hence about this time we find more frequent instances of a practice which had begun before—that of publishing Loci communes or Catenæ patrum, being only digested extracts from the authorities under systematic heads.[23] Both these methods were usually called positive theology.

[23] Fleury, 3me discours. p. 48. (Hist. Ecclés. vol. xiii. 12mo ed.) Hist. Litt. de la France, vii. 147. Mosheim, in Cent.vi. et post. Muratori, Antichità Italiane, dissert. xliii. p. 610. In this dissertation, it may be observed by the way, Muratori gives the important fragment of Caius, a Roman presbyter before the end of the second century, on the canon of the New Testament, which has not been quoted, as far as I know, by any English writer, nor, which is more remarkable, by Michaelis. It will be found in Eichhorn, Einleitung in das Neue Testament, iv. 35. The Latinity is very indifferent for the second century; yet it cannot be much later, and may possibly be suspected of being a translation from a Greek original.

Upon this great change in the theology of the church, which consisted principally in establishing the authority of the fathers, the reader may see M. Guizot, Hist. de la Civilisation, iii. 121. There seem to be but two causes for this: the one, a consciousness of ignorance and inferiority to men of so much talent as Augustin and a few others; the other, a constantly growing jealousy of the free exercise of reason, and a determination to keep up unity of doctrine.

Scholastic philosophy; its origin. 18. The scholastic theology was a third method; it was in its general principle, an alliance between faith and reason; an endeavour to arrange the orthodox system of the church, such as authority had made it, according to the rules and methods of the Aristotelian dialectics, and sometimes upon premises supplied by metaphysical reasoning. Lanfranc and Anselm made much use of this method in the controversy with Berenger as to transubstantiation; though they did not carry it so far as their successors in the next century.[24] The scholastic philosophy seems chiefly to be distinguished from this theology by a larger infusion of metaphysical reasoning, or by its occasional inquiries into subjects not immediately related to revealed articles of faith.[25] The origin of this philosophy, fixed by Buhle and Tennemann in the ninth century, or the age of Scotus Erigena, has been brought down by Tiedemann, Meiners, and Hampden,[26] so low as the thirteenth. |Roscelin.| But Roscelin of Compiegne, a little before 1100, may be accounted so far the founder of the schoolmen, that the great celebrity of their disputations, and the rapid increase of students, is to be traced to the influence of his theories, though we have no proof that he ever taught at Paris. Roscelin also, having been the first to revive the famous question as to the reality of universal ideas, marks, on every hypothesis, a new era in the history of that philosophy. The principle of the schoolmen in their investigations was the expanding, developing, and if possible illustrating and clearing from objection, the doctrines of natural and revealed religion in a dialectical method and by dint of the subtlest reasoning. The questions which we deem altogether metaphysical, such as that concerning universal ideas, became theological in their hands.[27]

[24] Hist. Litt. de la France, ubi suprà. Tennemann, Manuel de l’Hist. de la Philosophie, i. 332. Crevier, i. 100. Andrés, ii. 15.

[25] A Jesuit of the sixteenth century thus shortly and clearly distinguishes the positive from the scholastic, and both from natural or metaphysical theology. At nos theologiam scholasticam dicimus quæ certiori methodo et rationibus imprimis ex divina scriptura ac traditionibus seu decretis patrum in conciliis definitis veritatem eruit, ac discutiendo comprobat. Quod cum in scholis præcipue argumentando comparetur, id nomen sortita est. Quamobrem differt a positiva theologia, non re sed modo, quemadmodum item alia ratione non est eadem cum naturali theologia, quo nomine philosophi metaphysicen nominarunt. Positiva igitur non ita res disputandas proponit, sed pæne sententiam ratam et firmam ponit, præcipue in pietatem incumbens. Versatur autem et ipsa in explicatione Scripturæ sacræ, traditionum, conciliorum et sanctorum patrum. Naturalis porro theologia Dei naturam per naturæ argumenta et rationes inquirit, cum supernaturalis, quam scholasticam dicimus, Dei ejusdem naturam, vim, proprietates, cæterasque res divinas per ea principia vestigat, quæ sunt hominibus revelata divinitas. Possevin, Bibliotheca Selecta, l. 3. c. i.

Both positive and scholastic theology were much indebted to Peter Lombard, whose Liber Sententiarum is a digest of propositions extracted from the fathers, with no attempt to reconcile them. It was therefore a prodigious magazine of arms for disputation.

[26] The first of these, according to Tennemann, begins the list of schoolmen with Hales; the two latter agree in conferring that honour on Albertus Magnus. Brucker inclines to Roscelin, and has been followed by others. It may be added, that Tennemann divides the scholastic philosophy into four periods, which Roscelin, Hales, Ockham, and the sixteenth century terminate; and Buhle into three, ending with Roscelin, Albertus Magnus, and the sixteenth century. It is evident, however, that, by beginning the scholastic series with Roscelin, we exclude Lanfranc and even Anselm; the latter of whom was certainly a deep metaphysician; since to him we owe the subtle argument for the existence of a Deity, which Des Cartes afterwards revived. Buhle, 679. This argument was answered at the time by one Gaunelo; so that metaphysical reasonings were not unknown in the eleventh century. Tennemann, 344.

[27] Brucker, though he contains some useful extracts, and tolerable general views, was not well versed in the scholastic writers. Meiners (in his Comparison of the Middle Ages) is rather superficial as to their philosophy, but presents a lively picture of the schoolmen in relation to literature and manners. He has also, in the Transactions of the Göttingen Academy, vol. xii. pp. 26-47, given a succinct, but valuable, sketch of the Nominalist and Realist Controversy. Tenneman, with whose Manuel de la Philosophie alone I am conversant, is supposed to have gone very deeply into the subject in his larger history of philosophy. Buhle appears superficial. Dr. Hampden, in his Life of Thomas Aquinas, and view of the scholastic philosophy, published in the Encyclopædia Metropolitana, has the merit of having been the only Englishman, past or present, so far as I know, since the revival of letters, who has penetrated far into the wilderness of scholasticism. Mr. Sharon Turner has given some extracts in the fourth volume of his History of England.

Progress of scholasticism; increase of university of Paris. 19. Next in order of time to Roscelin came William of Champeaux, who opened a school of logic at Paris in 1109; and the university can only deduce the regular succession of its teachers from that time.[28] But his reputation was soon eclipsed, and his hearers drawn away by a more potent magician, Peter Abelard, who taught in the schools of Paris in the second decade of the twelfth century. Wherever Abelard retired, his fame and his disciples followed him; in the solitary walls of the Paraclete, as in the thronged streets of the capital.[29] And the impulse given was so powerful, the fascination of a science which now appears arid and unproductive was so intense, that from this time for many generations it continued to engage the most intelligent and active minds. Paris, about the middle of the twelfth century, in the words of the Benedictines of St. Maur, to whom we owe the Histoire Littéraire de la France, was another Athens; the number of students (hyperbolically speaking, as we must presume) exceeding that of the citizens. This influx of scholars induced Philip Augustus, some time afterwards, to enlarge the boundaries of the city; and this again brought a fresh harvest of students, for whom, in the former limits, it had been difficult to find lodgings. Paris was called, as Rome had been, the country of all the inhabitants of the world, and we may add, as, for very different reasons, it still claims to be.[30]

[28] Crevier, i. 3.

[29] Hist. Litt. de la France, vol. xii. Brucker, iii. 750.

[30] Hist. Litt. de la France, ix. 78. Crevier, i. 274.

Universities founded. 20. Colleges with endowments for poor scholars were founded in the beginning of the thirteenth century, or even before, at Paris and Bologna, as they were afterwards at |Oxford.| Oxford and Cambridge, by munificent patrons of letters; charters incorporating the graduates and students collectively under the name of universities were granted by sovereigns, with privileges perhaps too extensive, but such as indicated the dignity of learning, and the countenance it received.[31] It ought, however, to be remembered, that these foundations were not the cause, but the effect of that increasing thirst for knowledge, or the semblance of knowledge, which had anticipated the encouragement of the great. The schools of Charlemagne were designed to lay the basis of a learned education, for which there was at that time no sufficient desire.[32] But in the twelfth century, the impetuosity with which men rushed to that source of what they deemed wisdom, the great university of Paris, did not depend upon academical privileges or eleemosynary stipends, which came afterwards, though these were undoubtedly very effectual in keeping it up. The university created patrons, and was not created by them. And this may be said also of Oxford and Cambridge in their incorporate character, whatever the former may have owed, if in fact it owed anything, to the prophetic munificence of Alfred. Oxford was a school of great resort in the reign of Henry II., though its first charter was only granted by Henry III. Its earlier history is but obscure, and depends chiefly on a suspicious passage in Ingulfus, against which we must set the absolute silence of other writers.[33] It became in the thirteenth century second only to Paris in the multitude of its students, and the celebrity of its scholastic disputations. England indeed, and especially through Oxford, could show more names of the first class in this line than any other country.[34]

[31] Fleury, xvii. 13, 17. Crevier, Tiraboschi, &c. A University, universitas doctorum et scholarium, was so called either from its incorporation, or from its professing to teach all subjects, as some have thought. Meiners, ii. 405. Fleury, xvii. 15. This excellent discourse of Fleury, the fifth, relates to the ecclesiastical literature of the later middle ages.

[32] These schools, established by the Carlovingian princes in convents and cathedrals, declined, as it was natural to expect, with the rise of the universities. Meiners, ii. 406. Those of Paris, Oxford, and Bologna contained many thousand students.

[33] Giraldus Cambrensis, about 1180, seems the first unequivocal witness to the resort of students to Oxford, as an established seat of instruction. But it is certain that Vacarius read there on the civil law in 1149, which affords a presumption that it was already assuming the character of a university. John of Salisbury, I think, does not mention it. In a former work, I gave more credence to its foundation by Alfred than I am now inclined to do. Bologna, as well as Paris, was full of English students about 1200. Meiners, ii. 428.

[34] Wood expatiates on what he thought the glorious age of the university. “What university, I pray, can produce an invincible Hales, an admirable Bacon, an excellent well-grounded Middleton, a subtle Scotus, an approved Burley, a resolute Baconthorpe, a singular Ockham, a solid and industrious Holcot, and a profound Bradwardin? all which persons flourished within the compass of one century. I doubt that neither Paris, Bologna, or Rome, that grand mistress of the Christian world, or any place else, can do what the renowned Bellosite (Oxford) hath done. And without doubt all impartial men may receive it for an undeniable truth, that the most subtle arguing in school divinity did take its beginning in England and from Englishmen; and that also from thence it went to Paris, and other parts of France, and at length into Italy, Spain, and other nations, as is by one observed. So that though Italy boasteth that Britain takes her Christianity first from Rome, England may truly maintain that from her (immediately by France) Italy first received her school divinity.” Vol. i. p. 159, A.D. 1168.

Collegiate foundations not derived from the Saracens. 21. Andrés is inclined to derive the institution of collegiate foundations in universities from the Saracens. He finds no trace of these among the ancients; while in several cities of Spain, as Cordova, Granada, Malaga, colleges for learned education both existed and obtained great renown. These were sometimes unconnected with each other, though in the same city, nor had they, of course, those privileges which were conferred in Christendom. They were therefore more like ordinary schools of gymnasia than universities; and it is difficult to perceive that they suggested anything peculiarly characteristic of the latter institutions, which are much more reasonably considered as the development of a native germ, planted by a few generous men, above all by Charlemagne, in that inclement season which was passing away.[35]

[35] Andrés, ii. 129.

Scholastic philosophy promoted by Mendicant Friars. 22. The institution of the Mendicant orders of friars, soon after the beginning of the thirteenth century, caused a fresh accession, in enormous numbers, to the ecclesiastical state, and gave encouragement to the scholastic philosophy. Less acquainted, generally, with grammatical literature than the Benedictine monks, less accustomed to collect and transcribe books, the disciples of Francis and Dominic betook themselves to disputation, and found a substitute for learning in their own ingenuity and expertness.[36] The greatest of the schoolmen were the Dominican Thomas Aquinas, and the Franciscan Duns Scotus. They were founders of rival sects, which wrangled with each other for two or three centuries. But the authority of their writings, which were incredibly voluminous, especially those of the former,[37] impeded, in some measure, the growth of new men; and we find, after the middle of the fourteenth century, a diminution of eminent names in the series of the schoolmen, the last of whom, that is much remembered in modern times, was William Ockham.[38] He revived the sect of the Nominalists, formerly instituted by Roscelin, and, with some important variances of opinion, brought into credit by Abelard, but afterwards overpowered by the great weight of leading schoolmen on the opposite side,—that of the Realists. The disciples of Ockham, as well as himself, being politically connected with the party in Germany unfavourable to the high pretensions of the Court of Rome, though they became very numerous in the universities, passed for innovators in ecclesiastical, as well as philosophical principles. Nominalism itself indeed was reckoned by the adverse sect cognate to heresy. No decline however seems to have been as yet perceptible in the spirit of disputation, which probably, at the end of the fourteenth century, went on as eagerly at Paris, Oxford, and Salamanca, the great scenes of that warfare, as before; and which, in that age, gained much ground in Germany, through the establishment of several universities.

[36] Meiners, ii. 615, 629.

[37] The works of Thomas Aquinas are published in seventeen volumes folio; Rome, 1570; those of Duns Scotus in twelve; Lyon, 1639. It is presumed that much was taken down from their oral lectures; some part of these volumes is of doubtful authenticity. Meiners, ii. 718. Biogr. Univ.

[38] “In them (Scotus and Ockham), and in the later schoolmen generally, down to the period of the reformation, there is more of the parade of logic, a more formal examination of arguments, a more burthensome importunity of syllogising, with less of the philosophical power of arrangement and distribution of the subject discussed. The dryness again irreparable from the scholastic method is carried to excess in the later writers, and perspicuity of style is altogether neglected.” Encyclopædia Metropol. part xxxvii. p. 805

The introduction of this excess of logical subtlety, carried to the most trifling sophistry, is ascribed by Meiners to Petrus Hispanus afterwards Pope John XXI., who died in 1271. ii. 705. Several curious specimens of scholastic folly are given by him in this place. They brought a discredit upon the name, which has adhered to it, and involved men of fine genius, such as Aquinas himself, in the common reproach.

The barbarism of style, which amounted almost to a new language, became more intolerable in Scotus and his followers than it had been in the older schoolmen. Meiners, 722. It may be alleged, in excuse of this, that words are meant to express precise ideas; and that it was as impossible to write metaphysics in good Latin, as the modern naturalists have found it to describe plants and animals.

Character of this philosophy. 23. Tenneman has fairly stated the good and bad of the scholastic philosophy. It gave rise to a great display of address, subtlety, and sagacity in the explanation and distinction of abstract ideas, but at the same time to many trifling and minute speculations, to a contempt of positive and particular knowledge, and to much unnecessary refinement.[39] Fleury well observes, that the dry technical style of the schoolmen, affecting a geometrical method and closeness, is in fact more prolix and tedious, than one more natural, from its formality in multiplying objections and answers.[40] And as their reasonings commonly rest on disputable postulates, the accuracy they affect is of no sort of value. But their chief offences were the interposing obstacles to the revival of polite literature, and to the free expansion of the mind. |It prevails least in Italy.| Italy was the land where the schoolmen had least influence; many of the Italians who had a turn for those discussions repaired to Paris,[41] and it was accordingly from Italy that the light of philological learning spread over Europe. Public schools of theology were not opened in Italy till after 1360.[42] Yet we find the disciples of Averroes numerous in the university of Padua about that time.

[39] Manuel de la Philosophie, i. 337. Eichhorn, ii. 396.

[40] See 5me discours, xvii. 30-50.

[41] Tiraboschi, v. 115.

[42] Id. 137, 160. De Sade, Vie de Pétrarque, iii. 757.

Literature in modern languages. 24. II. The universities were chiefly employed upon this scholastic theology and metaphysics, with the exception of Bologna, which dedicated its attention to the civil law, and of Montpelier, already famous as a school of medicine. The laity in general might have remained in as gross barbarity as before, while topics so removed from common utility were treated in an unknown tongue. We must therefore look to the rise of a truly native literature in the several languages of western Europe, as a more essential cause of its intellectual improvement; and this will render it necessary to give a sketch of the origin and early progress of those languages and that new literature.

Origin of the French, Spanish, and Italian languages. 25. No one can require to be informed, that the Italian, Spanish, and French languages are the principal of many dialects deviating from each other in the gradual corruption of the Latin, once universally spoken by the subjects of Rome in her western provinces. They have undergone this process of change in various degrees, but always from similar causes; partly from the retention of barbarous words belonging to their aboriginal languages, or the introduction of others through the settlement of the northern nations in the empire; but in a far greater proportion, from ignorance of grammatical rules, or from vicious pronunciation and orthography. It has been the labour of many distinguished writers to trace the source and channels of these streams which have supplied both the literature and the common speech of the south of Europe; and perhaps not much will be hereafter added to researches which, in the scarcity of extant documents, can never be minutely successful. Du Cange, who led the way in the admirable preface to his Glossary; Le Bœuf, and Bonamy, in several memoirs among the transactions of the Academy of Inscriptions about the middle of the last century; Muratory, in his 32d, 33d, and 40th dissertation on Italian antiquities; and, with more copious evidence and successful industry than any other, M. Raynouard, in the first and sixth volume of his Choix des Poesies des Troubadours, have collected as full a history of the formation of these languages as we could justly require.

Corruption of colloquial Latin in the lower empire. 26. The pure Latin language, as we read it in the best ancient authors, possesses a complicated syntax, and many elliptical modes of expression which give vigour and elegance to style, but are not likely to be readily caught by the people. If, however, the citizens of Rome had spoken it with entire purity, it is to be remembered, that Latin, in the later times of the republic, or under the empire, was not like the Greek of Athens, or the Tuscan of Florence, the idiom of a single city, but a language spread over countries in which it was not originally vernacular, and imposed by conquest upon many parts of Italy, as it was afterwards upon Spain and Gaul. Thus we find even early proofs, that solecisms of grammar, as well as barbarous phrases, or words unauthorised by use of polite writers, were very common in Rome itself; and in every succeeding generation, for the first centuries after the Christian æra, these became more frequent and inevitable. A vulgar Roman dialect, called quotidianus by Quintilian, pedestris by Vegetius, usualis by Sidonius, is recognised as distinguishable from the pure Latinity to which we give the name of classical. But the more ordinary appellation of this inferior Latin was rusticus; it was the country language or patois, corrupted in every manner, and from the popular want of education, incapable of being restored, because it was not perceived to be erroneous.[43] Whatever may have been the case before the fall of the Western Empire, we have reason to believe that in the sixth century the colloquial Latin had undergone, at least in France, a considerable change even with the superior class of ecclesiastics. Gregory of Tours confesses that he was habitually falling into that sort of error, the misplacing inflexions and prepositions, which constituted the chief original difference of the rustic tongue from pure Latinity. In the opinion, indeed, of Raynouard, if we take his expressions in their natural meaning, the Romance language, or that which afterwards was generally called Provençal, is as old as the establishment of the Franks in Gaul. But this is, perhaps, not reconcileable with the proofs we have of a longer continuance of Latin. In Italy, it seems probable that the change advanced more slowly. Gregory the Great, however, who has been reckoned as inveterate an enemy of learning as ever lived, speaks with superlative contempt of a regard to grammatical purity in writing. It was a crime in his eyes for a clergyman to teach grammar; yet the number of laymen who were competent or willing to do so had become very small.

[43] Du Cange, preface, pp. 13, 29. Rusticum igitur sermonem non humiliorem paulo duntaxat, et qui sublimi opponitur, appellabant; sed eum etiam, qui magis reperet, barbarismis solæcismisque scateret, quam apposite Sidonius squamam sermonis Celtici, &c., vocat.—Rusticum, qui nullis vel grammaticæ vel orthographiæ legibus astringitur. This is nearly a definition of the early Romance language; it was Latin without grammar or orthography.

The squama sermonis Celtici, mentioned by Sidonius, has led Gray, in his valuable remarks on rhyme, vol. ii. p. 53, as it has some others, into the erroneous notion that a real Celtic dialect, such as Cæsar found in Gaul, was still spoken. But this is incompatible with the known history of the French language; and Sidonius is one of those loose declamatory writers, whose words are never to be construed in their proper meaning: the common fault of Latin authors from the third century. Celticus sermo was the patois of Gaul, which, having once been Gallia Celtica, he still called such. That a few proper names, or similar words in French are Celtic, is well known.

Quintilian has said, that a vicious orthography must bring on a vicious pronunciation. Quod male scribitur, male etiam dici necesse est. But the converse of this is still more true, and was in fact the great cause of giving the new Romance language its visible form.

27. It may render this more clear, if we mention a few of the growing corruptions, which have in fact transformed the Latin into French and the sister tongues.—The prepositions were used with no regard to the proper inflexions of nouns and verbs. These were known so inaccurately, and so constantly put one for another, that it was necessary to have recourse to prepositions instead of them. Thus de and ad were made to express the genitive and dative cases, which is common in charters from the sixth to the tenth century. It is a real fault in the Latin language, that it wants both the definite and indefinite article; ille and unus, especially the former, were called in to help this deficiency. In the forms of Marculfus, published towards the end of the seventh century, ille continually occurs as an article; and it appears to have been sometimes used in the sixth. This of course, by an easy abbreviation, furnished the articles in French and Italian. The people came soon to establish more uniformity of case in the noun, either by rejecting inflexions, or by diminishing their number.—Raynouard gives a long list of old French nouns formed from the Latin accusative by suppressing em or am.[44] The active auxiliary verb, than which nothing is more distinctive of the modern languages from the Latin, came in from the same cause, the disuse, through ignorance, of several inflexions of the tenses; to which we must add, that here also the Latin language is singularly deficient, possessing no means of distinguishing the second perfect from the first, or ‘I have seen’ from ‘I saw.’ The auxiliary verb was early applied, in France and Italy, to supply this defect; and some have produced what they think occasional instances of its employment even in the best classical authors.

[44] See a passage of Quintilian, l. 9, c. 4, quoted in Hallam’s Middle Ages, iii. 316.

In the grammar of Cassiodorus, a mere compilation from old writers, and in this instance from one Cornutus, we find another remarkable passage, which I do not remember to have seen quoted, though doubtless it has been so, on the pronunciation of the letter M. To utter this final consonant, he says, before a word beginning with a vowel, is wrong, durum ac barbarum sonat; but it is an equal fault to omit it before one beginning with a consonant; par enim atque idem est vitium, ita cum vocali sicut cum consonanti M literam, exprimere. Cassiodorus, De orthographia, cap. 1. Thus we perceive that there was a nicety as to the pronunciation of this letter, which uneducated persons would naturally not regard. Hence in the inscriptions of a low age, we frequently find this letter omitted; as in one quoted by Muratori, Ego L. Contius me bibo [vivo] archa [archam] feci, and it is very easy to multiply instances. Thus the neuter and the accusative terminations were lost.

Continuance of Latin in seventh century. 28. It seems impossible to determine the progress of these changes, the degrees of variation between the polite and popular, the written and spoken Latin, in the best ages of Rome, in the decline of the empire, and in the kingdoms founded upon its ruins; or finally, the exact epoch when the grammatical language ceased to be generally intelligible. There remains, therefore, some room still for hypothesis and difference of opinion. The clergy preached in Latin early in the seventh century, and we have a popular song of the same age on the victory obtained by Clotaire II. in 622 over the Saxons.[45] This has been surmised by some to be a translation, merely because the Latin is better than they suppose to have been spoken. But, though the words are probably not given quite correctly, they seem reducible, with a little emendation, to short verses of an usual rythmical cadence.[46]

[45] Le Bœuf, in Mém. de l’Acad. des Inscript. vol. xvii.

[46] Turner, in Archæologia, vol. xiv. 173. Hallam’s Middle Ages, iii. 326. Bouterwek, Gesch. der Französen Poesie, p. 18, observes, that there are many fragments of popular Latin songs preserved. I have not found any quoted, except one, which he gives from La Revaillère, which is simple and rather pretty; but I know not whence it is taken. It seems the song of a female slave, and is perhaps nearly as old as the destruction of the empire.

At quid jubes, pusiole, Quare mandas, filiole, Carmen dulce me cantare Cum sim longe exul valde Intra mare, O cur jubes canere?

Intra seems put for trans. The metre is rhymed trochaic; but that is consistent with antiquity. It is, however, more pleasing than most of the Latin verse of this period, and is more in the tone of the modern languages. As it is not at all a hackneyed passage, I have thought it worthy of quotation.

It is changed to a new language in eighth and ninth. 29. But in the middle of the eighth century, we find the rustic language mentioned as distinct from Latin;[47] and in the council of Tours held in 813 it is ordered that homilies shall be explained to the people in their own tongue, whether rustic Roman or Frankish. In 842 we find the earliest written evidence of its existence, in the celebrated oaths taken by Louis of Germany and his brother Charles the Bald, as well as by their vassals, the former in Frankish or early German, the latter in their own current dialect. This, though with somewhat of a closer resemblance to Latin, is accounted by the best judges a specimen of the language spoken south of the Loire; afterwards variously called the Langue d’oc, Provençal, or Limousin, and essentially the same with the dialects of Catalonia and Valencia.[48] It is decidedly the opinion of M. Raynouard, as it was of earlier inquirers, that the general language of France in the ninth century was the southern dialect, rather than that of the north, to which we now give the exclusive name of French, and which they conceive to have deviated from it afterwards.[49] And he has employed great labour to prove, that, both in Spain and Italy, this language was generally spoken with hardly as much difference from that of France, as constitutes even a variation of dialect; the articles, pronouns, and auxiliaries being nearly identical; most probably not with so much difference as would render the native of one country by any means unintelligible in another.[50]

[47] Acad. des. Inscript. xvii. 713.

[48] Du Cange, p. 35. Raynouard, passim. M. de la Rue has called it, “un Latin expirant.” Recherches sur les Bardes d’Armorique. Between this and “un Français naissant” there may be only a verbal distinction; but, in accuracy of definition, I should think M. Raynouard much more correct. The language of this oath cannot be called Latin without a violent stretch of words: no Latin scholar, as such, would understand it, except by conjecture. On the other hand, most of the words, as we learn from M. R., are Provençal of the twelfth century. The passage has been often printed, and sometimes incorrectly. M. Roquefort, in the preface to his Glossaire de la Langue Romane, has given a tracing from an ancient manuscript of Nitard, the historian of the ninth century, to whom we owe this important record of language.

[49] The chief difference was in orthography; the Northerns wrote Latin words with an e where the South retained a; as charitet, caritat: veritet, veritat; appelet, apelat. Si l’on rétablissait dans les plus anciens textes Français les a primitifs en place des e, on aurait identiquement la langue des troubadours. Raynouard, Observations sur le Roman du Rou, 1829, p. 5.

[50] The proofs of this similarity occupy most part of the first and sixth volumes in M. Raynouard’s excellent work.

It is a common error to suppose that French and Italian had a double source, barbaric as well as Latin; and that the northern nations, in conquering those regions, brought in a large share of their own language. This is like the opinion, that the Norman Conquest infused the French we now find in our own tongue. There are certainly Teutonic words, both in French and Italian, but not sufficient to affect the proposition that these languages are merely Latin in their origin. These words in many instances express what Latin could not; thus guerra was by no means synonymous with bellum. Yet even Roquefort talks of “un jargon composé de mots Tudesques et Romains.” Discours Preliminaire, p. 19; forgetting which, he more justly remarks afterwards, on the oath of Charles the Bald, that it shows “la langue Romane est entièrement composée de Latin.” A long list could, no doubt, be made of French and Italian words that cannot easily be traced to any Latin with which we are acquainted; but we may be surprised that it is not still longer.

Early specimens of French. 30. Thus, in the eighth and ninth centuries, if not before, France had acquired a language unquestionably nothing else than a corruption of Latin, (for the Celtic or Teutonic words that entered into it were by no means numerous, and did not influence its structure), but become so distinct from its parent, through modes of pronunciation as well as grammatical changes, that it requires some degree of practice to trace the derivation of words in many instances. It might be expected that we should be able to adduce, or at least prove to have existed, a series of monuments in this new form of speech. It might naturally appear that poetry, the voice of the soul, would have been heard wherever the joys and sufferings, the hopes and cares of humanity, wherever the countenance of nature, or the manners of social life, supplied their boundless treasures to its choice; and among untutored nations it has been rarely silent. Of the existence of verse, however, in this early period of the new languages, we find scarce any testimony, a doubtful passage in a Latin poem of the ninth century excepted,[51] till we come to a production on the captivity of Boethius, versified chiefly from passages in his Consolation, which M. Raynouard, though somewhat wishing to assign a higher date, places about the year 1000. |Poem on Boethius.| This is printed by him from a manuscript formerly in the famous abbey of Fleury, or St. Benoit-sur-Loire, and now in the public library of Orleans. It is a fragment of 250 lines, written in stanzas of six, seven, or a greater number of verses of ten syllables, sometimes deviating to eleven or twelve; and all the lines in each stanza rhyming masculinely with each other. It is certainly by much the earliest specimen of French verse;[52] even if it should only belong, as Le Bœuf thought, to the eleventh century.

[51] In a Latin eclogue quoted by Paschasius Radbert (ob. 865) in the life of St. Adalhard, abbot of Corbie (ob. 826), the romance poets are called upon to join the Latins in the following lines:
“Rustica concelebret Romana Latinaque lingua,
Saxo, qui, pariter plangens, pro carmine dicat;
Vertite huc cuncti, cecinit quam maximus ille,
Et tumulum facite, et tumulo superaddite carmen.”
Raynouard, Choix des Poésies, vol. ii. p. cxxxv. These lines are scarcely intelligible; but the quotation from Virgil, in the ninth century, perhaps deserves remark, though, in one of Charlemagne’s monasteries, it is not by any means astonishing. Nennius, a Welsh monk of the same age, who can hardly write Latin at all, has quoted another line; “Purpurea intexti tollant aulæa a Britanni;” which is more extraordinary, and almost leads us to suspect an interpolation, unless he took it from Bede. Gale, xv. Scriptores, iii. 102.

[52] Raynouard, vol. ii. pp. 5, 6, and preface, p. cxxvii.

Provençal grammar. 31. M. Raynouard has asserted what will hardly bear dispute, that “there has never been composed any considerable work in any language, till it has acquired determinate forms of expressing the modifications of ideas according to time, number, and person,” or, in other words, the elements of grammar.[53] But whether the Provençal or Romance language were in its infancy so defective, he does not say; nor does the grammar he has given lead us to that inference. This grammar, indeed, is necessarily framed, in great measure, out of more recent materials. It may be suspected, perhaps, that a language formed by mutilating the words of another, could not for many ages be rich or flexible enough for the variety of poetic expression. And the more ancient forms would long retain their prerogative in writing: or, perhaps, we can only say, that the absence of poetry was the effect, as well as the evidence, of that intellectual barrenness, more characteristic of the dark ages than their ignorance.

[53] Observations philogiques et grammaticales, sur le Roman de Rou (1829), p. 26. Two ancient Provençal grammars, one by Raymond Vidal in the twelfth century, are in existence. The language therefore must have had its determinate rules before that time.

M. Raynouard has shown, with a prodigality of evidence, the regularity of the French or Romance language in the twelfth century, and its retention of Latin forms, in cases when it had not been suspected. Thus it is a fundamental rule, that, in nouns masculine, the nominative ends in s in the singular, but wants it in the plural; while the oblique cases lose it in the singular, but retain it in the plural. This is evidently derived from the second declension in Latin. As, for example—
Sing. Li princes est venus, et a este sacrez rois.
Plur. Li evesque et li plus noble baron se sont assemble.
Thus also the possessive pronoun is always mes, tes, ses, (meus, tuus, suus) in the nominative singular; mon, ton, son, (meum, &c.), in the oblique regimen. It has been through ignorance of such rules that the old French poetry has seemed capricious, and destitute of strict grammar; and, in a philosophical sense, the simplicity and extensiveness of M. Raynouard’s discovery entitle it to the appellation of beautiful.

Latin retained in use longer in Italy. 32. In Italy, where we may conceive the corruption of language to have been less extensive, and where the spoken patois had never acquired a distinctive name, like lingua Romana in France, we find two remarkable proofs, as they seem, that Latin was not wholly unintelligible in the ninth and tenth centuries, and which therefore modify M. Raynouard’s hypothesis as to the simultaneous origin of the Romance tongue. The one is a popular song of the soldiers, on their march to rescue the Emperor Louis II. in 881, from the violent detention in which he had been placed by the duke of Benevento; the other, a similar exhortation to the defenders of Modena in 924, when that city was in danger of siege from the Hungarians. Both of these were published by Muratori, in his fortieth dissertation on Italian Antiquities; and both have been borrowed from him by M. Sismondi, in his Littérature du Midi.[54] The former of these poems is in a loose trochaic measure, totally destitute of regard to grammatical inflections. Yet some of the leading peculiarities of Italian, the article and the auxiliary verb, do not appear. The latter is in accentual iambics, with a sort of monotonous termination in the nature of rhyme; and in very much superior Latinity, probably the work of an ecclesiastic.[55] It is difficult to account for either of these, especially the former, which is merely a military song, except on the supposition that the Latin language was not grown wholly out of popular use.

[54] Vol. i. pp. 23, 27.

[55] I am at a loss to know what Muratori means by saying, “Son versi di dodici sillabe, ma computata la ragione de’ tempi, vengono ad essere uguali a gli endecasillabi.” p. 551. He could not have understood the metre, which is perfectly regular, and even harmonious, on the condition only, that no “ragione de’ tempi” except such as accentual pronunciation observes, shall be demanded. The first two lines will serve as a specimen:—
“O tu, qui servas armis ista mænia,
Noli dormire, moneo, sed vigila.”
This is like another strange observation of Muratori in the same dissertation, that, in the well-known lines of the emperor Adrian to his soul, “Animula vagula, blandula,” which could perplex no schoolboy, he cannot discover “un’esatta norma di metro;” and therefore takes them to be merely rhythmical.

French of eleventh century. 33. In the eleventh century, France still affords us but few extant writings. Several, indeed, can be shown to have once existed. The Romance language, comprehending the two divisions of Provençal and Northern French, by this time distinctly separate from each other, was now, say the authors of the Histoire Littéraire de la France, employed in poetry, romances, translations, and original works in different kinds of literature; sermons were preached in it, and the code, called the Assizes de Jerusalem, was drawn up under Godfrey of Bouillon in 1100.[56] Some part of this is doubtful, and especially the age of these laws. They do not mention those of William the Conqueror, recorded in French by Ingulfus. Doubts have been cast by a distinguished living critic on the age of this French code, and upon the authenticity of the History of Ingulfus itself; which he conceives, upon very plausible grounds, to be a forgery of Richard II.’s time: the language of the laws indeed appears to be very ancient, but not probably distinguishable at this day from the French of the twelfth century. It may be said, in general, that, except one or two translations from books of Scripture, very little now extant has been clearly referred to an earlier period.[57] Yet it is impossible to doubt that the language was much employed in poetry, and had been gradually ramifying itself by the shoots of invention and sentiment; since, at the close of this age, or in the next, we find a constellation of gay and brilliant versifiers, the Troubadours of southern France, and a corresponding class to the north of the Loire.

[56] Vol. vii. p. 107.

[57] Roquefort, Glossaire de la Langue Romane, p. 25, and État de la Poésie Française, p. 42, and 206, mentions several religious works in the royal library, and also a metrical romance in the British Museum, lately published in France on the fabulous voyage of Charlemagne to Constantinople. Raynouard has collected a few fragments in Provençal. But I must dissent from this excellent writer in referring the famous poem of the Vaudois, La Nobla Leyczon, to the year 1100. Choix des Poésies des Troubadours, vol. ii. p. cxxxvii. I have already observed, that the two lines which contain what he calls la date de l’an 1100, are so loosely expressed, as to include the whole ensuing century. (Hallam’s Middle Ages, iii. 467.) And I am now convinced that the poem is not much older than 1200. It seems probable that they reckoned 1100 years, on a loose computation, not from the Christian era, but from the time when the passage of Scripture to which these lines allude was written. The allusion may be to 1 Pet. i. 20. But it is clear that, at the time of the composition of this poem, not only the name of Vaudois had been imposed on those sectaries, but they had become subject to persecution. We know nothing of this till near the end of the century. This poem was probably written in the south of France, and carried afterwards to the Alpine valleys of Piedmont, from which it was brought to Geneva and England in the seventeenth century. La Nobla Leyczon is published at length by Raynouard. It consists of 479 lines, which seem to be rhythmical or aberrant Alexandrines; the rhymes uncertain in number, chiefly masculine. The poem censures the corruptions of the church, but contains little that would be considered heretical; which agrees with what contemporary historians relate of the original Waldenses. Any doubts as to the authenticity of this poem are totally unreasonable. M. Raynouard, an indisputably competent judge, observes, “Les personnes qui l’examineront avec attention jugeront que le manuscrit n’a pas été interpolé,” p. cxliii.

I will here reprint more accurately than before the two lines supposed to give the poem the date of 1100:—
“Ben ha mil et cent ancz compli entièrement,
Que fo scripta l’ora car sen al derier temps.”
Can M. Raynouard, or any one else, be warranted by this in saying, La date de l’an 1100, qu’on lit dans ce poème, merite toute confiance?

Metres of modern languages. 34. These early poets in the modern languages chiefly borrowed their forms of versification from the Latin. It is unnecessary to say, that metrical composition in that language, as in Greek, was an arrangement of verses corresponding by equal or equivalent feet; all syllables being presumed to fall under a known division of long and short, the former passing for strictly the double of the latter in quantity of time. By this law of pronunciation all verse was measured; and to this not only actors, who were assisted by an accompaniment, but the orators also endeavoured to conform. But the accented, or, if we choose rather to call them so, emphatic syllables, being regulated by a very different though uniform law, the uninstructed people, especially in the decline of Latinity, pronounced, as we now do, with little or no regard to the metrical quantity of syllables, but according to their accentual value. And this gave rise to the popular or rhythmical poetry of the lower empire; traces of which may be found in the second century, and even much earlier, but of which we have abundant proofs after the age of Constantine.[58] All metre, as Augustin says, was rhythm, but all rhythm was not metre: in rhythmical verse, neither the quantity of syllables, that is, the time allotted to each by metrical rule, nor even, in some degree, their number, was regarded, so long as a cadence was retained in which the ear could recognise a certain approach to uniformity. Much popular poetry, both religious and profane, and the public hymns of the church, were written in this manner; the distinction of long and short syllables, even while Latin remained a living tongue, was lost in speech, and required study to attain it. The accent or emphasis, both of which are probably, to a certain extent, connected with quantity and with each other, supplied its place; the accented syllable being, perhaps, generally lengthened in ordinary speech; though this is not the sole cause of length, for no want of emphasis or lowness of tone can render a syllable of many letters short. Thus we find two species of Latin verse: one metrical, which Prudentius, Fortunatus, and others aspired to write; the other rhythmical, somewhat licentious in number of syllables, and wholly accentual in its pronunciation. But this kind was founded on the former, and imitated the ancient syllabic arrangements. Thus the trochaic, or line, in which the stress falls on the uneven syllables, commonly alternating by eight and seven, a very popular metre from its spirited flow, was adopted in military songs, such as that already mentioned of the Italian soldiers in the ninth century. It was also common in religious chants. The line of eight syllables, or dimeter iambic, in which the cadence falls on the even places, was still more frequent in ecclesiastical verse. But these are the most ordinary forms of versification in the early French or Provençal, Spanish, and Italian languages. The line of eleven syllables, which became in time still more usual than the former, is nothing else than the ancient hendecasyllable; from which the French, in what they call masculine rhymes, and ourselves more generally, from a still greater deficiency of final vowels, have been forced to retrench the last syllable. The Alexandrine of twelve syllables might seem to be the trimeter iambic of the ancients. But Sanchez has very plausibly referred its origin to a form more usual in the dark ages, the pentameter; and shown it in some early Spanish poetry.[59] The Alexandrine, in the southern languages, had generally a feminine termination, that is, in a short vowel, thus becoming of thirteen syllables, the stress falling on the penultimate, as is the usual case in a Latin pentameter verse, accentually read in our present mode. The variation of syllables in these Alexandrines, which run from twelve to fourteen, is accounted for by the similar numerical variety in the pentameter.

[58] The well-known lines of Adrian to Florus, and his reply, “Ego nolo Florus esse,” &c., are accentual trochaics, but not wholly so; for the last line, Scythicas pati pruinas, requires the word pati to be sounded as an iambic. They are not the earliest instance extant of disregard to quantity, for Suetonius quotes some satirical lines on Julius Cæsar.

[59] The break in the middle of the Alexandrine, it will occur to every competent judge, has nothing analogous to it in the trimeter iambic, but exactly corresponds to the invariable law of the pentameter.

Origin of rhyme in Latin. 35. I have dwelt, perhaps tediously, on this subject, because vague notions of a derivation of modern metrical arrangements, even in the languages of Latin origin, from the Arabs or Scandinavians, have sometimes gained credit.[60] It has been imagined also that the peculiar characteristic of the new poetry, rhyme, was borrowed from the Saracens of Spain.[61] But the Latin language abounds so much in consonances, that those who have been accustomed to write verses in it well know the difficulty of avoiding them, as much as an ear formed on classical models demands; and as this gingle is certainly pleasing in itself, it is not wonderful that the less fastidious vulgar should adopt it in their rhythmical songs. It has been proved by Muratori, Gray, and Turner, beyond the possibility of doubt, that rhymed Latin verse was in use from the end of the fourth century.[62]

[60] Roquefort, Essai sur la Poésie Française dans le 12me et 13me siècles, p. 66. Galvani, Osservazioni sulla poesia de’ Trovatori. (Modena, 1829) Sanchez, Poesias Castellanas anteriores al 15mo siglo, vol. i. p. 122.

Tyrwhitt had already observed, “The metres which the Normans used, and which we seem to have borrowed from them, were plainly copied from the Latin rhythmical verses, which, in the declension of that language, were current in various forms among those who either did not understand, or did not regard, the true quantity of syllables; and the practice of rhyming is probably to be deduced from the same original.” Essay on the Language and Versification of Chaucer, p. 51.

[61] Andrès, with a partiality to the Saracens of Spain, whom, by an odd blunder, he takes for his countrymen, manifested in almost every page, does not fail to urge this. It had been said long before by Huet, and others who lived before these subjects had been thoroughly investigated. Origine e Progresso, &c., ii. 194. He has been copied by Ginguéné and Sismondi.

[62] Muratori, Antichità Italiane dissert., 40. Turner, in Archæologia, vol. xiv., and Hist. of England, vol. iv. pp. 328, 653. Gray has gone as deeply as any one into this subject; and, though writing at what may be called an early period of metrical criticism, he has fallen into a few errors, and been too easy of credence, unanswerably proves the Latin origin of rhyme. Gray’s Works by Mathias, vol. ii. p. 30-54.

Provençal and French poetry. 36. Thus, about the time of the first crusade, we find two dialects of the same language, differing by that time not inconsiderably from each other, the Provençal and French, possessing a regular grammar, established forms of versification (and the early troubadours added several to those borrowed from the Latin [63]), and a flexibility which gave free scope to the graceful turns of poetry. William, duke of Guienne, has the glory of leading the van of surviving Provençal songsters. He was born in 1070, and may possibly have composed some of his little poems before he joined the crusaders in 1096. If these are genuine, and no doubt of them seems to be entertained, they denote a considerable degree of previous refinement in the language.[64] We do not, I believe, meet with any other troubadour till after the middle of the twelfth century. From that time till about the close of the thirteenth, they were numerous almost as the gay insects of spring; names of illustrious birth are mingled in the list with those whom genius has saved from obscurity; they were the delight of a luxurious nobility, the pride of southern France, while the great fiefs of Toulouse and Guienne were in their splendour. Their style soon extended itself to the northern dialect. Abelard was the first of recorded name, who taught the banks of the Seine to resound a tale of love; and it was of Eloise that he sung.[65] “You composed,” says that gifted and noble-spirited woman, in one of her letters to him, “many verses in amorous measure, so sweet both in their language and their melody, that your name was incessantly in the mouths of all, and even the most illiterate could not be forgetful of you. This it was chiefly that made women admire you. And as most of these songs were on me and my love, they made me known in many countries, and caused many women to envy me. Every tongue spoke of your Eloise; every street, every house resounded with my name.”[66] These poems of Abelard are lost; but in the Norman, or northern French language, we have an immense number of poets belonging to the twelfth, and the two following centuries. One hundred and twenty-seven are known by name in the twelfth alone.[67] Thibault, king of Navarre and count of Champagne, about the middle of the next, is accounted the best, as well as noblest of French poets.

[63] See Raynouard, Roquefort, and Galvini, for the Provençal and French metres, which are very complicated.

[64] Raynouard, Choix des Poésies des Troubadours, vol. ii. Auguis, Recueil des Anciens Poètes Français, vol. i.

[65] Bouterwek, on the authority of La Ravaillere, seems to doubt whether these poems of Abelard were in French or Latin. Gesch. der Französen Poesie, p. 18. I believe this would be thought quite paradoxical by any critic at present.

[66] Duo autem, fateor, tibi specialiter inerant, quibus feminarum quarumlibet animos statim allicere poteras, dictandi videlicet et cantandi gratia; quæ cæteros minimè philosophos assecutos esse novimus. Quibus quidem quasi ludo quodam laborem exercitii recreans philosophici pleraque amatorio metro vel rithmo composita reliquisti carmina, quæ præ nimiâ suavitate tam dictaminis quam cantus sæpius frequentata tuum in ore omnium nomen incessanter tenebant, ut etiam illiteratos melodiæ dulcedo tui non sineret immemores esse. Atque hinc maxime in amorem tui feminæ suspirabant. Et cum horum pars maxima carminum nostros decantaret amores, multis me regionibus brevi tempore nunciavit, et multarum in me feminarum accendit invidiam. And in another place: Frequenti carmine tuam in ore omnium Heloissam ponebas: me plateæ omnes, me domus singulæ resonabant. Epist. Abælardi et Heloissæ. These epistles of Abelard and Eloisa, especially those of the latter, are, as far as I know, the first book that gives any pleasure in reading which had been produced in Europe for 600 years, since the Consolation of Boethius, But I do not press my negative judgment. We may at least say that the writers of the dark ages, if they have left anything intrinsically very good, have been ill-treated by the learned, who have failed to extract it. Pope, it may be here observed, has done great injustice to Eloisa in his unrivalled Epistle, by putting the sentiments of a coarse and abandoned woman into her mouth. Her refusal to marry Abelard arose not from an abstract predilection for the name of mistress above that of wife, but from her disinterested affection, which would not deprive him of the prospect of ecclesiastical dignities, to which his genius and renown might lead him. She judged very unwisely, as it turned out, but from an unbounded generosity of character. He was, in fact, unworthy of her affection, which she expresses in the tenderest language. Deum testem invoco, si me Augustus universo præsidens mundo matrimonii honore dignaretur, totumque mihi orbem confirmaret in perpetuum præsidendum, charius mihi et dignius videretur tua dici meretrix quam illius imperatrix.

[67] Auguis, Discours Préliminaire, p. 2. Roquefort, Etat de la Poésie Française aux 12me et 13me siècles.

37. In this French and Provençal poetry, if we come to the consideration of it historically, descending from an earlier period, we are at once struck by the vast preponderance of amorous ditties. The Greek and Roman muses, especially the latter, seem frigid as their own fountain in comparison. Satires on the great, and especially, on the clergy, exhortations to the crusade, and religious odes, are intermingled in the productions of the troubadours; but love is the prevailing theme. This tone they could hardly have borrowed from the rhythmical Latin verses, of which all that remain are without passion or energy. They could as little have been indebted to their predecessors for a peculiar gracefulness, an indescribable charm of gaiety and ease, which many of their lighter poems display. This can only be ascribed to the polish of chivalrous manners, and to the influence of feminine delicacy on public taste. The well-known dialogue, for example, of Horace and Lydia, is justly praised; nothing extant of this amœbean character, from Greece or Rome, is nearly so good. But such alternate stanzas, between speakers of different sexes, are very common in the early French poets; and it would be easy to find some quite equal to Horace in grace and spirit. They had even a generic name, tensons, contentions; that is, dialogues of lively repartee, such as we are surprised to find in the twelfth century, an age accounted by many almost barbarous. None of these are prettier than what are called pastourelles, in which the poet is feigned to meet a shepherdess, whose love he solicits, and by whom he is repelled, (not always finally,) in alternate stanzas.[68] Some of these may be read in Roquefort, Etat de la Poésie Française, dans le 12me et 13me siècles; others in Raynouard, Choix des Poésies des Troubadours; in Auguis, Recueil des Anciens Poètes Français; or in Galvani, Osservazioni sulla Poesia de’ Trovatori.

[68] These have, as Galvani has observed, an ancient prototype in the twenty-seventh pastoral of Theocritus, which Dryden has translated with no diminution of its freedom. Some of the Pastourelles are also rather licentious; but that is not the case with the greater part. M. Raynouard, in an article of the Journal des Savans for 1824, p. 613, remarks the superior decency of the southern poets, scarcely four or five transgressing in that respect; while many of the fabliaux in the collections of Barbazan and Méon are of the most coarse and stupid ribaldry; and such that even the object of exhibiting ancient manners and language scarcely warranted their publication in so large a number.

38. In all these light compositions which gallantry or gaiety inspired, we perceive the characteristic excellencies of French poetry, as distinctly as in the best vaudeville of the age of Louis XV. We can really sometimes find little difference, except an obsoleteness of language, which gives them a kind of poignancy. And this style, as I have observed, seems to have been quite original in France, though it was imitated by other nations.[69] The French poetry, on the other hand, was deficient in strength and ardour. It was also too much filled with monotonous commonplaces; among which the tedious descriptions of spring, and the everlasting nightingale, are eminently to be reckoned. These, perhaps, are less frequent in the early poems, most of which are short, than they became in the prolix expansion adopted by the allegorical school in the fourteenth century. They prevail, as is well known, in Chaucer, Dunbar, and several other of our own poets.

[69] Andrès, as usual, derives the Provençal style of poetry from the Arabians; and this has been countenanced, in some measure, by Ginguéné and Sismondi. Some of the peculiarities of the Trobadours, their tensons, or contentions, and the envoi, or termination of a poem, by an address to the poem itself or the reader, are said to be of Arabian origin. In assuming that rhyme was introduced by the same channel, these writers are probably mistaken. But I have seen too little of oriental, and, especially, of Hispano-Saracenic poetry, to form any opinion how far the more essential characteristics of Provençal verse may have been derived from it. One seems to find more of oriental hyperbole in the Castilian poetry.

Metrical romances. Havelok the Dane. 39. The metrical romances, far from common in Provençal,[70] but forming a large portion of what was written in the northern dialect, though occasionally picturesque, graceful, or animated, are seldom free from tedious or prosaic details. The earliest of these extant seems to be that of Havelok the Dane, of which an abridgment was made by Geoffrey Gaimar, before the middle of the twelfth century. The story is certainly a popular legend from the Danish part of England, which the French versifier has called, according to the fashion of romances, “a Breton lay.” If this word meant anything more than relating to Britain, it is a plain falsehood; and upon either hypothesis, it may lead us to doubt, as many other reasons may also, what has been so much asserted of late years, as to the Armorican origin of romantic fictions; since the word Breton, which some critics refer to Armorica, is here applied to a story of mere English birth.[71] It cannot, however, be doubted, from the absurd introduction of Arthur’s name in this romance of Havelok, that it was written after the publication of the splendid fables of Geoffrey.[72]

[70] It has been denied that there are any metrical romances in Provençal. But one called the Philomena, on the fabulous history of Charlemagne, is written after 1173, but not much later than 1200. Journal des Savans, 1824.

[71] The Recherches sur les Bardes d’Armorique, by that respectable veteran, M. de la Rue, are very unsatisfactory. It does not appear that the Bretons have so much as a national tradition of any romantic poetry; nor any writings in their language older than 1450. The authority of Warton, Leyden, Ellis, Turner, and Price have rendered this hypothesis of early Armorican romance popular; but I cannot believe that so baseless a fabric will endure much longer. Is it credible that tales of aristocratic splendour and courtesy sprung up in so poor and uncivilised a country as Bretagne? Traditional stories they might, no doubt, possess, and some of these may be found in the lais de Marie, and other early poems; but not romances of chivalry. I do not recollect, though speaking without confidence, that any proof has been given of Armorican traditions about Arthur, earlier than the history of Geoffrey: for it seems too much to interpret the word Britones of them rather than of the Welsh. Mr. Turner, I observe, without absolutely recanting, has much receded from his opinion of the Armorican prototype of Geoffrey of Monmouth.

[72] The romance of Havelok was printed by Sir Frederick Madden in 1829; but not for sale. His Introduction is of considerable value. The story of Havelok is that of Curan and Argentile, in Warner’s Albion’s England, upon which Mason founded a drama. Sir F. Madden refers the English translation to some time between 1270 and 1290. The manuscript is in the Bodleian Library. The French original has since been reprinted in France, as I learn from Brunet’s Supplement au Manuel du Libraire. Both this and its abridgment, by Geoffrey Gaimar, are in the British Museum.

Diffusion of French language. 40. Two more celebrated poems are by Wace, a native of Jersey; one, a free version of the history lately published by Geoffrey of Monmouth; the other, a narrative of the Battle of Hastings and Conquest of England. Many other romances followed. Much has been disputed for some years concerning them, and the lays and fabliaux of the northern trouveurs; it is sufficient here to observe, that they afforded a copious source of amusement and interest to those who read or listened, as far as the French language was diffused; and this was far beyond the boundaries of France. Not only was it the common spoken tongue of what is called the court, or generally of the superior ranks, in England, but in Italy and in Germany, at least throughout the thirteenth century. Brunetto Latini wrote his philosophical compilation, called Le Tresor, in French, “because,” as he says, “the language was more agreeable and usual than any other.” Italian, in fact, was hardly employed in prose at that time. But for those whose education had not gone so far, the romances and tales of France began to be rendered into German, as early as the latter part of the twelfth century, as they were long afterwards into English, becoming the basis of those popular songs, which illustrate the period of the Swabian emperors, the great house of Hohenstauffen, Frederic Barbarossa, Henry VI., and Frederic II.

German poetry of Swabian period. 41. The poets of Germany, during this period of extraordinary fertility in versification, were not less numerous than those of France and Provence.[73] From Henry of Veldek to the last of the lyric poets, soon after the beginning of the fourteenth century, not less than two hundred are known by name. A collection made in that age by Rudiger von Manasse of Zurich contains the productions of one hundred and forty; and modern editors have much enlarged the list.[74] Henry of Veldek is placed by Eichhorn about 1170, and by Bouterwek twenty years later; so that at the utmost we cannot reckon the period of their duration more than a century and a half. But the great difference perceptible between the poetry of Henry and that of the old German songs proves him not to have been the earliest of the Swabian school: he is as polished in language and versification as any of his successors; and though a northern, he wrote in the dialect of the house of Hohenstauffen. Wolfram von Eschenbach, in the first years of the next century, is, perhaps, the most eminent name of the Minne-singers, as the lyric poets were denominated, and is also the translator of several romances. The golden age of German poetry was before the fall of the Swabian dynasty, at the death of Conrad IV., in 1254. Love, as the word denotes, was the peculiar theme of the Minne-singers; but it was chiefly from the northern or southern dialects of France, especially the latter, that they borrowed their amorous strains.[75] In the latter part of the thirteenth century, we find less of feeling and invention, but a more didactic and moral tone, sometimes veiled in Æsopic fables, sometimes openly satirical. Conrad of Wurtzburg is the chief of the latter school; but he had to lament the decline of taste and manners in his own age.

[73] Bouterwek, p. 95.

[74] Id. p. 98. This collection was published in 1758, by Bodmer.

[75] Herder, Zerstreute Blätter, vol. v. p. 206. Eichhorn, Allg. Geschichte der Cultur. vol. i. p. 226. Heinsius, Teut, oder Lehrbuch der Deutschen. Sprachwissenschaft, vol. iv. pp. 32-80. Weber’s Illustrations of Northern Antiquities, 1814. This work contains the earliest analysis, I believe, of the Nibelungen Lied. But above all, I have been indebted to the excellent account of German poetry by Bouterwek, in the ninth volume of his great work, the History of Poetry and Eloquence since the thirteenth century. In this volume the mediæval poetry of Germany occupies nearly four hundred closely printed pages. I have since met with a pleasing little volume, on the Lays of the Minne-singers, by Mr. Edgar Taylor. It contains an account of the chief of those poets, with translations, perhaps in too modern a style, though it may be true that no other would suit our modern taste.

A species of love song, peculiar, according to Weber (p. 9), to the Minne-singers, are called Watchmen’s Songs. These consist in a dialogue between a lover and the sentinel who guards his mistress. The latter is persuaded to imitate “Sir Pandarus of Troy;” and when morning breaks, summons the lover to quit his lady; who, in her turn, maintains that “it is the nightingale, and not the lark,” with almost the pertinacity of Juliet.

Mr. Taylor remarks, that the German poets do not go so far in their idolatry of the fair as the Provençals, p. 127. I do not concur altogether in his reasons; but as the Minne-singers imitated the Provençals, this deviation is remarkable. I should rather ascribe it to the hyperbolical tone which the Troubadours had borrowed from the Arabians, or to the susceptibility of their temperament.

42. No poetry, however, of the Swabian period is so national as the epic romances, which drew their subjects from the highest antiquity, if they did not even adopt the language of primæval bards, which, perhaps, though it has been surmised, is not compatible with their style. In the two most celebrated productions of this kind, the Helden Buch, or Book of Heroes, and the Nibelungen Lied, the Lay of the Nibelungen, a fabulous people, we find the recollections of an heroic age, wherein the names of Attila and Theodoric stand out as witnesses of traditional history, clouded by error and coloured by fancy. The Nibelungen Lied, in its present form, is by an uncertain author, perhaps, about the year 1200;[76] but it comes, and as far as we can judge, with little or no interpolation of circumstances, from an age anterior to Christianity, to civilisation, and to the more refined forms of chivalry. We cannot well think the stories later than the sixth or seventh centuries. The German critics admire the rude grandeur of this old epic: and its fables, marked with a character of barbarous simplicity wholly unlike that of later romance, are become, in some degree, familiar to ourselves.

[76] Weber says,—“I have no doubt whatever that the romance itself is of very high antiquity, at least of the eleventh century, though, certainly, the present copy has been considerably modernised.” Illustrations of Northern Romances, p. 26. But Bouterwek does not seem to think it of so ancient a date; and I believe it is commonly referred to about the year 1200. Schlegel ascribes it to Henry von Offerdingen. Heinsius, iv. 52.

It is highly probable that the “babara et antiquissima carmina,” which, according to Eginhard, Charlemagne caused to be reduced to writing, were no other than the legends of the Nibelungen Lied, and similar traditions of the Gothic and Burgundian time. Weber, p. 6. I will here mention, as I believe it is little known in England, a curious Latin epic poem on the wars of Attila, published by Fischer in 1780. He conceives it to be of the sixth century; but others have referred it to the eighth. The heroes are Franks; but the whole is fabulous, except the name of Attila and his Huns. I do not know whether this has any connection with a French poem on Attila, by a writer named Casola, existing in manuscript at Modena. A translation into Italian was published by Rossi at Ferrara in 1568: it is one of the scarcest books in the world. Weber’s Illustrations, p. 23. Eichhorn, Allg. Gesch. ii. 178. Galvani, Osservazioni sulla poesia de’ trovatori, p. 16.

The Nibelungen Lied seems to have been less popular in the middle ages than other romances; evidently because it relates to a different state of manners. Bouterwek, p. 141. Heinsius observes that we must consider this poem as the most valuable record of German antiquity, but that to overrate its merit, as some have been inclined to do, can be of no advantage.

Decline of German poetry. 43. The loss of some accomplished princes, and of a near intercourse with the south of France and with Italy, the augmented independence of the German nobility, to be maintained by unceasing warfare, rendered their manners, from the latter part of the thirteenth century, more rude than before. They ceased to cultivate poetry, or to think it honourable in their rank. Meantime a new race of poets, chiefly burghers of towns, sprung up about the reign of Rodolph of Hapsburgh, before the lays of the Minne-singers had yet ceased to resound. These prudent, though not inspired, votaries of the muse, chose the didactic and moral style as more salutary than the love songs, and more reasonable than the romances. They became known in the fourteenth century, by the name of meister-singers, but are traced to the institutions of the twelfth century, called Singing-schools, for the promotion of popular music, the favourite recreation of Germany. What they may have done for music I am unable to say: it was in an evil hour for the art of poetry that they extended their jurisdiction over her. They regulated verse by the most pedantic and minute laws, such as a society with no idea of excellence but conformity to rule would be sure to adopt; though nobler institutions have often done the same, and the Master-burghers were but prototypes of the Italian academicians. The poetry was always moral and serious, but flat. These meister-singers are said to have originated at Mentz, from which they spread to Augsburg, Strasburg, and other cities, and in none were more renowned than Nuremberg. Charles IV., in 1378, incorporated them by the name of Meistergenoss-schaft, with armorial bearings and peculiar privileges. They became, however, more conspicuous in the sixteenth century; scarce any names of meister-singers before that age are recorded; nor does it seem that much of their earlier poetry is extant.[77]

[77] Bouterwek, ix. 271-291. Heinsius, iv. 85-98. See also the Biographie Universelle, art. Folez; and a good article in the Retrospective Review, vol. x. p. 113.

Poetry of France and Spain. 44. The French versifiers had by this time, perhaps, become less numerous, though several names in the same style of amatory song do some credit to their age. But the romances of chivalry began now to be written in prose; while a very celebrated poem, the Roman de la Rose, had introduced an unfortunate taste for allegory into verse, from which France did not extricate herself for several generations. Meanwhile, the Provençal poets, who, down to the close of the thirteenth century, had flourished in the south, and whose language many Lombards adopted, came to an end; after the reunion of the fief of Toulouse to the crown, and the possession of Provence by a northern line of princes, their ancient and renowned tongue passed for a dialect, a patois of the people. It had never been much employed in prose, save in the kingdom of Aragon, where, under the name of Valencian, it continued for two centuries to be a legitimate language, till political circumstances of the same kind reduced it, as in southern France, to a provincial dialect. The Castilian language, which, though it has been traced higher in written fragments, may be considered to have begun, in a literary sense, with the poem of the Cid, not later than the middle of the twelfth century, was employed by a few extant poets in the next two ages, and in the fourteenth was as much the established vehicle of many kinds of literature in Spain as the French was on the other side of the mountains.[78] The names of Portuguese poets not less early than any in Castile are recorded; fragments are mentioned by Bouterwek as old as the twelfth century, and there exists a collection of lyric poetry in the style of the Troubadours, which is referred to no late part of the next age.[79] Nothing has been published in the Castilian language of this amatory style older than 1400.

[78] Sanchez, Collection de poesias Castellanas anteriores al siglo 15mo. Velasquez, Historia della poesia Español; which I only know by the German translation of Dieze, (Göttingen, 1769,) who has added many notes. Andrès, Origine d’ogni litteratura, ii. 158. Bouterwek’s History of Spanish and Portuguese Literature. I shall quote the English translation of this work, which, I am sorry to say, is sold by the booksellers at scarce a third of its original price. It is a strange thing, that while we multiply encyclopædias and indifferent compilations of our own, there is no demand for translations from the most learned productions of Germany that will indemnify a publisher.

[79] This very curious fact in literary history has been brought to light by Lord Stuart of Rothsay, who printed at Paris, in 1823, twenty-five copies of a collection of ancient Portuguese songs, from a manuscript in the library of the College of Nobles at Lisbon. An account of this book by M. Raynouard, will be found in the Journal des Savans for August, 1825; and I have been favoured by my noble friend the editor with the loan of a copy; though my ignorance of the language prevented me from forming an exact judgment of its contents. In the preface the following circumstances are stated. It consists of seventy-five folios, the first part having been torn off, and the manuscript attached to a work of a wholly different nature. The writing appears to be of the fourteenth century, and in some places older. The idiom seems older than the writing; it may be called, if I understand the meaning of the preface, as old as the beginning of the thirteenth century, and certainly older than the reign of Denis, pode appellidarse coevo do seculo xiii., e de certo he anterior ao reynado de D. Deniz. Denis king of Portugal reigned from 1279 to 1325. It is regular in grammar, and for the most part in orthography; but contains some gallicisms, which show either a connection between France and Portugal in that age, or a common origin in the southern tongues of Europe; since certain idioms found in this manuscript are preserved in Spanish, Italian, and Provençal, yet are omitted in Portuguese dictionaries. A few poems are translated from Provençal, but the greater part are strictly Portuguese, as the mention of places, names, and manners shows. M. Raynouard, however, observes, that the thoughts and forms of versification are similar to those of the Troubadours. The metres employed are usually of seven, eight, and ten syllables, the accent falling on the last; but some lines occur of seven, eight, or eleven syllables accented on the penultimate, and these are sometimes interwoven, at regular intervals, with the others.

The songs, as far as I was able to judge, are chiefly, if not wholly, amatory: they generally consist of stanzas, the first of which is written (and printed) with intervals for musical notes, and in the form of prose, though really in metre. Each stanza has frequently a burden of two lines. The plan appeared to be something like that of the Castilian glosas of the fifteenth century, the subject of the first stanza being repeated, and sometimes expanded, in the rest. I do not know that this is found in any Provençal poetry. The language, according to Raynouard, resembles Provençal more than the modern Portuguese does. It is a very remarkable circumstance, that we have no evidence, at least from the letter of the Marquis of Santillana early in the fifteenth century, that the Castilians had any of these love songs till long after the date of this Cancioneiro; and that we may rather collect from it, that the Spanish amatory poets chose the Galician or Portuguese dialect in preference to their own. Though the very ancient collection to which this note refers seems to have been unknown, I find mention of one by Don Pedro, Count of Barcelos, natural son of King Denis, in Dieze’s notes on Velasquez. Gesch. der Span. Dichtkunst, p. 70. This must have been in the first part of the fourteenth century.

Early Italian language. 45. Italy came last of those countries where Latin had been spoken to the possession of an independent language and literature. No industry has hitherto retrieved so much as a few lines of real Italian till near the end of the twelfth century;[80] and there is not much before the middle of the next. Several poets, however, whose versification is not wholly rude, appeared soon afterwards. The Divine Comedy of Dante seems to have been commenced before his exile from Florence in 1304. The Italian language was much used in prose, during the times of Dante and Petrarch, though very little before.

[80] Tiraboschi, iii. 323, doubts the authenticity of some inscriptions referred to the twelfth century. The earliest genuine Italian seems to be a few lines by Ciullo d’Alcamo, a Sicilian, between 1187 and 1193, vol. iv. p. 340.

Dante and Petrarch. 46. Dante and Petrarch are, as it were, the morning stars of our modern literature. I shall say nothing more of the former in this place: he does not stand in such close connection as Petrarch with the fifteenth century; nor had he such influence over the taste of his age. In this respect Petrarch has as much the advantage over Dante, as he was his inferior in depth of thought and creative power. He formed a school of poetry, which, though no disciple comparable to himself came out of it, gave a character to the taste of his country. He did not invent the sonnet; but he, perhaps, was the cause that it has continued in fashion for so many ages.[81] He gave purity, elegance, and even stability to the Italian language, which has been incomparably less changed during near five centuries since his time, than it was in one between the age of Guido Guinizzeli and his own. And none have denied him the honour of having restored a true feeling of classical antiquity in Italy, and consequently in Europe.

[81] Crescimbeni (Storia della vulgar poesia, vol. ii. p. 269) asserts the claim of Guiton d’Arezzo to the invention of the regular sonnet, or at least the perfection of that in use among the Provençals.

Change of Anglo-Saxon to English. 47. Nothing can be more difficult, except by an arbitrary line, than to determine the commencement of the English language; not so much, as in those of the continent, because we are in want of materials, but rather from an opposite reason, the possibility of tracing a very gradual succession of verbal changes that ended in a change of denomination. We should probably experience a similar difficulty, if we knew equally well the current idiom of France or Italy in the seventh and eighth centuries. For when we compare the earliest English of the thirteenth century with the Anglo-Saxon of the twelfth, it seems hard to pronounce, why it should pass for a separate language, rather than a modification or simplification of the former. We must conform, however, to usage, and say that the Anglo-Saxon was converted into English: 1. by contracting or otherwise modifying the pronunciation and orthography of words; 2. by omitting many inflections, especially of the noun, and consequently making more use of articles and auxiliaries; 3. by the introduction of French derivatives; 4. by using less inversion and ellipsis, especially in poetry. Of these the second alone, I think, can be considered as sufficient to describe a new form of language; and this was brought about so gradually, that we are not relieved from much of our difficulty, whether some compositions shall pass for the latest offspring of the mother, or the earliest fruits of the daughter’s fertility.[82]

[82] It is a proof of this difficulty that the best masters of our ancient language have lately introduced the word semi-Saxon, which is to cover everything from 1150 to 1250. See Thorpe’s preface to Analecta Anglo-Saxonica, and many other recent books.

48. The Anglo-Norman language is a phrase not quite so unobjectionable as the Anglo-Norman constitution; and as it is sure to deceive, we might better lay it aside altogether.[83] In the one instance, there was a real fusion of laws and government, to which we can find but a remote analogy, or rather none at all, in the other. It is probable, indeed, that the converse of foreigners might have something to do with those simplifications of the Anglo-Saxon grammar, which appear about the reign of Henry II., more than a century after the Conquest; though it is also true, that languages of a very artificial structure, like that of England before that revolution, often became less complex in their forms, without any such violent process as an amalgamation of two different races.[84] What is commonly called the Saxon Chronicle is continued to the death of Stephen, in 1154, and in the same language, though with some loss of its purity. Besides the neglect of several grammatical rules, French words now and then obtrude themselves, but not very frequently, in the latter pages of this Chronicle. Peterborough, however, was quite an English monastery; its endowments, its abbots, were Saxon; and the political spirit the Chronicle breathes, in some passages, is that of the indignant subjects, servi ancor frementi, of the Norman usurpers. If its last compilers, therefore, gave way to some innovations of language, we may presume that these prevailed more extensively in places less secluded, and especially in London.

[83] A popular and pleasing writer has drawn a little upon his imagination in the following account of the language of our forefathers after the Conquest:—“The language of the church was Latin; that of the king and nobles, Norman; that of the people, Anglo-Saxon; the Anglo-Norman jargon was only employed in the commercial intercourse between the conquerors and the conquered.” Ellis’s Specimens of Early English Poets, vol. i. p. 17. What was this jargon? and where do we find a proof of its existence? and what was the commercial intercourse hinted at? I suspect Ellis only meant, what has often been remarked, that the animals which bear a Saxon name in the fields acquire a French one in the shambles. But even this is more ingenious than just; for muttons, beeves, and porkers are good old words for the living quadrupeds.

[84] “Every branch of the low German stock from whence the Anglo-Saxon sprung, displays the same simplification of its grammar.” Price’s Preface to Warton, p. 110. He therefore ascribes little influence to the Norman conquest or to French connections.

Layamon. 49. We find evidence of a greater change in Layamon, a translator of Wace’s romance of Brut from the French. Layamon’s age is uncertain; it must have been after 1155, when the original poem was completed, and can hardly be placed below 1200. His language is accounted rather Anglo-Saxon than English; it retains most of the distinguishing inflections of the mother-tongue, yet evidently differs considerably from that older than the Conquest by the introduction, or at least more frequent employment, of some new auxiliary forms, and displays very little of the characteristics of the ancient poetry, its periphrases, its ellipses, or its inversions. But though translation was the means by which words of French origin were afterwards most copiously introduced, very few occur in the extracts from Layamon hitherto published; for we have not yet the expected edition of the entire work. He is not a mere translator, but improves much on Wace. The adoption of the plain and almost creeping style of the metrical French romance, instead of the impetuous dithyrambics of Saxon song, gives Layamon at first sight a greater affinity to the new English language than in mere grammatical structure he appears to bear.[85]

[85] See a long extract from Layamon in Ellis’s Specimens. This writer observes, that, “it contains no word which we are under the necessity of referring to a French root.” Duke and Castle seem exceptions: but the latter word occurs in the Saxon Chronicle before the Conquest, A.D. 1052.

Progress of English language. 50. Layamon wrote in a monastery on the Severn; and it is agreeable to experience, that an obsolete structure of language should be retained in a distant province, while it has undergone some change among the less rugged inhabitants of a capital. The disuse of Saxon forms crept on by degrees; some metrical lives of saints, apparently written not far from the year 1250,[86] may be deemed English; but the first specimen of it that bears a precise date is a proclamation of Henry III., addressed to the people of Huntingdonshire in 1258, but doubtless circular throughout England.[87] A triumphant song, composed probably in London, on the victory obtained at Lewes by the confederate barons in 1264, and the capture of Richard Earl of Cornwall, is rather less obsolete in its style than this proclamation, as might naturally be expected. It could not have been written later than that year, because in the next the tables were turned on those who now exulted, by the complete discomfiture of their party in the battle of Evesham. Several pieces of poetry, uncertain as to their precise date, must be referred to the latter part of this century. Robert of Gloucester, after the year 1297, since he alludes to the canonisation of St. Louis,[88] turned the chronicle of Geoffrey of Monmouth into English verse; and on comparing him with Layamon, a native of the same county, and a writer on the same subject, it will appear that a great quantity of French had flowed into the language since the loss of Normandy. The Anglo-Saxon inflections, terminations, and orthography, had also undergone a very considerable change. That the intermixture of French words was very slightly owing to the Norman conquest will appear probable, by observing at least as frequent an use of them in the earliest specimens of the Scottish dialect, especially a song on the death of Alexander III. in 1285. There is a good deal of French in this, not borrowed, probably, from England, but directly from the original sources of imitation.

[86] Ritson’s Dissertat. on Romance. Madden’s Introduction to Havelok. Notes of Price, in his edition of Warton. Warton himself is of no authority in this matter. Price inclines to put most of the poems quoted by Warton near the close of the thirteenth century.

It should here be observed, that the language underwent its metamorphosis into English by much less rapid gradations in some parts of the kingdom than in others. Not only the popular dialect of many counties, especially in the north, retained long, and still retains, a larger proportion of the Anglo-Saxon peculiarities, but we have evidence that they were not everywhere disused in writing. A manuscript in the Kentish dialect, if that phrase is correct, bearing the date of 1340, is more Anglo-Saxon than any of the poems ascribed to the thirteenth century, which we read in Warton, such as the legends of saints or the Ormulum. This very curious fact was first made known to the public by Mr. Thorpe, in his translation of Cædmon, preface, p. xii.; and an account of the manuscript itself, rather fuller than that of Mr. T., has since been given in the catalogue of the Arundel MSS. in the British Museum.

[87] Henry’s Hist. of Britain, vol. viii., appendix. “Between 1244 and 1258,” says Sir F. Madden, “we know, was written the versification of part of a meditation of St. Augustine, as proved by the age of the prior, who gave the manuscript to the Durham library,” p. 49. This, therefore, will be strictly the oldest piece of English, to the date of which we can approach by more than conjecture.

[88] Madden’s Havelock, p. 52.

English of the fourteenth century. Chaucer. Gower. 51. The fourteenth century was not unproductive of men, both English and Scots, gifted with the powers of poetry. Laurence Minot, an author unknown to Warton, but whose poems on the wars of Edward III. are referred by their publisher Ritson to 1352, is perhaps the first original poet in our language that has survived; since such of his predecessors as are now known appear to have been merely translators, or at best amplifiers of a French or Latin original. The earliest historical or epic narrative is due to John Barbour, archdeacon of Aberdeen, whose long poem in the Scots dialect, The Bruce, commemorating the deliverance of his country, seems to have been completed in 1373. But our greatest poet of the middle ages, beyond comparison, was Geoffrey Chaucer; and I do not know that any other country, except Italy, produced one of equal variety in invention, acuteness in observation, or felicity of expression. A vast interval must be made between Chaucer and any other English poet; yet Gower, his contemporary, though not, like him, a poet of nature’s growth, had some effect in rendering the language less rude, and exciting a taste for verse; if he never rises, he never sinks low; he is always sensible, polished, perspicuous, and not prosaic in the worst sense of the word. Longlands, the supposed author of Piers Plowman’s Vision, with far more imaginative vigour, has a more obsolete and unrefined diction.

General disuse of French in England. 52. The French language was spoken by the superior classes of society in England from the conquest to the reign of Edward III.; though it seems probable that they were generally acquainted with English, at least in the latter part of that period. But all letters, even of a private nature, were written in Latin till the beginning of the reign of Edward I., soon after 1270, when a sudden change brought in the use of French.[89] In grammar schools boys were made to construe their Latin into French; and in the statutes of Oriel College, Oxford, we find, in a regulation so late as 1328, that the students shall converse together, if not in Latin, at least in French.[90] The minutes of the corporation of London, recorded in the Town Clerk’s office, were in French, as well as the proceedings in parliament, and in the courts of justice; and oral discussions were perhaps carried on in the same language, though this is not a necessary consequence. Hence the English was seldom written, and hardly employed in prose till after the middle of the fourteenth century. Sir John Mandeville’s travels were written in 1356. This is our earliest English book. Wicliffe’s translation of the Bible, a great work that enriched the language, is referred to 1383, Trevisa’s version of the Polychronicon of Higden was in 1385, and the Astrolabe of Chaucer in 1392. A few public instruments were drawn up in English under Richard II.; and about the same time, probably, it began to be employed in epistolary correspondence of a private nature. Trevisa informs us, that, when he wrote (1385), even gentlemen had much left off to have their children taught French, and names the schoolmaster (John Cornwall) who soon after 1350 brought in so great an innovation as the making his boys read Latin into English.[91] This change from the common use of French in the upper ranks seems to have taken place as rapidly as a similar revolution has lately done in Germany. By a statute of 1362, (36 E. 3, c. 15,) all pleas in courts of justice are directed to be pleaded and judged in English, on account of French being so much unknown. But the laws, and, generally speaking, the records of parliament, continued to be in the latter language for many years; and we learn from Sir John Fortescue, a hundred years afterwards, that this statute itself was but partially enforced.[92] The French language, if we take his words literally, even in the reign of Edward IV., was spoken in affairs of mercantile account, and in many games, the vocabulary of both being chiefly derived from it.[93]

[89] I am indebted for this fact, which I have ventured to generalise, to the communication of Mr. Stevenson, sub-commissioner of public records.

[90] Si qua inter se proferant, colloquio Latino vel saltem Gallico perfruantur. Warton, i. 6. In Merton College statutes, given in 1271, Latin alone is prescribed.

[91] The passage may be found quoted in Warton, ubi suprà, or in many other books.

[92] “In the courts of justice they formerly used to plead in French, till, in pursuance of a law to that purpose, that custom was somewhat restrained, but not hitherto quite disused, de Laudibus Legum Angliæ, c. xlviii.” I quote from Waterhouse’s translation; but the Latin runs quam plurimum restrictus est.

[93] Ibid.

State of European languages about 1400. 53. Thus by the year 1400, we find a national literature subsisting in seven European languages, three spoken in the Spanish peninsula, the French, the Italian, the German, and the English; from which last, the Scots dialect need not be distinguished. Of these the Italian was the most polished, and had to boast of the greatest writers; the French excelled in their number and variety. Our own tongue, though it had latterly acquired much copiousness in the hands of Chaucer and Wicliffe, both of whom lavishly supplied it with words of French and Latin derivation, was but just growing into a literary existence. The German, as well as that of Valencia, seemed to decline. The former became more precise, more abstract, more intellectual, (geistig), and less sensible (sinnlich), (to use the words of Eichhorn), and of consequence less fit for poetry; it fell into the hands of lawyers and mystical theologians. The earliest German prose, a few very ancient fragments excepted, is the collection of Saxon laws (Sachsenspiegel), about the middle of the thirteenth century; the next the Swabian collection (Schwabenspiegel), about 1282.[94] But these forming hardly a part of literature, though Bouterwek praises passages of the latter for religious eloquence, we may deem John Tauler, a Dominican friar of Strasburg, whose influence in propagating what was called the mystical theology, gave a new tone to his country, to be the first German writer in prose. “Tauler,” says a modern historian of literature, “in his German sermons, mingled many expressions invented by himself, which were the first attempt at a philosophical language, and displayed surprising eloquence for the age wherein he lived. It may be justly said of him, that he first gave to prose that direction in which Luther afterwards advanced so far.”[95] Tauler died in 1361. Meantime, as has been said before, the nobility abandoned their love of verse, which the burghers took up diligently, but with little spirit or genius; the common language became barbarous and neglected, of which the strange fashion of writing half Latin, half German, verses, is a proof.[96] This had been common in the darker ages: we have several instances of it in Anglo-Saxon; but it was late to adopt it in the fourteenth century.

[94] Bouterwek, p. 163. There are some novels at the end of the thirteenth, or beginning of the fourteenth century. Ibid.

[95] Heinsius, iv. 76.

[96] Eichhorn, Allg. Gesch., i. 240.

Ignorance of reading and writing in darker ages. 54. The Latin writers of the middle ages were chiefly ecclesiastics. But of these in the living tongues a large proportion were laymen. They knew, therefore, how to commit their thoughts to writing; and hence the ignorance characteristic of the darker ages must seem to be passing away. This, however, is a very difficult, though interesting question, when we come to look nearly at the gradual progress of rudimentary knowledge. I can offer but an outline, which those who turn more of their attention towards the subject will be enabled to correct and supply. Before the end of the eleventh century, and especially after the ninth, it was rare to find laymen in France who could read and write.[97] The case was probably not better anywhere else, except in Italy. I should incline to except Italy, on the authority of a passage in Wippo, a German writer soon after the year 1000, who exhorts the Emperor Henry II. to cause the sons of the nobility to be instructed in letters, using the example of the Italians, with whom, according to him, it was a universal practice.[98] The word clerks or clergymen became in this and other countries synonymous with one who could write or even read; we all know the original meaning of benefit of clergy, and the test by which it was claimed. Yet from about the end of the eleventh, or at least of the twelfth century, many circumstances may lead us to believe that it was less and less a conclusive test, and that the laity came more and more into possession of the simple elements of literature.

[97] Hist. Litt. de la France, vii. 2. Some nobles sent their children to be educated in the schools of Charlemagne, especially those of Germany, under Raban, Notker, Bruno, and other distinguished abbots. But they were generally destined for the church. Meiners, ii. 377. The signatures of laymen are often found to deeds of the eighth century, and sometimes of the ninth. Nouv. Traité de la Diplomatique, ii. 422. The ignorance of the laity, according to this authority, was not strictly parallel to that of the church.

[98] Tunc fac edictum per terram Teutonicorum
Quilibet ut dives sibi natos instruat omnes
Litterulis, legemque suam persuadeat illis,
Ut cum principibus placitandi venerit usus,
Quisque suis libris exemplum proferat illis.
Moribus his dudum vivebat Roma decenter,
His studiis tantos potuit vincere tyrannos.
Hoc servant Itali post prima crepundia cuncti.

I am indebted for this quotation to Meiners, ii. 344.

Reasons for supposing this to have diminished after 1100. 55. I. It will of course be admitted that all who administered or belonged to the Roman law were masters of reading and writing, though we do not find that they were generally ecclesiastics, even in the lowest sense of the word, by receiving the tonsure. Some indeed were such. In countries where the feudal law had passed from unwritten custom to record and precedent, and had grown into as much subtlety by diffuseness as the Roman, which was the case of England from the time of Henry II., the lawyers, though laymen, were unquestionably clerks or learned. II. The convenience of such elementary knowledge to merchants, who, both in the Mediterranean and in these parts of Europe, carried on a good deal of foreign commerce, and indeed to all traders, may render it probable that they were not destitute of it; though it must be confessed that the word clerk rather seems to denote that their deficiency was supplied by those employed under them. I do not, however, conceive that the clerks of citizens were ecclesiastics.[99] III. If we could rely on a passage in Ingulfus, the practice in grammar schools of construing Latin into French was as old as the reign of the Conqueror;[100] and it seems unlikely that this should have been confined to children educated for the English church. IV. The poets of the north and south of France were often men of princely or noble birth, sometimes ladies; their versification is far too artificial to be deemed the rude product of an illiterate mind; and to these, whose capacity of holding the pen few will dispute, we must surely add a numerous class of readers, for whom their poetry was designed. It may be surmised, that the itinerant minstrels answered this end, and supplied the ignorance of the nobility. But many ditties of the troubadours were not so well adapted to the minstrels, who seem to have dealt more with metrical romances. Nor do I doubt that these also were read in many a castle of France and Germany. I will not dwell on the story of Francesca of Rimini, because no one, perhaps, is likely to dispute that a Romagnol lady in the age of Dante would be able to read the tale of Lancelot. But that romance had long been written; and other ladies doubtless had read it, and possibly had left off reading it in similar circumstances, and as little to their advantage. The fourteenth century abounded with books in French prose; the extant copies of some are not very few; but no argument against their circulation could be urged from their scarcity in the present day. It is not of course pretended that they were diffused as extensively as printed books have been. V. The fashion of writing private letters in French instead of Latin, which, as has been mentioned, came in among us soon after 1270, affords perhaps a presumption that they were written in a language intelligible to the correspondent, because he had no longer occasion for assistance in reading them; though they were still generally from the hand of a secretary. But at what time this disuse of Latin began on the Continent I cannot exactly determine. The French and Castilians, I believe, made general use of their own languages in the latter half of the thirteenth century.

[99] The earliest recorded bills of exchange, according to Beckmann, Hist. of Inventions, iii. 430, are in a passage of the jurist Baldus, and bear date 1328. But they were by no means in common use till the next century. I do not mention this as bearing much on the subject of the text.

[100] Et pueris etiam in scholis principia literarum Gallicè et non Anglicè traderentur.

Increased knowledge of writing in fourteenth century. 56. The art of reading does not imply that of writing; it seems likely that the one prevailed before the other. The latter was difficult to acquire, in consequence of the regularity of characters preserved by the clerks, and their complex system of abbreviations, which rendered the cursive handwriting, introduced about the end of the eleventh century, almost as operose to those who had not much experience of it as the more stiff characters of older manuscripts. It certainly appears that even autograph signatures are not found till a late period. Philip the Bold, who ascended the French throne in 1272, could not write, though this is not the case with any of his successors. I do not know that equal ignorance is recorded of any English sovereign, though we have I think only a series of autographs beginning with Richard II. It is said by the authors of Nouveau Traité de la Diplomatique, Benedictines of laborious and exact erudition, that the art of writing had become rather common among the laity of France before the end of the thirteenth century: out of eight witnesses to a testament in 1277 five could write their names; at the beginning of that age, it is probable, they think, that not one could have done so.[101] Signatures to deeds of private persons, however, do not begin to appear till the fourteenth, and were not in established use in France till about the middle of the fifteenth century.[102] Indorsements upon English deeds, as well as mere signatures, by laymen of rank, bearing date in the reign of Edward II., are in existence; and there is an English letter from the lady of Sir John Pelham to her husband in 1399, which is probably one of the earliest instances of female penmanship. By the badness of the grammar we may presume it to be her own.[103]

[101] Vol. ii. p. 423.

[102] Ibid. p. 434, et post.

[103] I am indebted for a knowledge of this letter to the Rev. Joseph Hunter, who recollected to have seen it in an old edition of Collins’s Peerage. Later editions have omitted it as an unimportant redundancy though interesting even for its contents, independently of the value it acquires from the language. On account of its scarcity, being only found in old editions now not in request, I shall insert it here; and till anything else shall prefer a claim, it may pass for the oldest private letter in the English language. I have not kept the orthography, but have left several incoherent and ungrammatical phrases as they stand. It was copied by Collins from the archives of the Newcastle family.

My dear Lord,

I recommend me to your high lordship with heart and body and all my poor might, and with all this I thank you as my dear lord dearest and best beloved of all earthly lords I say for me, and thank you my dear lord with all this that I say before of your comfortable letter that ye sent me from Pontefract that come to me on Mary Magdalene day; for by my troth I was never so glad as when I heard by your letter that ye were strong enough with the grace of God for to keep you from the malice of your enemies. And dear lord if it like to your high lordship that as soon as ye might that I might hear of your gracious speed; which as God Almighty continue and increase. And my dear lord if it like you for to know of my fare, I am here by laid in manner of a siege with the county of Sussex, Surrey, and a great parcel of Kent, so that I may nought out no none victuals get me but with much hard. Wherefore my dear if it like you by the advice of your wise counsel for to get remedy of the salvation of your castle and withstand the malice of the shires aforesaid. And also that ye be fully informed of their great malice workers in these shires which that haves so despitefully wrought to you, and to your castle, to your men, and to your tenants for this country have yai [sic] wasted for a great while. Farewell my dear lord, the Holy Trinity you keep from your enemies, and ever send me good tidings of you. Written at Pevensey in the castle on St. Jacob day last past,

By your own poor
J. Pelham.

To my true Lord.

Average state of knowledge in England. 57. Laymen, among whom Chaucer and Gower are illustrious examples, received occasionally a learned education; and indeed the great number of gentlemen who studied in the inns of court is a conclusive proof that they were not generally illiterate. The common law required some knowledge of two languages. Upon the whole we may be inclined to think, that in the year 1400, or at the accession of Henry IV., the average instruction of an English gentleman of the first class would comprehend common reading and writing, a tolerable familiarity with French, and a slight tincture of Latin; the latter retained or not, according to his circumstances and character, as school learning is at present. This may be rather a favourable statement; but after another generation it might be assumed, as we shall see, with more confidence as a fair one.[104]

[104] It might be inferred from a passage in Richard of Bury, about 1343, that none but ecclesiastics could read at all. He deprecates the putting of books into the hands of laici, who do not know one side from another. And in several places it seems that he thought they were meant for “the tonsured” alone. But a great change took place in the ensuing half century; and I do not believe he can be construed strictly even as to his own time.

Invention of paper. 58. A demand for instruction in the art of writing would increase with the frequency of epistolary correspondence, which, where of a private or secret nature, no one would gladly conduct by the intervention of a secretary. Better education, more refined manners, a closer intercourse of social life, were the primary causes of this increase in private correspondence. But it was greatly facilitated by the invention, or, rather, extended use, of paper as the vehicle of writing instead of parchment; a revolution, as it may be called, of high importance, without which both the art of writing would have been much less practised, and the invention of printing less serviceable to mankind. After the subjugation of Egypt by the Saracens, the importation of the papyrus, previously in general use, came in no long time to an end; so that, though down to the end of the seventh century all instruments in France were written upon it, we find its place afterwards supplied by parchment; and under the house of Charlemagne, there is hardly an instrument upon any other material.[105] Parchment, however, a much more durable and useful vehicle than papyrus,[106] was expensive, and its cost not only excluded the necessary waste which a free use of writing requires, but gave rise to the unfortunate practice of erasing manuscripts in order to replace them with some new matter. This was carried to a great extent, and has occasioned the loss of precious monuments of antiquity, as is now demonstrated by instances of their restoration.

[105] Montfaucon, in Acad. des Inscript., vol. vi. But Muratori says that the papyrus was little used in the seventh century, though writings on it may be found as late as the tenth, Dissert. xliii. This dissertation relates to the condition of letters in Italy as far as the year 1100; as the xlivth does to their subsequent history.

[106] Heeren justly remarks (I do not know that others have done the same), of how great importance the introduction of parchment, to which, and afterwards to paper, the old perishable papyraceous manuscripts were transferred, has been to the preservation of literature. P. 74.

Linen paper when first used. 59. The date of the invention of our present paper, manufactured from linen rags, or of its introduction into Europe, has long been the subject of controversy. |Cotton paper.| That paper made from cotton was in use sooner, is admitted on all sides. Some charters written upon that kind not later than the tenth century were seen by Montfaucon; and it is even said to be found in papal bulls of the ninth.[107] The Greeks, however, from whom the west of Europe is conceived to have borrowed this sort of paper, did not much employ it in manuscript books, according to Montfaucon, till the twelfth century, from which time it came into frequent use among them. Muratori had seen no writing upon this material older than 1100, though, in deference to Montfaucon, he admits its employment earlier.[108] It certainly was not greatly used in Italy before the thirteenth century. Among the Saracens of Spain, on the other hand, as well as those of the East, it was of much greater antiquity. The Greeks called it charta Damascena, having been manufactured or sold in the city of Damascus. And Casiri, in his catalogue of the Arabic manuscripts in the Escurial, desires us to understand that they are written on paper of cotton or linen, but generally the latter, unless the contrary be expressed.[109] Many in this catalogue were written before the thirteenth, or even the twelfth century.

[107] Mém. de l’Acad. des Inscriptions, vi. 604. Nouveau Traité de Diplomatique, i. 517. Savigny, Gesch. des Römischen Rechts, iii. 534.

[108] Dissert. xliii.

[109] Materiæ, nisi membraneus sit codex, nulla mentio: cæteros bombycinos, ac, maximam partem, chartaceos esse colligas. Præfatio, p. 7.

Linen paper as old as 1100. 60. This will lead us to the more disputed question as to the antiquity of linen paper. The earliest distinct instance I have found, and which I believe has hitherto been overlooked, is an Arabic version of the aphorisms of Hippocrates, the manuscript bearing the date of 1100. This Casiri observes to be on linen paper, not as in itself remarkable, but as accounting for its injury by wet. It does not appear whether it were written in Spain, or, like many in that catalogue, brought from Egypt or the East.[110]

[110] Casiri, N. 787. Codex anno Christi 1100, chartaceus, &c.

Known to Peter of Clugni. 61. The authority of Casiri must confirm beyond doubt a passage in Peter Abbot of Clugni, which has perplexed those who place the invention of linen paper very low. In a treatise against the Jews, he speaks of books, ex pellibus arietum, hircorum, vel vitulorum, sive ex biblis vel juncis Orientalium paludum, aut ex rasuris veterum pannorum, seu ex aliâ qualibet, forte viliore materia compactos. A late English writer contends that nothing can be meant by the last words, “unless that all sorts of inferior substances capable of being so applied, among them, perhaps, hemp and the remains of cordage, were used at this period in the manufacture of paper.”[111] It certainly at least seems reasonable to interpret the words “ex rasuris veterum pannorum,” of linen rags; and when I add that Peter Cluniacensis passed a considerable time in Spain about 1141, there can remain, it seems, no rational doubt that the Saracens of the peninsula were acquainted with that species of paper, though perhaps it was as yet unknown in every other country.

[111] See a memoir on an ancient manuscript of Aratus, by Mr. Ottley, in Archæeologia, vol. xxvi.

And in 12th and 13th centuries. 62. Andrès asserts, on the authority of the Memoirs of the Academy of Barcelona, that a treaty between the kings of Arragon and Castile, bearing the date of 1178, and written upon linen paper, is extant in the archives of that city.[112] He alleges several other instances in the next age; when Mabillon, who denies that paper of linen was then used in charters, which, indeed, no one is likely to maintain, mentions, as the earliest specimen he had seen in France, a letter of Joinville to St. Louis, which must be older than 1270. Andrès refers the invention to the Saracens of Spain, using the fine flax of Valencia and Murcia; and conjectures that it was brought into use among the Spaniards themselves by Alfonso of Castile.[113]

[112] Vol. ii. p. 73. Andrès has gone much at length into this subject, and has collected several important passages which do not appear in my text. The letter of Joinville has been supposed to be addressed to Louis Hutin in 1314, but this seems inconsistent with the writer’s age.

[113] Id. p. 84. He cannot mean that it was never employed before Alfonso’s time, of which he has already given instances.

Paper of mixed materials. 63. In the opinion of the English writer to whom we have above referred, paper, from a very early period, was manufactured of mixed materials, which have sometimes been erroneously taken for pure cotton. We have in the Tower of London a letter addressed to Henry III. by Raymond, son of Raymond VI., Count of Toulouse, and consequently between 1216 and 1222, when the latter died, upon very strong paper, and certainly made, in Mr. Ottley’s judgment, of mixed materials; while in several of the time of Edward I., written upon genuine cotton paper of no great thickness, the fibres of cotton present themselves everywhere at the backs of the letters so distinctly that they seem as if they might even now be spun into thread.[114]

[114] Archæologia, ibid. I may however observe, that a gentleman as experienced as Mr. Ottley himself, inclines to think the letter of Raymond written on paper wholly made of cotton, though of better manufacture than usual.

Invention of paper placed by some too low. 64. Notwithstanding this last statement, which I must confirm by my own observation, and of which no one can doubt who has looked at the letters themselves, several writers of high authority, such as Tiraboschi and Savigny, persist not only in fixing the invention of linen paper very low, even after the middle of the fourteenth century, but in maintaining that it is undistinguishable from that made of cotton, except by the eye of a manufacturer.[115] Were this indeed true, it would be sufficient for the purpose we have here in view, which is not to trace the origin of a particular discovery, but the employment of a useful vehicle of writing. If it be true that cotton paper was fabricated in Italy of so good a texture that it cannot be discerned from linen, it must be considered as of equal utility. It is not the case with the letters on cotton paper in our English repositories; most, if not all, of which were written in France or Spain. But I have seen in the Chapter House at Westminster a letter written from Gascony about 1315, to Hugh Despencer, upon thin paper, to all appearance made like that now in use, and with a water mark. Several others of a similar appearance, in the same repository, are of rather later time. There is also one in the King’s Remembrancer’s Office of the 11th of Edward III. (1337 or 1338), containing the accounts of the King’s ambassadors to the court of Holland and probably written in that country. This paper has a water mark, and if it is not of linen, is at least not easily distinguishable. Bullet declares that he saw at Besançon a deed of 1302 on linen paper: several are alleged to exist in Germany before the middle of the century; and Lambinet mentions, though but on the authority of a periodical publication, a register of expenses from 1323 to 1354, found in a church at Caen, written on two hundred and eight sheets of that substance.[116] One of the Cottonian manuscripts (Galba, B. I.) is called Codex Chartaceus in the catalogue. It contains a long series of public letters, chiefly written in the Netherlands, from an early part of the reign of Edward III. to that of Henry IV. But upon examination I find the title not quite accurate; several letters, and especially the earliest, are written on parchment, and paper does not appear at soonest till near the end of Edward’s reign.[117] Sir Henry Ellis has said that “very few instances indeed occur before the fifteenth century of letters written upon paper.”[118] The use of cotton paper was by no means general, or even, I believe, frequent, except in Spain and Italy, perhaps also in the south of France. Nor was it much employed even in Italy for books. Savigny tells us there are few manuscripts of law books among the multitude that exist which are not written on parchment.

[115] Tiraboschi, v. 85. Savigny, Gesch. des Römischen Rechts, iii. 534. He relies on a book I have not seen, Wehrs vom Papier. Hall, 1789. This writer, it is said, contends that the words of Peter of Clugni, ex rasuris veterum pannorum, mean cotton paper. Heeren, p. 208. Lambinet, on the other hand, translates them, without hesitation, “chiffons de linge,” Hist. de l’Origine de l’Imprimerie, i. 93.

Andrès has pointed out, p. 70, that Maffei merely says he has seen no paper of linen earlier than 1300, and no instrument on that material older than one of 1367, which he found among his own family deeds. Tiraboschi, overlooking this distinction, quotes Maffei for his own opinion as to the lateness of the invention.

[116] Lambinet, ubi suprà.

[117] Andrès, p. 68, mentions a note written in 1342, in the Cotton library, as the earliest English specimen of linen paper. I do not know to what this refers; in the above-mentioned Codex Chartaceus is a letter of 1341, but it is on parchment.

[118] Ellis’s Original Letters, i. 1.

Not at first very important. 65. It will be manifest from what has been said how greatly Robertson has been mistaken in his position, that “in the eleventh century the art of making paper, in the manner now become universal, was invented, by means of which not only the number of manuscripts increased but the study of the sciences was wonderfully facilitated.”[119] Even Ginguéné, better informed on such subjects than Robertson, has intimated something of the same kind. But paper, whenever, or wherever invented, was very sparingly used, and especially in manuscript books, among the French, Germans, or English, or linen paper, even among the Italians, till near the close of the period which this chapter comprehends. Upon the “study of the sciences” it could as yet have had very little effect. The vast importance of the invention was just beginning to be discovered. It is to be added, as a remarkable circumstance, that the earliest linen paper was of very good manufacture, strong and handsome, though perhaps too much like card for general convenience; and every one is aware that the first printed books are frequently beautiful in the quality of their paper.

[119] Hist. of Charles V. vol. i. note 10. Heeren inclines to the same opinion, p. 200.

Importance of legal studies. 66. III. The application of general principles of justice to the infinitely various circumstances which may arise in the disputes of men with each other is in itself an admirable discipline of the moral and intellectual faculties. Even where the primary rules of right and policy have been obscured in some measure by a technical and arbitrary system, which is apt to grow up, perhaps inevitably, in the course of civilisation, the mind gains in precision and acuteness, though at the expense of some important qualities; and a people wherein an artificial jurisprudence is cultivated, requiring both a regard to written authority, and the constant exercise of a discriminating judgment upon words, must be deemed to be emerging from ignorance. Such was the condition of Europe in the twelfth century. The feudal customs, long unwritten, though latterly become more steady by tradition, were in some countries reduced into treatises: we have our own Glanvil in the reign of Henry II., and in the next century much was written upon the national laws in various parts of Europe. Upon these it is not my intention to dwell; but the importance of the civil law in its connection with ancient learning, as well as with moral and political science, renders it deserving of a place in any general account either of mediæval or modern literature.

Roman laws never wholly unknown. 67. That the Roman laws, such as they subsisted in the western empire at the time of its dismemberment in the fifth century, were received in the new kingdoms of the Gothic, Lombard, and Carlovingian dynasties, as the rule of those who by birth and choice submitted to them, was shown by Muratori and other writers of the last century. This subject has received additional illustration from the acute and laborious Savigny, who has succeeded in tracing sufficient evidence of what had been, in fact, stated by Muratori, that not only an abridgment of the Theodosian code, but that of Justinian, and even the Pandects, were known in different parts of Europe long before the epoch formerly assigned for the restoration of that jurisprudence.[120] The popular story, already much discredited, that the famous copy of the Pandects, now in the Laurentian library at Florence, was brought to Pisa from Amalfi, after the capture of that city by Roger king of Sicily with the aid of a Pisan fleet in 1135, and became the means of diffusing an acquaintance with that portion of the law through Italy, is shown by him not only to rest on very slight evidence, but to be unquestionably, in the latter and more important circumstance, destitute of all foundation.[121] It is still indeed an undetermined question whether other existing manuscripts of the Pandects are not derived from this illustrious copy, which alone contains the entire fifty books, and which has been preserved with a traditional veneration indicating some superiority; but Savigny has shown, that Peter of Valence, a jurist of the eleventh century, made use of an independent manuscript; and it is certain that the Pandects were the subject of legal studies before the siege of Amalfi.

[120] It can be no disparagement to Savigny, who does not claim perfect originality, to say that Muratori, in his 44th dissertation, gives several instances of quotations from the Pandects in writers older than the capture of Amalfi.

[121] Savigny, Geschichte des Römischen Rechts in mittel alter, iii. 83.

Irnerius, his first successors. 68. Irnerius, by universal testimony, was the founder of all learned investigation into the laws of Justinian. He gave lectures upon them at Bologna his native city, not long, in Savigny’s opinion, after the commencement of the century.[122] And besides this oral instruction, he began the practice of making glosses, or short marginal explanations, on the law books, with the whole of which he was acquainted. We owe also to him, according to ancient opinion, though much controverted in later times, an epitome, called the Authentica, of what Gravina calls the prolix and difficult (salebrosis atque garrulis) Novels of Justinian, arranged according to the titles of the Code. The most eminent successors of this restorer of the Roman law during the same century were Martinus Gosias, Bulgarus, and Placentinus. They were, however, but a few among many interpreters, whose glosses have been partly, though very imperfectly preserved. The love of equal liberty and just laws in the Italian cities rendered the profession of jurisprudence exceedingly honourable; the doctors of Bologna and other universities were frequently called to the office of podestà, or criminal judge, in these small republics; in Bologna itself they were officially members of the smaller or secret council; and their opinions, which they did not render gratuitously, were sought with the respect that had been shown at Rome to their ancient masters of the age of Severus.

[122] Vol. iv. p. 16. Some have erroneously thought Irnerius a German.

Their glosses. 69. A gloss, γλωσσα, properly meant a word from a foreign language, or an obsolete or poetical word, or whatever requires interpretation. It was afterwards used for the interpretation itself; and this sense, which is not strictly classical, maybe found in Isidore, though some have imagined Irnerius himself to have first employed it.[123] In the twelfth century, it was extended from a single word to an entire expository sentence. The first glosses were interlinear; they were afterwards placed in the margin, and extended finally in some instances to a sort of running commentary on an entire book. These were called an Apparatus.[124]

[123] Alcuim defines glossa, “unius verbi vel nominis interpretatio.” Ducange, præfat. in Glossar., p. 38.

[124] Savigny, iii. 519.

Abridgments of laws. Accursius’s Corpus Glossatum. 70. Besides these glosses on obscure passages, some lawyers attempted to abridge the body of the law. Placentinus wrote a summary of the Code and Institutes. But this was held inferior to that of Azo, which appeared before 1220. Hugolinus gave a similar abridgment of the Pandects. About the same time, or a little after, a scholar of Azo, Accursius of Florence, undertook his celebrated work, a collection of the glosses, which, in the century that had elapsed since the time of Irnerius, had grown to an enormous extent, and were of course not always consistent. He has inserted little, probably, of his own, but exercised a judgment, not perhaps a very enlightened one, in the selection of his authorities. Thus was compiled his Corpus Juris Glossatum, commonly called Glossa, or Glossa Ordinaria: a work, says Eichhorn, as remarkable for its barbarous style and gross mistakes in history as for the solidity of its judgments and practical distinctions. Gravina, after extolling the conciseness, acuteness, skill, and diligence in comparing remote passages, and in reconciling apparent inconsistencies, which distinguished Accursius, remarks the injustice of some moderns, who reproach his work with the ignorance inevitable in his age, and seem to think the chance of birth which has thrown them into more enlightened times, a part of their personal merit.[125]

[125] Origines Juris, p. 184.

Character of early jurists. 71. Savigny has taken still higher ground in his admiration, as we may call it, of the early jurists, those from the appearance of Irnerius to the publication of the Accursian body of glosses. For the execution of this work indeed he testifies no very high respect; Accursius did not sufficient justice to his predecessors; and many of the most valuable glosses are still buried in the dust of unpublished manuscripts.[126] But the men themselves deserve our highest praise. The school of Irnerius rose suddenly; for in earlier writers we find no intelligent use, or critical interpretation, of the passages they cite. To reflect upon every text, to compare it with every clause or word that might illustrate its meaning in the somewhat chaotic mass of the Pandects and Code, was reserved for these acute and diligent investigators. “Interpretation,” says Savigny, “was considered the first and most important object of glossers, as it was of oral instructors. By an unintermitting use of the original law-books, they obtained that full and lively acquaintance with their contents, which enabled them to compare different passages with the utmost acuteness, and with much success. It may be reckoned a characteristic merit of many glossers, that they keep the attention always fixed on the immediate subject of explanation, and, in the richest display of comparisons with other passages of the law, never deviate from their point into anything too indefinite and general; superior often in this to the most learned interpreters of the French and Dutch schools, and capable of giving a lesson even to ourselves. Nor did the glossers by any means slight the importance of laying a sound critical basis for interpretation, but on the contrary, laboured earnestly in the recension and correction of the text.”[127]

[126] Vol. v. pp. 258-267.

[127] Vol. v. pp. 199-211.

72. These warm eulogies afford us an instance, to which there are many parallels, of such vicissitudes in literary reputation, that the wheel of fame, like that of fortune, seems never to be at rest. For a long time, it had been the fashion to speak in slighting terms of these early jurists; and the passage above quoted from Gravina is in a much more candid tone than was usual in his age. Their trifling verbal explanations of etsi by quamvis, or admodum by valde; their strange ignorance in deriving the name of the Tiber from the Emperor Tiberius, in supposing that Ulpian and Justinian lived before Christ, in asserting that Papinian was put to death by Mark Antony, and even in interpreting pontifex by papa or episcopus, were the topics of ridicule to those whom Gravina has so well reproved.[128] Savigny, who makes a similar remark, that we learn, without perceiving it, and without any personal merit, a multitude of things which it was impossible to know in the twelfth century, defends his favourite glossers in the best manner he can, by laying part of the blame on the bad selection of Accursius, and by extolling the mental vigour which struggled through so many difficulties.[129] Yet he has the candour to own, that this rather enhances the respect due to the men, than the value of their writings; and, without much acquaintance with the ancient glossers, one may presume to think, that in explaining the Pandects, a book requiring, beyond any other that has descended to us, an extensive knowledge of the language and antiquities of Rome, their deficiencies, if to be measured by the instances we have given, or by the general character of their age, must require a perpetual exercise of our lenity and patience.

[128] Gennari, author of Respublica Jurisconsultorum, a work of the last century, who under colour of a fiction, gives rather an entertaining account of the principal jurists, exhibits some curious specimens of the ignorance of the Accursian interpreters, such as those in the text. See too the article Accursius in Bayle.

[129] v. 213.

Decline of jurists after Accursius. 73. This great compilation of Accursius made an epoch in the annals of jurisprudence. It put an end in great measure to the oral explanations of lecturers which had prevailed before. It restrained at the same time the ingenuity of interpretation. The glossers became the sole authorities so that it grew into a maxim,—No one can go wrong who follows a gloss: and some said, a gloss was worth a hundred texts.[130] In fact, the original was continually unintelligible to a student. But this was accompanied, according to the distinguished historian of mediæval jurisprudence, by a decline of the science. The jurists in the latter part of the thirteenth century are far inferior to the school of Irnerius. It might be possible to seek a general cause, as men are now always prone to do, in the loss of self-government in many of the Italian republics. But Savigny, superior to this affectation of philosophy, admits that this is neither a cause adequate in itself, nor chronologically parallel to the decline of jurisprudence. We must therefore look upon it as one of those revolutions, so ordinary and so unaccountable, in the history of literature, where, after a period fertile in men of great talents, there ensues, perhaps with no unfavourable change in the diffusion of knowledge, a pause in that natural fecundity, without which all our endeavours to check a retrograde movement of the human mind will be of no avail. The successors of Accursius in the thirteenth century contented themselves with an implicit deference to the glosses; but this is rather a proof of their inferiority than its cause.[131]

[130] Bayle, ubi suprà. Eichhorn, Gesch. der Litteratur, ii. 461. Savigny, v. 268.

[131] Savigny, v. 320.

Respect paid to him at Bologna. 74. It has been the peculiar fortune of Accursius, that his name has always stood in a representative capacity, to engross the praise, or sustain the blame, of the great body of glossers from whom he compiled. One of those proofs of national gratitude and veneration was paid to his memory, which it is the more pleasing to recount, that, from the fickleness and insensibility of mankind, they do not very frequently occur. The city of Bologna was divided into the factions of Lambertazzi and Gieremei. The former, who were Ghibelins, having been wholly overthrown, and excluded, according to the practice of Italian republics, from all civil power, a law was made in 1306, that the family of Accursius, who had been on the vanquished side, should enjoy all the privileges of the victorious Guelf party, in regard to the memory of one “by whose means the city had been frequented by students, and its fame had been spread through the whole world.”[132]

[132] Ib. v. 268.

Scholastic jurists. Bartolus. 75. In the next century a new race of lawyers arose, who, by a different species of talent, almost eclipsed the greatest of their predecessors. These have been called the scholastic jurists, the glory of the schoolmen having excited an emulous desire to apply their dialectic methods in jurisprudence.[133] Of these the most conspicuous were Bartolus and Baldus, especially the former, whose authority became still higher than that of the Accursian glossers. Yet Bartolus, if we may believe Eichhorn, content with the glosses, did not trouble himself about the text, which he was too ignorant of Roman antiquity, and even of the Latin language, unless he is much belied, to expound.[134] “He is so fond of distinctions,” says Gravina, “that he does not divide his subject, but breaks it to pieces, so that the fragments are, as it were, dispersed by the wind. But, whatever harm he might do to the just interpretation of the Roman law as a positive code, he was highly useful to the practical lawyer by the number of cases his fertile mind anticipated; for though many of these were unlikely to occur, yet his copiousness and subtlety of distinction is such that he seldom leaves those who consult him quite at a loss.”[135] Savigny, who rates Bartolus much below the older lawyers, gives him credit for original thoughts, to which his acquaintance with the practical exercise of justice gave rise. The older jurists were chiefly professors of legal science, rather than conversant with forensic causes; and this has produced an opposition between theory and practice in the Roman law, to which we have not much analogous in our own, but the remains of which are said to be still discernible in the continental jurisprudence.[136]

[133] The employment of logical forms in law is not new; instances of it may be found in the earlier jurists. Savigny, v. 330; vi. 6.

[134] Gesch. der Litteratur, ii. 449. Bartolus even said, de verbibus non curat jurisconsultus. Eichhorn gives no authority for this, but Meiners, from whom perhaps he took it, quotes Comnenus, Historia Archigymnasii Patavini. Vergleichung der Sitten, ii. 646. It seems, however, incredible.

[135] Origines Juris, p. 191.