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JOSEPH SMITH AS SCIENTIST
A CONTRIBUTION TO MORMON PHILOSOPHY
BY
John A. Widtsoe, A. M., Ph. D.
THE GENERAL BOARD
YOUNG MEN'S MUTUAL IMPROVEMENT
ASSOCIATIONS
SALT LAKE CITY, UTAH
1908
Copyright 1908 by John A. Widtsoe.
Preface
In the life of every person, who receives a higher education, in or out of schools, there is a time when there seems to be opposition between science and religion; between man-made and God-made knowledge. The struggle for reconciliation between the contending forces is not an easy one. It cuts deep into the soul and usually leaves scars that ache while life endures. There are thousands of young people in the Church to-day, and hundreds of thousands throughout the world, who are struggling to set themselves right with the God above and the world about them. It is for these young people, primarily, that the following chapters have been written.
This volume is based on the conviction that there is no real difference between science and religion. The great, fundamental laws of the Universe are foundation stones in religion as well as in science. The principle that matter is indestructible belongs as much to theology as to geology. The theology which rests upon the few basic laws of nature is unshakable; and the great theology of the future will be such a one.
"Mormonism" teaches and has taught from the beginning that all knowledge must be included in the true theology. Because of its comprehensive philosophy, "Mormonism" will survive all religious disturbances and become the system of religious faith which all men may accept without yielding the least part of the knowledge of nature as discovered in the laboratories or in the fields. The splendid conceptions of "Mormonism" concerning man and nature, and man's place in nature are among the strongest testimonies of the divine nature of the work founded by Joseph Smith, the Prophet.
This little volume does not pretend to be a complete treatment of "Mormon" philosophy; it is only a small contribution to the subject. There is room for elaboration and extension in this field for many generations to come. The attempt has been made to sketch, briefly, the relation of "Mormonism" to some features of modern scientific philosophy, and to show that not only do "Mormonism" and science harmonize; but that "Mormonism" is abreast of the most modern of the established views of science, and that it has held them many years—in some cases before science adopted them. The only excuse for the scant treatment of such an important subject is that it is as extensive as the duties of a busy life would allow. In the future, the subject may be given a fuller treatment.
Some readers may urge that "the testimony of the Spirit," which has been the final refuge of so many Christians, has received little consideration in the following chapters. This is due to the avowed purpose of the work to harmonize science and religion, on the basis of accepted science. "Mormonism" is deeply and rationally spiritual; the discussion in this volume is confined to one phase of Gospel philosophy.
The majority of the following chapters were originally published in the Improvement Era for 1903-1904 as a series of articles bearing the main title of this book. These articles are here republished with occasonal changes and additions. The new chapters have been cast into the same form as the original articles. The publication as independent articles will explain the apparent lack of connection between the chapters in this book. The statements of scientific facts have been compared very carefully with standard authorities. However, in popularizing science there is always the danger that the simplification may suggest ideas that are not wholly accurate. Those who have tried this kind of work will understand and pardon such errors as may appear. However, corrections are invited.
My thanks are due and cheerfully given the management of the Improvement Era for the help and encouragement given. I am under especial obligations to Elder Edward H. Anderson, the associate editor of the Era, to whose efforts it is largely due that this volume has seen the light of day. I desire to render my thanks also to the committee appointed by the First Presidency to read the manuscript, Elders George Albert Smith, Edward H. Anderson and Joseph F. Smith, Jr.
This volume has been written in behalf of "Mormonism." May God speed the truth!
Contents.
INTRODUCTORY.
Chapter I. Joseph's Mission and Language
THE FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS OF THE UNIVERSE.
Chapter II. The Indestructibility of Matter Chapter III. The Indestructibility of Energy Chapter IV. The Universal Ether Chapter V. The Reign of Law
THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNIVERSE.
Chapter VI. The New Astronomy Chapter VII. Geological Time Chapter VIII. Organized Intelligence
THE LAWS GOVERNING THE INDIVIDUAL.
Chapter IX. Faith Chapter X. Repentance Chapter XI. Baptism Chapter XII. The Gift of the Holy Ghost Chapter XIII. The Word of Wisdom
THE DESTINY OF EARTH AND MAN.
Chapter XIV. The Law of Evolution Chapter XV. The Plan of Salvation
THE REGION OF THE UNKNOWN.
Chapter XVI. The Sixth Sense
THE FORCE OF FORCES.
Chapter XVII. The Nature of God
CONCLUSION.
Chapter XVIII. Joseph Smith's Education Chapter XVIV. A Summary Restatement Chapter XX. Concluding Thoughts
APPENDIX.
Chapter XXI. The Testimony of the Soil
INTRODUCTORY.
Chapter I.
JOSEPH'S MISSION AND LANGUAGE.
[Sidenote: Scientific discussions not to be expected in the Prophet's work.]
The mission of Joseph Smith was of a spiritual nature; and therefore, it is not to be expected that the discussion of scientific matters will be found in the Prophet's writings. The revelations given to the Prophet deal almost exclusively with the elucidation of so-called religious doctrines, and with such difficulties as arose from time to time in the organization of the Church. It is only, as it appears to us, in an incidental way that other matters, not strictly of a religious nature, are mentioned in the revelations. However, the Church teaches that all human knowledge and all the laws of nature are part of its religious system; but that some principles are of more importance than others in man's progress to eternal salvation.[A] While on the one hand, therefore, it cannot reasonably be expected that Joseph Smith should deal in his writings with any subject peculiar to natural science, yet, on the other hand, it should not surprise any student to find that the Prophet at times considered matters that do not come under the ordinary definition of religion, especially if they in any way may be connected with the laws of religion. Statements of scientific detail should not be looked for in Joseph Smith's writings, though these are not wholly wanting; but rather, we should expect to find general views of the relations of the forces of the universe.
[Footnote A: "And truth is knowledge of things as they are, and as they were and as they are to come."—Doctrine and Covenants, 93:24.
"Teach ye diligently and my grace shall attend you, that you may be instructed more perfectly in theory, in principle, in doctrine, in the law of the Gospel, in all things that pertain unto the Kingdom of God, that are expedient for you to understand;
"Of things both in heaven and in the earth, and under the earth; things which have been, things which are, things which must shortly come to pass; things which are at home, things which are abroad; the wars and the perplexities of the nations, and the judgments which are on the land, and a knowledge also of countries and kingdoms,
"That ye may be prepared in all things when I shall send you again to magnify the calling, whereunto I have called you, and the mission with which I have commissioned you."—Doctrine and Covenants, 88:78-80.
"And verily, I say unto you, that it is my will that you should hasten to translate my Scriptures, and to obtain a knowledge of history, and of countries, and of kingdoms, of laws of God and man, and all this for the salvation of Zion."—Doctrine and Covenants, 93:53.
"It (theology) is the science of all other sciences and useful arts, being in fact the very foundation from which they emanate. It includes philosophy, astronomy, history, mathematics, geography, languages, the science of letters, and blends the knowledge of all matters of fact, in every branch of art and research…….All that is useful, great and good, all that is calculated to sustain, comfort, instruct, edify, purify, refine or exalt intelligences, originated by this science, and this science alone, all other sciences being but branches growing out of this, the root."—Pratt, Key to Theology, chap. 1.]
[Sidenote: Man must not expect direct revelation in matters that he can solve for himself.]
It is not in harmony with the Gospel spirit that God, except in special cases, should reveal things that man by the aid of his natural powers may gain for himself. The Lord spoke to the Prophet as follows:—"Behold, you have not understood; you have supposed that I would give it unto you, when you took no thought, save it was to ask me; but, behold, I say unto you, that you must study it out in your mind; then you must ask me if it be right, and if it is right I will cause that your bosom shall burn within you; therefore, you shall feel that it is right."[A] Such a doctrine makes it unreasonable to look to the Prophet's work for a gratuitous mass of scientific or other details, which will relieve man of the labor of searching out for himself nature's laws. So well established is this principle that in all probability many of the deepest truths contained in the writings of Joseph Smith will not be clearly understood, even by his followers, until, by the laborious methods of mortality, the same truths are established. It is even so with the principles to be discussed in the following papers. They were stated seventy years ago, yet it is only recently that the Latter-day Saints have begun to realize that they are identical with recently developed scientific truths; and the world of science is not yet aware of it. However, whenever such harmony is observed, it testifies of the divine inspiration of the humble, unlearned boy prophet of the nineteenth century.
[Footnote A: Doctrine and Covenants 9:7, 8.]
[Sidenote: The absence of the language, details and methods of science in the Prophet's writings proves him unfamiliar with the written science of his day.]
The Prophet Joseph does not use the language of science; which is additional proof that he did not know the science of his day. This may be urged as an objection to the assertion that he understood fundamental scientific truths, but the error of this view is easily comprehended when it is recalled that the language of science is made by men, and varies very often from age to age, and from country to country. Besides, the God who spoke to Joseph Smith, says, "These commandments were given unto my servants in their weakness, after the manner of their language, that they might come to understanding."[A] If God had spoken the special language of science, the unlearned Joseph Smith would not, perhaps, have understood. Every wise man explains that which he knows in the language of those to whom he is speaking, and the facts and theories of science can be quite easily expressed in the language of the common man. It is needless to expect scientific phraselogy in the writings of Joseph Smith.
[Footnote A: Doctrine and Covenants 1:24.]
Scientific details are almost wholly wanting in the writings of Joseph Smith. Had the Prophet known the science of his day, his detailed knowledge would have been incorporated somehow in his writings. The almost complete absence of such scientific detail as would in all probability have been used, had the Prophet known of it, is additional testimony that he did not get his information from books.
Finally, another important fact must be mentioned. Men in all ages have speculated about the things of the universe, and have invented all kinds of theories to explain natural phenomena. In all cases, however, these theories have been supported by experimental evidence, or else they have been proposed simply as personal opinions. Joseph Smith, on the contrary, laid no claim to experimental data to support the theories which he proposed, nor did he say that they were simply personal opinions, but he repeatedly asserted that God had revealed the truths to him, and that they could not, therefore, be false. If doctrines resting upon such a claim can be shown to be true, it is additional testimony of the truth of the Prophet's work.
[Sidenote: Purpose of the following chapters.]
In the following chapters it will be shown, by a series of comparisons, that, in 1833, or soon thereafter, the teachings of Joseph Smith, the Mormon Prophet, were in full harmony with the most advanced scientific thought of today, and that he anticipated the world of science in the statement of fundamental facts and theories of physics, chemistry, astronomy and biology.
THE FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS OF THE UNIVERSE.
Chapter II.
THE INDESTRUCTIBILITY OF MATTER.
[Sidenote: Until recent days many believed that matter could be created or destroyed.]
It was believed by the philosophers of ancient and mediaeval times, especially by those devoted to the study of alchemy, that it was possible through mystical powers, often of a supernatural order, to annihilate matter or to create it from nothing. Men with such powers transcended all known laws of nature, and became objects of fear, often of worship to the masses of mankind. Naturally enough, the systems of religion became colored with the philosophical doctrines of the times; and it was held to be a fundamental religious truth that God created the world from nothing. Certainly, God could do what his creatures, the magicians, were able to do—that part of the reasoning was sound.
In support of this doctrine, attention was called to some of the experiences of daily life. A piece of coal placed in a stove, in a short time disappear—it is annihilated. From the clear air of a summer's day raindrops start—created out of nothing. A fragment of gold placed in contact with sufficiently strong acids, disappears—it is destroyed.
[Sidenote: Matter is eternal, its form only can be changed.]
Towards the end of the eighteenth century, facts and laws of chemistry were discovered, which enabled scientists to follow in great detail the changes, visible or invisible, to which matter in its various forms is subject. Then it was shown that the coal placed in a stove unites with a portion of the air entering through the drafts, and becomes an invisible gas, but that, were this gas collected as it issues from the chimney, it would be found to contain a weight of the elements of the coal just equal to the weight of the coal used. In a similar manner it was shown that the raindrops are formed from the water found in the air, as an invisible vapor. The gold dissolved in the acid, may be wholly recovered so that every particle is accounted for. Numerous investigations on this subject were made by the most skillful experimenters of the age, all of which showed that it is absolutely impossible to create or destroy the smallest particle of matter; that the most man can do is to change the form in which matter exists.
After this truth had been demonstrated, it was a necessary conclusion that matter is eternal, and that the quantity of matter in the universe cannot be diminished nor increased. This great generalization, known as the law of the Persistence of Matter or Mass, is the foundation stone of modern science. It began to find general acceptance among men about the time of Joseph Smith's birth, though many religious sects still hold that God, as the Supreme Ruler, is able at will to create matter from nothing. The establishment of this law marked also the final downfall of alchemy and other kindred occult absurdities.
[Sidenote: Mormonism teaches that all things are material.]
No doctrine taught by Joseph Smith is better understood by his followers than that matter in its elementary condition is eternal, and that it can neither be increased nor diminished. As early as May, 1833, the Prophet declared that "the elements are eternal,"[A] and in a sermon delivered in April, 1844, he said "Element had an existence from the time God had. The pure principles of element are principles which can never be destroyed; they may be organized and reorganized, but not destroyed. They had no beginning, and can have no end."[B]
[Footnote A: Doctrine and Covenants, 93:33.]
[Footnote B: The Contributor, Vol. 4, p. 257.]
It is thus evident that from the beginning of his work, Joseph Smith was in perfect harmony with the fundamental doctrine of science; and far in advance of the religious sects of the world, which are, even at this time, slowly accepting the doctrine of the persistence of matter in a spiritual as well as in a material sense.
Mormonism has frequently been charged with accepting the doctrine of materialism. In one sense, the followers of Joseph Smith plead yes to this charge. In Mormon theology there is no place for immateralism; i.e. for a God, spirits and angels that are not material. Spirit is only a refined form of matter. It is beyond the mind of man to conceive of an immaterial thing. On the other hand, Joseph Smith did not teach that the kind of tangible matter, which impresses our mortal senses, is the kind of matter which is associated with heavenly beings. The distinction between the matter known to man and the spirit matter is very great; but no greater than is the difference between the matter of the known elements and that of the universal ether which forms one of the accepted dogmas of science.
Science knows phenomena only as they are associated with matter;
Mormonism does the same.
Chapter III.
THE INDESTRUCTIBILITY OF ENERGY.
[Sidenote: All forms of energy may be converted into each other.
Energy can not be destroyed.]
It is only when matter is in motion, or in the possession of energy, that it is able to impress our senses. The law of the indestructibility and convertibility of energy, is of equal fundamental value with that of the indestructibility of matter. A great variety of forces exist in nature, as, for instance, gravitation, electricity, chemical affinity, heat and light. These forces may all be made to do work. Energy, in fact, may be defined as the power of doing work. In early days these forces were supposed to be distinct and not convertible, one into the other, just as gold and silver, with our present knowledge, are distinct and not convertible into other elements.
In the early part of the nineteenth century students of light and heat began to demonstrate that these two natural forces were different manifestations of one universal medium. This in turn led to the thought that possibly these forces, instead of being absolutely distinct, could be converted one into the other. This idea was confirmed in various experimental ways. Sir Humphrey Davy, about the end of the eighteenth century, rubbed together two pieces of ice until they were nearly melted. Precautions had been taken that no heat could be abstracted from the outside by the ice. The only tenable conclusion was that the energy expended in rubbing, had been converted into heat, which had melted the ice. About the same time, Count Rumford, a distinguished American, was superintending the boring of a cannon at the arsenal at Munich, and was forcibly struck with the heating of the iron due to this process. He, like Davy, believed that the energy of the boring instruments had been converted into the heat.[A]
[Footnote A: The Conservation of Heat—Stewart, pp. 38, 39.]
From 1843 to 1849, Dr. Joule of Manchester, England, published the results of experiments on the relation between mechanical energy and heat. Dr. Joule attached a fixed weight to a string which was passed over a pulley, while the other end was connected with paddles moving in water. As the weight descended, the paddles were caused to revolve; and it was observed that, as the weight fell and the paddles revolved, the water became warmer and warmer. Dr. Joule found further that for each foot of fall, the same amount of heat energy was given to the water. In fact, he determined that when a pound weight falls seven hundred and seventy two feet it gives out energy enough to raise the temperature of one pound of water one degree Fahrenheit.[A] This experiment, frequently repeated, gave the same result and established largely the law of the convertibility of energy.
[Footnote A: The Conservation of Energy—Stewart, pp. 44, 45. Recent
Advances in Physical Science—Tait, pp. 63, 65.]
About the same time, it was shown that light can be converted into heat; and later it was proved that electricity may be changed into heat or light. In all these cases it was found that the amount of energy changed was exactly equal to the amount of energy produced.
Thus, by countless experiments, it was finally determined that energy is indestructible; that, when any form of energy disappears, it reappears immediately in another form. This is the law of the persistence of force or energy. In more recent days, it has been suggested that all known forces are variations of a great universal force, which may or may not be known. The very nature of force or energy is not understood. In the language of Spencer, "By the persistence of force, we really mean the persistence of some cause which transcends our knowledge and conception."[A]
[Footnote A: First Principles, Spencer, 4th ed., p. 200.]
It need hardly be explained that energy cannot exist independently of matter; and that the law of the persistence of matter is necessary for the existence of the law of persistence of force.
[Sidenote: Universal intelligence, comparable to universal energy is indestructible, according to Joseph Smith.]
Joseph Smith was not a scientist; and he made no pretense of solving the scientific questions of this day. The discussion relative to the convertibility of various forms of energy was in all probability not known to him. Still, in his writings is found a doctrine which in all respects resembles that of the conservation of energy.
Joseph Smith taught, and the Church now teaches, that all space is filled with a subtle, though material substance of wonderful properties, by which all natural phenomena are controlled. This substance is known as the Holy Spirit. Its most important characteristic is intelligence. "Its inherent properties embrace all the attributes of intelligence."[A] The property of intelligence is to the Holy Spirit what energy is to the gross material of our senses.
[Footnote A: Key to Theology, P. P. Pratt, 5th ed., p. 40.]
In one of the generally accepted works of the Church, the energy of nature is actually said to be the workings of the Holy Spirit. The passage reads as follows: "Man observes a universal energy in nature—organization and disorganization succeed each other—the thunders roll through the heavens; the earth trembles and becomes broken by earthquakes; fires consume cities and forests; the waters accumulate, flow over their usual bounds, and cause destruction of life and property; the worlds perform their revolutions in space with a velocity and power incomprehensible to man, and he, covered with a veil of darkness, calls this universal energy, God, when it is the workings of his Spirit, the obedient agent of his power, the wonder-working and life-giving principle in all nature."[A]
[Footnote A: Compendium, Richards and Little, 3rd ed., p. 150.]
In short, the writings of the Church clearly indicate that the various forces of nature, the energy of nature, are only manifestations of the great, pervading force of intelligence. We do not understand the real nature of intelligence any better than we understand the true nature of energy. We only know that by energy or intelligence gross matter is brought within reach of our senses.
Intelligence or energy was declared by Joseph Smith in May, 1833, to be eternal: "Intelligence, or the light of truth, was not created or made, neither indeed can be."[A] In the sermon already referred to the Prophet said, "The intelligence of spirits had no beginning, neither will it have an end."
[Footnote A: Doctrine and Covenants, 93:29.]
These quotations, and many others to which attention might be called, show clearly that Joseph Smith taught the doctrine that the energy of the universe can in nowise be increased or diminished, though, it may manifest itself in various forms.
The great Latter-day prophet is thus shown to be in harmony with the second fundamental law of science. It is not a valid objection to this conclusion to say that Joseph Smith did not use the accepted terms of science. Words stand only for ideas; the ideas are essential. The nomenclature of a science is often different in different lands, and is often changed as knowledge grows.
It is hardly correct to say that he was in harmony with the law; the law as stated by the world of science was rather in harmony with him. Let it be observed that Joseph Smith enunciated the principle of the conservation of the energy, or intelligence as he called it, of the universe, in May, 1833, ten years before Dr. Joule published his famous papers on energy relations, and fifteen or twenty years before the doctrine was clearly understood and generally accepted by the learned of the world. Let it be also remembered that the unlearned boy from the backwoods of New York state, taught with the conviction of absolute certainty that the doctrine was true, for God had revealed it to him.
If God did not reveal it to him, where did he learn it, and whence came the courage to teach it as an eternal truth?
Chapter IV.
THE UNIVERSAL ETHER.
[Sidenote: The modern theory of light was established only about the year 1830.]
The nature of light has been in every age a fascinating subject for study and reflection. Descartes, the French mathematician and philosopher, advanced the hypothesis that light consists of small particles emitted by luminous bodies, and that the sensation of light is produced by the impact of these particles upon the retina of the eye. Soon after this emission or corpuscular theory had been proposed, Hooke, an English investigator of great note, stated publicly that the phenomena of light, as he had observed them, led him to the belief that the nature of light could best be explained on the assumption that light was a kind of undulation or wave in some unknown medium, and that the sensation of light was. produced when these waves struck upon the retina of the eye. This new hypothesis, known as the theory of undulations, after the great Isaac Newton had declared himself in favor of the corpuscular theory, was finally adjudged by the majority of students to be erroneous.
About the year 1800, more than a century after the days of Descartes, Hooke and Newton, an English physician, Dr. Thomas Young, who had long experimented on the nature of light, asserted that the emission theory could not explain many of the best known phenomena of light. Dr. Young further claimed that correct explanations could be made only by the theory of waves of undulation of an etherial medium diffused through space, and presented numerous experimental evidences in favor of this view. This revival of the old theory of undulation met at first with violent opposition from many of the greatest scientific minds of the day. Sometime after Dr. Young's publication, a French army officer, Augustine Fresnel, undertook the study of the nature of light, and arrived, almost independently, at the conclusion stated by Dr. Young. Later, other investigators discovered light phenomena which could be explained only on the undulatory hypothesis, and so, little by little, the new theory gained ground and adherents.
Still, even as late as 1827, the astronomer Herschel published a treatise on light, in which he appeared to hold the real merit of the theory of undulations in grave doubt.[A] Likewise, the Imperial Academy at St. Petersburg, in 1826, proposed a prize for the best attempt to relieve the undulatory theory of light of some of the main objections against it.[B] It was several years later before the great majority of the scientific world accepted the theory of undulations as the correct explanation of the phenomena of light.
[Footnote A: History of the Inductive Sciences, Whewell, 3rd edition,
Vol. II, p. 114.]
[Footnote B: Loc. cit., 117.]
[Sidenote: A subtle substance, the ether, fills all space.]
In brief, this theory assumes that a very attenuated, but very elastic, substance, called the ether, fills all space, and is found surrounding the ultimate particles of matter. Thus, the pores of wood, soil, lead, gold and the human body, are filled with the ether. It is quite impossible by any known process to obtain a portion of space free from it. A luminous body is one in which the ultimate particles of matter, the atoms or molecules, are moving very rapidly, and thus causing disturbances in the ether, similar to the disturbances in quiet water when a rock is thrown into it; and, like the water wave, proceeding from the point of disturbance, so the ether waves radiate from the luminous body into space. When a wave strikes the retina of the eye, the sensation of light is produced. This new-found ether was soon used for the explanation of other natural phenomena.
[Sidenote: Light, heat, electricity and other forces are forms of ether motion.]
The nature of heat had long been discussed when the world of science decided in favor of the undulatory theory of light. One school held that the sensation of heat was caused by the cannonading of heat particles by the heated body; the other school, with few adherents, insisted that heat was simply a form of motion of the ether already adopted in the theory of light. The later discoveries of science proved with considerable certainty that the undulatory theory of heat is right, but it was well towards the middle of the last century before the emission theory of heat lost its ground. In fact, Dr.Whewell, in the third edition of his classic book on the History of Inductive Sciences, published in 1859, says that the undulatory theory of heat "has not by any means received full confirmation;"[A] and Dr. John Tyndall, in a book published in 1880, says, that the emission theory "held its ground until quite recently among the chemists of our own day."[B] Today, the evidences of modern science are overwhelmingly in favor of the undulatory theory of heat.
[Footnote A: Vol. II, p. 184.]
[Footnote B: Heat, A Mode of Motion, Tyndall, 6th ed., p. 38.]
The wonderful developments of the last century, in electricity and magnetism, led to much speculation concerning the nature of the subtle electrical and magnetic forces. The most popular theories for many years were those that presupposed various electrical and magnetic fluids, which could be collected, conducted, dispersed and otherwise controlled. In 1867, the eminent English mathematician, Clerk Maxwell, proposed the theory that electrical and magnetic phenomena were simply peculiar motions of the ether, bearing definite relationship to light waves. Later researches, one result of which is the now famous Roentgen or X-rays, have tended to confirm Maxwell's theory. A recent text-book on physics, of unquestioned authority,[A] states that the ether theory of electricity and magnetism is now susceptible of direct demonstration; and another eminent authority frankly states that "when we explain the nature of electricity, we explain it by a motion of the luminiferous ether."[B]
[Footnote A: Lehrbuch der Physik, Riecke, (1896), 2ter Band, p. 315.]
[Footnote B: Popular Lectures and Addresses, Kelvin (1891) Vol. 1, page 334.]
Other recent discoveries have hinted at the possibility of matter itself being only the result of peculiar forms of this all-pervading substance, the luminiferous ether. The properties of the element radium, and other radioactive elements, as at present understood, suggest the possibility of a better understanding of the nature of the ether, and of its relation to the world of phenomena.
[Sidenote: The existence of the ether is a certainty of science.]
That the present knowledge of the world of science compels a faith in an all-pervading substance, of marvelous properties, and of intimate relationship to all forms of energy, is shown by the following quotations from Lord Kelvin, who is generally regarded as the world's greatest physicist: "The luminferous ether, that is the only substance we are confident of in dynamics. One thing we are sure of, and that is the reality and substantiality of the luminiferous ether." "What can this luminiferous ether be? It is something that the planets move through with the greatest ease. It permeates our air; it is nearly in the same condition, so far as our means of judging are concerned, in our air and in the interplanetary space." "You may regard the existence of the luminiferous ether as a reality of science." "It is matter prodigiously less dense than air—of such density as not to produce the slightest resistance to any body going through it."[A]
[Footnote A: Kelvin's Lectures, Vol. 1, pp. 317, 334, 336, 354.]
The theory of the ether is one of the most helpful assumptions of modern science. By its aid the laws of energy have been revealed. There is at the present time no grander or more fundamental doctrine in science than that of the ether. The nature of the ether is, of course, far from being clearly understood, but every discovery in science demonstrates that the hypothetical ether stands for an important reality of nature. Together with the doctrines of the indestructibility of matter and energy, the doctrine of the ether welds and explains all the physical phenomena of the universe.
Joseph Smith, in a revelation received on December 27, 1832, wrote:
[Sidenote: Joseph Smith taught space is filled with a substance comparable to the ether of science.]
"The light which now shineth, which giveth you light, is through him who enlighteneth your eyes, which is the same light that quickeneth your understandings; which light proceedeth forth from the presence of God to fill the immensity of space. The light which is in all things: which is the law by which all things are governed: even the power of God."[A]
[Footnote A: Doctrine and Covenants, section 88:11-13.]
This quotation gives undoubted evidence of the prophet's belief that space is filled with some substance which bears important relations to all natural phenomena. The word substance is used advisedly; for in various places in the writings of Joseph Smith, light, used as above in a general sense, means spirit,[A] and "all spirit is matter, but it is more fine and pure."[B]
[Footnote A: Doctrine and Covenants, 84:45.]
[Footnote B: Ibid, 131:7.]
True, the passage above quoted does not furnish detailed explanation of the Prophet's view concerning the substance filling all space, but it must be remembered that it is simply an incidental paragraph in a chapter of religious instruction. True, also, the Prophet goes farther than some modern scientists, when he says that this universal substance bears a controlling relation to all things; yet, when it is recalled that eminent, sober students have suggested that the facts of science make it possible to believe that matter itself is simply a phenomenon of the universal ether, the statement of the "Mormon" prophet seems very reasonable. The paragraph already quoted is not an accidental arrangement of words suggesting an idea not intended by the prophet, for in other places, he presents the idea of an omnipresent substance binding all things together. For instance, in speaking of the controlling power of the universe he says:
"He comprehendeth all things, and all things are before him, and all things are round about him; and he is above all things, and in all things, and is through all things, and is round about all things."[A]
[Footnote A: Ibid, 88:41.]
That Joseph Smith does not here have in mind an omnipresent God, is proved by the emphatic doctrine that God is personal and cannot be everywhere present.[A]
[Footnote A: Ibid, 130:22.]
Lest it be thought that the words are forced, for argument's sake, to give the desired meaning, it may be well to examine the views of some of the persons to whom the Prophet explained in detail the meanings of the statements in the revelations which he claimed to have received from God.
Parley P. Pratt, who, as a member of the first quorum of apostles, had every opportunity of obtaining the Prophet's views on any subject, wrote in considerable fullness on the subject of the Holy Spirit, or the light of truth:
"As the mind passes the boundaries of the visible world, and enters upon the confines of the more refined and subtle elements, it finds itself associated with certain substances in themselves invisible to our gross organs, but clearly manifested to our intellect by their tangible operations and effects." "The purest, most refined and subtle of all these substances—is that substance called the Holy Spirit." "It is omnipresent." "It is in its less refined particles, the physical light which reflects from the sun, moon and stars, and other substances; and by reflection on the eye makes visible the truths of the outward world."[A]
[Footnote A: Key to Theology, 5th ed., pp. 38-41.]
Elder C. W. Penrose, an accepted writer on Mormon doctrine, writes, "It is by His Holy Spirit, which permeates all things, and is the life and light of all things, that Deity is everywhere present. * * By that agency God sees and knows and governs all things."[A]
[Footnote A: Rays of Living Light, No. 2, p. 3.]
Such quotations, from the men intimately associated or acquainted with the early history of the Church, prove that Joseph Smith taught in clearness the doctrine that a subtle form of matter, call it ether or Holy Spirit, pervades all space; that all phenomena of nature, including, specifically, heat, light and electricity, are definitely connected with this substance. He taught much else concerning this substance which science will soon discover, but which lies without the province of this paper to discuss.
By the doctrine of the ether, it is made evident all the happenings in the universe are indelibly inscribed upon the record of nature. A word is spoken. The air movements that it causes disturbs the ether. The ether waves radiate into space and can never die. Anywhere, with the proper instrument, one of the waves may be captured, and the spoken word read. That is the simple method of wireless telegraphy. It is thus that all our actions shall be known on the last great day. By the ether, or the Holy Spirit as named by the Prophet, God holds all things in His keeping. His intelligent will radiates into space, to touch whomsoever it desires. He who is tuned aright can read the message, flashed across the ether ocean, by the Almighty. Thus, also, God, who is a person, filling only a portion of space is, by His power carried by the ether, everywhere present.
The ether of science though material is essentially different from the matter composing the elements. So, also, in Mormon theology, is the Holy Spirit different from the grosser elements. In science there is a vast distinction between the world of the elements, and that of the ether; in theology, there is an equally great difference between the spiritual and material worlds. Though the theology of Joseph Smith insists that immaterialism is an absurdity, yet it permits no overlapping of the earthly and the spiritual.
[Sidenote: Joseph Smith stated the existence of a universe-filling substance before science had generally accepted it.]
It must not be overlooked that the broad statement of this doctrine was made by Joseph Smith, at least as early as 1832, at a time when the explanation of light phenomena on the hypothesis of a universal ether was just beginning to find currency among learned men; and many years before the same hypothesis was accepted in explaining the phenomena of heat and electricity.
The idea of an influence pervading the universe is not of itself new. Poets and philosophers of all ages have suggested it in a vague, hesitating manner, without connecting it with the phenomena of nature, but burdening it with the greatest absurdity of religion or philosophy, that of immaterialism. Joseph Smith said the doctrine had been taught him by God, and gave it to the world unhesitatingly and rationally. The men of science, to whom Joseph Smith appears only as an imposter, and who know nothing of his writings, have later discovered the truth for themselves, and incorporated it in their books of learning.
Had Joseph Smith been the clever imposter that some claim he was, he probably would not have dealt in any way with the theories of the material world, at least would not have claimed revelations laying down physical laws; had he been the stupid fool, others tell us he was, his mind would not have worried itself with the fundamental problems of nature.
However that may be, it is certain that Joseph Smith, in the broad and rational statement of the existence of an omnipresent, material though subtle substance, anticipated the workers in science. In view of that fact, it is not improbable that at some future time, when science shall have gained a wider view, the historian of the physical sciences will say that Joseph Smith, the clear-sighted, first stated correctly the fundamental physical doctrine of the universal ether.
Chapter V.
THE REIGN OF LAW.
In the seventh book of the Republic of Plato[A] occurs the following passage:
[Footnote A: Golden Treasury edition, pp. 235, 236.]
[Sidenote: The realities of nature are known by their effects.]
"Imagine a number of men living in an underground cavernous chamber, with an entrance open to the light, extending along the entire length of the cavern, in which they have been confined, from childhood, with their legs and necks so shackled, that they are obliged to sit still and look straight forward, because their chains render it impossible for them to turn their heads round; and imagine a bright fire burning some way off, above and behind them, and an elevated roadway passing between the fire and the prisoners, with a low wall built along it, like the screens which conjurers put up in front of their audiences, and above which they exhibit their wonders. Also figure to yourself a number of persons walking behind the wall, and carrying with them statues of men and images of other animals, wrought in wood and stone and all kinds of materials, together with various other articles, which overtop the wall; and, as you might expect, let some of the passers-by be talking, and the others silent.
"Let me ask whether persons so confined could have seen anything of themselves or of each other, beyond the shadows thrown by the fire upon the part of the cavern facing them? And is not their knowledge of the things carried past them equally limited? And if they were able to converse with one another, would they not be in the habit of giving names to the objects which they saw before them? If their prison house returned an echo from the part facing them, whenever one of the passers-by opened his lips, to what could they refer the voice, if not to the shadow which was passing? Surely such person would hold the shadows of those manufactured articles to be the only realities."
With reference to our absolute knowledge of the phenomena of nature, this splendid comparison is as correct today as it was in the days of Plato, about 400 B. C.; we are only as prisoners in a great cave, watching shadows of passing objects thrown upon the cavern wall, and reflecting upon the real natures of the things whose shadows we see. We know things only by their effects; the essential nature of matter, ether and energy is far from our understanding.
[Sidenote: The progress of science rests on the law of cause and effect.]
In early and mediaeval times, the recognition of the fact that nature in its ultimate form is unknowable, led to many harmful superstitions. Chief among the fallacies of the early ages was the belief that God at will could, and did, cause various phenomena to appear in nature, which were contrary to all human experience. As observed in chapter 4, a class of men arose who claimed to be in possession of knowledge which made them also able, at will, to cause various supernatural manifestations. Thus arose the occult sciences, so called,—alchemy, astrology, magic, witchcraft, and all other similar abominations of the intellect. Such beliefs made the logical study of nature superfluous, for any apparent regularity or law in nature might at any time be overturned by a person in possession of a formula of the black art or a properly treated broomstick.
While such ideas prevailed among the majority of men, the rational study of science could make little progress. In the march of the ages as the ideas of men were classified, it began to be understood that the claims of the devotees of the mystical arts not only could not be substantiated but were in direct opposition to the known operations of nature. It became clear to the truthseekers, that in nature a given cause, acting upon any given object, providing all surrounding conditions be left unchanged, will always produce the same effect. Thus, coal of a certain quality, brought to a high temperature in the presence of air, will burn and produce heat; a stick held in water at the right angle will appear crooked; iron kept in contact with moisture and air, at the right temperature, will be changed into rust; sunlight passed through a glass prism will be broken into rainbow colors; ordinary plants placed in a dark cellar will languish and die. No matter how often trials are made, the above results are obtained; and today it is safe to assert that in the material world no relation of cause and effect, once established, has failed to reappear at the will of the investigator. As this principle of the constancy in the relations between cause and effect was established, the element of chance in natural phenomena, with its attendant arts of magic, had to disappear. It is now well understood by intelligent persons that the law of order controls all the elements of nature.
It is true that the cause of any given effect may, itself, be the effect of other causes, and that the first cause of daily phenomena is not and probably cannot be understood. It is also true that very seldom is the mind able to comprehend why certain causes, save the simpler ones, should produce certain effects. In that respect we are again nothing more than Plato's cave prisoners, seeing the shadows of ultimate realities. However, the recognition of the principle of the invariable relation between cause and effect was a great onward stride in the intellectual development of the world.
[Sidenote: Laws of nature are man's simplest expression of many related facts.]
Now, as men began to investigate nature with her forces, according to the new light, numerous relations of the forces were discovered—in number far beyond the comprehension of the human mind. Then it was found necessary to group all facts of a similar nature, and invent, if possible, some means by which the properties of the whole group might be stated in language so simple as to reach the understanding. Thus came the laws of nature.
For instance, men from earliest times observed the heavenly bodies and the regularity of their motions. Theories of the universe were invented which should harmonize with the known facts. As new facts were discovered, the theories had to be changed and extended. First it was believed that the earth was fixed in mid-space, and sun and stars were daily carried around it. Hipparchus improved this theory by placing the earth not exactly in the center of the sun's circle. Ptolemy, three hundred years later, considered that the sun and moon move in circles, yearly, around the earth, and the other planets in circles, whose centers again described circles round the earth. Copernicus simplified the whole system by teaching that the earth rotated around its axis, and around the sun. Keppler next showed that the earth moved around the sun in certain curves termed ellipses. Finally, Newton hit upon the wide-embracing law of gravitation, which unifies all the known facts of astronomy.[A] All the earlier laws were correct, so far as they included all the knowledge of the age in which they were proposed, but were insufficient to include the new discoveries.
[Footnote A: See The Grammar of Science, Pearson, pp. 117, 118.]
Laws of nature are, therefore, man's simplest and most comprehensive expression of his knowledge of certain groups of natural phenomena. They are man-made, and subject to change as knowledge grows; but, as they change, they approach or should approach more and more nearly to the perfect law. Modern science is built upon the assumption that the relations between cause and effect are invariable, and that these relations may be grouped to form great natural laws, which express the modes by which the forces of the universe manifest themselves.
[Sidenote: A miracle is a law not understood.]
In this matter, science is frankly humble, and acknowledges that the region of the unknown is far greater than that of the known. Forces, relations and laws may exist as yet unknown to the world of science, which, used by a human or superhuman being, might to all appearances change well-established relations of known forces. That would be a miracle; but a miracle simply means a phenomenon not understood, in its cause and effect relations. It must also be admitted that men possess no absolute certainty that though certain forces, brought into a certain conjunction a thousand times, have produced the same effect, they will continue to do so. Should a variation occur, however, that also must be ascribed to an inherent property of the forces or conditions, or the existence of a law not understood.[A] There can be no chance in the operations of nature. This is a universe of law and order.
[Footnote A: The Credentials of Science, the Warrant of Faith, Cooke, pp. 169, 170.]
[Sidenote: Joseph Smith taught the invariable relation of cause and effect.]
Were it not for the sake of the completeness of the argument running through these chapters, it would be unnecessary to call attention to the fact that Joseph Smith in a very high degree held views similar to those taught by science relative to cause and effect, and the reign of law.
From the beginning of his career, the Prophet insisted upon order, or system, as the first law in the religion or system of philosophy which he founded.[A] Moreover, the order which he taught was of an unchangeable nature, corresponding to the invariable relation between cause and effect. He wrote, "There is a law, irrevocably decreed in heaven before the foundations of this world, upon which all blessings are predicated; and when we obtain any blessing from God, it is by obedience to that law upon which it is predicated."[B] No text book in science has a clearer or more positive statement than this, of the fact that like causes have like effects, like actions like results. The eternal nature of natural law is further emphasized as follows:
[Footnote A: Doctrine and Covenants, 28:13; 132; 8.]
[Footnote B: Doctrine and Covenants, 130:20, 21.]
"If there be bounds set to the heavens, or to the seas: or to the dry land, or to the sun, moon or stars; all the times of their revolutions; all the appointed days, months, and years, and all the days of their days, months, and years, and all their glories, laws, and set times, shall be revealed, in the days of the dispensation of the fullness of times, according to that which was ordained in the midst of the Council of the Eternal God of all other Gods before this world was."[A]
[Footnote A: Doctrine and Covenants, 121:30-32.]
Those who may be inclined to believe that this doctrine was taught in a spiritual sense only, should recall that Joseph Smith taught also that spirit is only a pure form of matter,[A] so that the principles of the material world must have their counterparts in the spiritual world. Besides, in the last quotation reference is made to such material bodies as sun, moon, and stars. In other places, special mention is made of the fact that the material universe is controlled by law. For instance:
[Footnote A: Doctrine and Covenants, 131:7.]
"All kingdoms have a law given: and there are many kingdoms; * * * * and unto every kingdom is given a law; and unto every law there are certain bounds also and conditions. * * * * And again, verily I say unto you, he hath given a law unto all things by which they move in their times and their seasons; and their courses are fixed; even the courses of the heavens and the earth, which comprehend the earth and all the planets."[A]
[Footnote A: Doctrine and Covenants, 88:36-33, 42, 43.]
This also is a clear, concise statement of law and its nature, which is not excelled by the definitions of science. There can be no doubt from these quotations, as from many others that might be made, that Joseph Smith based his teachings upon the recognition that law pervades the universe, and that none can transcend law. In the material world or in the domain of ether or spirit, like causes produced like effects—the reign of law is supreme.
[Sidenote: "The law also maketh you free.">[
Certainly the claim cannot be made that Joseph Smith anticipated the world of science in the recognition of this important principle; but it is a source of marvel that he should so clearly recognize and state it, at a time when many religious sects and philosophical creeds chose to assume that natural laws could be set aside easily by mystical methods that might be acquired by anyone. In some respects, the scientific test of the divine inspiration of Joseph Smith lies here. Ignorant and superstitious as his enemies say he was, the mystical would have attracted him greatly, and he would have played for his own interest upon the superstitious fears of his followers. Instead, he taught doctrines absolutely free from mysticism, and built a system of religion in which the invariable relation of cause and effect is the cornerstone. Instead of priding himself, to his disciples, upon his superiority to the laws of nature, he taught distinctly that "the law also maketh you free."[A] Herein he recognized another great principle—that freedom consists in the adaptation to law, not in the opposition to it.
[Footnote A: Doctrine and Covenants, 98:8.]
However, whatever else the Prophet Joseph Smith was, he most certainly was in full harmony with the scientific principle that the universe is controlled by law.
THE CONSTITUTION OF THE UNIVERSE.
Chapter VI.
THE NEW ASTRONOMY.
[Sidenote: The laws of the motions of the heavenly bodies have been learned very slowly.]
From the dawn of written history, when the first men, watching through the nights, observed the regular motions of the moon and stars, humanity has been striving to obtain a correct understanding of the relation of the earth to the. First it was believed that the sun, moon, and stars revolved in circles around the earth (which for a time was supposed to be flat instead of spherical). The great Greek philosopher, Hipparchus, after observing the movements of the heavenly bodies, suggested that the earth was not exactly in the middle of the circles. Three hundred years later, Ptolemy discovered a number of facts concerning the movements of the sun, moon and planets, which were unknown to Hipparchus, and which led him to suggest that the sun and moon move in circles around the earth, but that the planets move around the earth in circles, whose centres again move around the earth. This somewhat complex theory explained very well what was known of astronomy in the days of the ancients. In fact, the views of Ptolemy were quite generally accepted for 1300 years.
About 1500, A. D., Copernicus, a Dutch astronomer, having still more facts in his possession than had Ptolemy, concluded that the simplest manner in which the apparent movements of the sun, moon, and planets could be explained, was to assume that the sun is the center of the planetary system, and that the earth, with the moon and planets, revolves according to definite laws around the sun. This theory, supported by numerous confirmatory observations, was generally accepted by astronomers, and really did explain very simply and clearly many of the facts of planetary motion.
Fifty years after the death of Copernicus, the celebrated astronomer, Kepler, proposed extensions and improvements of the Copernican doctrine, which made the theory that the planets revolve about the sun more probable than ever before. He suggested first that the planets move around the sun in closed curves, resembling flattened circles, and known as ellipses. By assuming this to be true, and assisted by other discoveries, he was also able to state the times required by the planets for their revolutions around the sun, and the velocity of their motions at different times of the year. Later investigations have proved the great laws proposed by Copernicus and Kepler to be true; and from their days is dated the birth of modern astronomy.
[Sidenote: The law of gravitation is universal and explains many of the motions of celestial bodies.]
After the laws of the motions of the planets had been determined, it was only natural that men should ask themselves what forces were concerned in these motions. The ancient philosophers had proposed the idea that the sun attracts all heavenly bodies, but the suggestion had not been accepted by the world at large. However, after the discoveries of Kepler, the English, philosopher Newton advanced the theory that there is in the universe an attractive force which influences all matter, beyond the limits of known space. He further proved that the intensity of this force varies directly with the product of the attractive masses, and inversely, with the square of the distances between them—that is, the greater the bodies the greater the attraction; the greater the distance between them, the smaller the attraction. This law of gravitation has been verified by repeated experiments, and, taken in connection with the astronomical theories of Copernicus and Kepler, has made celestial mechanics what they are today.
By the aid of the law of gravitation, many astronomical predictions have been fulfilled. Among the most famous is the following incident:
In the early part of the last century, astronomers noticed that the motions of the planet Uranus did not agree with those derived from calculations based upon the law of gravitation. About 1846, two investigators, M. Leverrier, of France, and Mr. Adams of England, stated, as their opinion, that the discordance between theory and observation in the case of the motions of Uranus, was due to the attraction of a planet, not yet known, and they calculated by means of the law of gravitation, the size and orbit of the unknown planet. In the fall of 1846, this planet was actually discovered and named Neptune. It was found to harmonize with the predictions made by the astronomers before its discovery.
During the days of Newton, the question was raised if the celestial bodies outside of the solar system obey the law of gravitation. Among the stars, there are some which are called double stars, and which consist of two stars so near to each other that the telescope alone can separate them to the eye. In 1803, after twenty years of observation, William Herschel discovered that some of these couples were revolving around each other with various angular velocities. The son of William Herschel continued this work, and many years later, he discovered that the laws of motion of these double stars are the same as those that prevail in the the solar system.[A] This result indicated not only the universality of the law of gravitation, but also the probability that all heavenly bodies are in motion.
[Footnote A: History of the Inductive Sciences, Whewell, 3rd ed. Vol.
I, pp. 467-469.]
[Sidenote: The invention of the spectroscope laid the foundation of the new astronomy.]
Then, early in the nineteenth century, a new method of research began to be developed, which was destined to form a new science of astronomy. It had long been known that white light when passed through a glass prism is broken into a colored spectrum, with colors similar to those observed in the rainbow. Now it was discovered that when white light passes through vapors of certain composition, dark lines appear in the spectrum, and that the position of the lines varies with the chemical composition of the vapors. By the application of these principles, it was shown, towards the middle of the last century, that the chemical composition of the heavenly bodies may be determined. Later,it was discovered that by noting the positions of the dark lines in the spectrum, it could be known when a star or any heavenly body is moving, as also the direction and amount of its motion. These unexpected discoveries led to a study of the heavens from the spectroscopic point of view, which has resulted in a marvelous advance in the science of astronomy.
[Sidenote: All heavenly bodies are in motion.]
It has been determined that all heavenly bodies are in motion, and that their velocities are great compared with our ordinary conceptions of motion. Most of the stars move at the rate of about seven miles per second, though some have a velocity of forty-five miles, or more, per second. Many stars, formerly thought to be single, have been resolved into two or more components. The rings of Saturn have been proved to consist of small bodies revolving about the planet in obedience to Kepler's law.[A] Clusters of stars have been found that move through space as one body, as possible counterparts of the planetary system.[B] It has been demonstrated, further, that the sun itself, with its planets, is moving through space at a very rapid rate. Professor Simon Newcomb, perhaps the greatest astronomer of the day, says, "The sun, and the whole solar system with it, have been speeding their way toward the star of which I speak (Alpha Lyrae) on a journey of which we know neither the beginning nor the end. During every clock-beat through which humanity has existed, it has moved on this journey by an amount which we cannot specify more exactly than to say that it is probably between five and nine miles per second. The conclusion seems unavoidable that a number of stars are moving with a speed such that the attraction of all the bodies of the universe could never stop them."[C] In brief, the new astronomy holds that all heavenly bodies are in motion, and that the planetary system is but a small cluster of stars among the host of heaven. Further, it has weighed the stars, measured the intensity of their light, and determined their chemical composition, and it affirms that there are suns in the heavens, far excelling our sun in size and lustre, though built of approximately the same elements.
[Footnote A: See C. G. Abbott, Report of Smithsonian Institution, for 1901, pp. 153-155.]
[Footnote B: Light Science for Leisure Hours, Proctor, pp. 42-52.]
[Footnote C: The Problems of Astronomy, S. Newcomb, Science, May 21, 1897.]
[Sidenote: The solar system is only one of many.]
Sir Robert Ball expresses his views as follows: "The group to which our sun belongs is a limited one. This must be so, even though the group included all the stars in the milky way. This unnumbered host is still only a cluster, occupying, comparatively speaking, an expressibly small extent in the ocean of infinite space. The imagination will carry us further still—it will show us that our star cluster may be but a unit in a cluster of an order still higher, so that a yet higher possibility of movement is suggested for our astonishment."[A]
[Footnote A: The Story of the Sun, R. S. Ball, pp. 360, 361.]
Another eminent astronomer expresses the same idea briefly but eloquently: "It is true that from the highest point of view the sun is only one of a multitude—a single star among millions—thousands of which, most likely, exceed him in brightness, magnitude and power. He is only a private in the host of heaven."[A]
[Footnote A: The Sun, C. A. Young, p. 11.]
And still another student of the stars propounds the following questions: "Does there exist a central sun of the universe? Do the worlds of Infinitude gravitate as a hierarchy round a divine focus? Some day the astronomers of the planets which gravitate in the light of Hercules (towards which constellation the solar system is moving) will see a little star appear in their sky. This will be our sun, carrying us along in its rays; perhaps at this very moment we are visible dust of a sidereal hurricane, in a milky way, the transformer of our destinies. We are mere playthings in the immensity of Infinitude."[A]
[Footnote A: Popular Astronomy, C. Flammarion, p. 309.]
[Sidenote: Scientists believe that heavenly bodies are inhabited by living, thinking beings.]
It is not strange that men who have learned to look at the universe in this lofty manner should go a step farther, beyond the actually known, and suggest that some of these countless heavenly bodies must be inhabited by living, thinking beings. Sober, thoughtful truthseekers, who never advance needlessly a new theory, have suggested, in all seriousness, that other worlds than ours are peopled. For instance, "What sort of life, spiritual and intellectual, exists in distant worlds? We can not for a moment suppose that our little planet is the only one throughout the whole universe on which may be found the fruits of civilization, warm firesides, friendship, the desire to penetrate the mysteries of creation."[A]
[Footnote A: The Problems of Astronomy, S. Newcomb.]
Such, then, is in very general terms the view of modern astronomy with reference to the constitution of the universe. Most of the information upon which this view rests has been gathered during the last fifty years.
[Sidenote: Joseph Smith taught that all heavenly bodies are in motion.]
Joseph Smith was doubtlessly impressed with the beauty of the starry heavens, and, in common with all men of poetical nature, allowed his thoughts to wander into the immensity of space. However, he had no known opportunity of studying the principles of astronomy, or of becoming familiar with the astronomical questions that were agitating the thinkers of his day. Naturally, very little is said in his writings that bears upon the planetary and stellar constitution of the universe; yet enough to prove that he was in perfect harmony with the astronomical views developed since his day.
First, he believed that stellar bodies are distributed throughout space. "And worlds without number have I created."[A] "And there are many kingdoms; for there is no space in which there is no kingdom."[B] He is further in harmony with modern views in that he claims that stars may be destroyed, and new ones formed. "For, behold, there are many worlds that have passed away by the word of my power."[C] "And as one earth shall pass away, and the heavens thereof, even so shall another come."[D]
[Footnote A: Book of Moses, 1:33.]
[Footnote B: Doctrine and Covenants, 88:37.]
[Footnote C: Book of Moses, 1:35.]
[Footnote D: Doctrine and Covenants, 1:38.]
At the time that Joseph Smith wrote, there was considerable discussion as to whether the laws of the solar system were effective with the stars. The Prophet had no doubts on that score, for he wrote, "And unto every kingdom is given a law; and unto every law there are certain bounds also and conditions."[A]
[Footnote A: Doctrine and Covenants, 88:38.]
Likewise, his opinions concerning the motions of celestial objects were very definite and clear. "He hath given a law unto all things by which they move in their times and seasons; and their courses are fixed; even the courses of the heavens and the earth, which comprehend the earth and all the planets. The earth rolls upon her wings, and the sun giveth his light by day, and the moon giveth her light by night, and the stars also giveth their light, as they roll upon their wings in glory, in the midst of the power of God."[A]
[Footnote A: Doctrine and Covenants, 88:43, 45.]
In another place the same thought is expressed. "The sun, moon or stars; all the times of their revolutions; all the appointed days, months, and years, and all the days of their days, months, and years, and all their glories, laws, and set times, shall be revealed."[A]
[Footnote A: Doctrine and Covenants, 121:30, 31.]
The two revelations from which these quotations are made, were given to the Prophet in 1832 and 1839 respectively, many years before the fact that all celestial bodies are in motion was understood and accepted by the world of science.
[Sidenote: Joseph Smith taught that the solar system is only one of many—in advance of the astronomers of his day.]
The accepted conception that groups or clusters of stars form systems which revolve around some one point or powerful star, was also clearly understood by Joseph Smith, for he speaks of stars of different orders with controlling stars for each order. "And I saw the stars that they were very great, and that one of them was nearest unto the throne of God; and there were many great ones which were near unto it: and the Lord said unto me: These are the governing ones; and the name of the great one is Kolob because it is near unto me—I have set this one to govern all those which belong to the same order as that upon which thou standest."[A] That the governing star, Kolob, is not the sun is evident, since the statement is made later in the chapter that the Lord showed Abraham "Shinehah, which is the sun." Kolob, therefore, must be a mighty star governing more than the solar system; and is possibly the central sun around which the sun with its attendant planets is revolving. The other great stars near Kolob are also governing stars, two of which are mentioned by name Oliblish and Enish-go-ondosh, though nothing is said of the order or stars that they control. The reading of the third chapter of the Book of Abraham leaves complete conviction that Joseph Smith taught that the celestial bodies are in great groups, controlled (under gravitational influence) by large suns. In this doctrine, he anticipated the world of science by many years.
[Footnote A: Book of Abraham, chapter 3.]
[Sidenote: Joseph Smith taught that other worlds are inhabited.]
It is perhaps less surprising to find that Joseph Smith believed that there are other peopled worlds than ours. For instance, "The reckoning of God's time, angel's time, prophet's time, and man's time, is according to the planet on which they reside,"[A] which distinctly implies that other planets are inhabited. Another passage reads, "The angels do not reside on a planet like this earth, but they reside in the presence of God, on a globe like a sea of glass and fire."[B]
[Footnote A: Doctrine and Covenants, 130:4.]
[Footnote B: Loc. cit., verses 6 and 7. See also 88:61.]
While the idea that the planets and stars may be inhabited is not at all new, yet it is interesting to note that Joseph Smith taught as an absolute truth that such is the case. Probably no other philosopher has gone quite that far.
These brief quotations go to show that the doctrines of the Prophet of the Latter-day Saints are in full accord with the views that distinguish the new astronomy. It is also to be noted that in advancing the theories of universal motion among the stars, and of great stars or suns governing groups of stars, he anticipated by many years the corresponding theories of professional astronomers.
In various sermons the Prophet dealt more fully with the doctrines here set forth and showed more strongly than is done in his doctrinal writings, that he understood perfectly the far reaching nature of his astronomical teachings.
Did Joseph Smith teach these truths by chance? or, did he receive inspiration from a higher power?
Chapter VII.
GEOLOGICAL TIME.
[Sidenote: The history of the world written in the rocks.]
God speaks in various ways to men. The stars, the clouds, the mountains, the grass and the soil, are all, to him who reads aright, forms of divine revelation. Many of the noblest attributes of God may be learned by a study of the laws according to which Omnipotent Will directs the universe.
Nowhere is this principle more beautifuly illustrated and confirmed than in the rocks that constitute the crust of the earth. On them is written in simple plainness the history of the earth almost from that beginning, when the Spirit of God moved upon the face of the waters. Yet, for centuries, men saw the rocks, their forms and their adaptations to each other, without understanding the message written in them. Only, as the wonderful nineteenth century approached, did the vision open, and the interpretation of the story of the rocks become apparent.
[Sidenote: Water and heat among the shaping forces of the earth.]
How the earth first came into being has not yet been clearly revealed. From the first, however, the mighty forces which act today, have shaped and fashioned the earth and prepared it for man's habitation. Water, entering the tiny cracks of the rocks, and expanding as, in winter, it changed to ice, crumbled the mighty mountans; water, falling as rain from the clouds, washed the rock fragments into the low-lying places to form soil; the water in mighty rivers chiseled the earth with irresistible force, as shown by the Grand Canyon of the Colorado. The internal heat of the earth, aided by the translocation of material by water, produced large cracks in the earth's crust, through which oceans of molten matter flowed and spread themselves over the land; the same heat appeared in volcanoes, through which were spurted liquid earth, cinders and foul gases; as the earth heat was lost, the crust cooled, contracted and great folds appeared, recognized as mountains, and as time went on, many of the mountains were caused to sink and the ocean beds were brought up in their stead. Wonderful and mighty have been the changes on the earth's surface since the Lord began its preparation for the race of men.
[Sidenote: The geological history of the earth is in many chapters.]
In the beginning, it appears that water covered the whole earth. In that day, the living creatures of earth dwelt in the water, and it was the great age of fishes and other aquatic animals. Soon the first land lifted itself timidly above the surface of the ocean, and formed inviting places for land animals and plants. Upon the land came, first, according to the story of the rocks, a class of animals known as amphibians, like frogs, that could live both in water and on land. Associated with these creatures were vast forests of low orders of plants, that cleared the atmosphere of noxious gases, and made it fit for higher forms of life. Then followed an age in which the predominating animals were gigantic reptiles, a step higher than the amphibians, but a step lower than the class of Mammals to which man belongs. During the age of these prehistoric monsters, the earth was yet more fully prepared for higher life. Following the age of reptiles, came the age of mammals, which still persists, though, since the coming of man upon the earth, the geological age has been known as the age of man.
This rapid sketch of the geological history of the earth does very poor justice to one of the most complete, wonderful and beautiful stories brought to the knowledge of man. The purpose of this chapter is not, however, to discuss the past ages of the earth.
It is, of course, readily understood that such mighty changes as those just described, and the succession of different kinds of organic life, could not have taken place in a few years. Vast periods of time must of necessity have been required for the initiation, rise, domination and final extinction of each class of animals. A year is too small a unit of measurement in geological time; a thousand years or, better, a million years, would more nearly answer the requirements.
[Sidenote: The earth is probably millions of years old.]
It is possible in various ways to arrive at a conception of the age of the earth since organic life came upon it. For instance, the gorge of the Niagara Falls was begun in comparatively recent days, yet, judging by the rate at which the falls are now receding, it must have been at least 31,000 years since the making of the gorge was first begun, and it may have been nearly 400,000 years.[A] Lord Kelvin, on almost purely physical grounds, has estimated that the earth cannot be more than 100,000,000 years old, but that it may be near that age.[B] It need not be said, probably, that all such calculations are very uncertain, when the actual number of years are considered; but, all human knowledge, based upon the present appearance of the earth and the laws that control known phenomena, agree in indicating that the age of the earth is very great, running in all probability into millions of years. It must have been hundreds of thousands of years since the first life was placed upon earth.
[Footnote A: Dana's New Text Book of Geology, p. 375.]
[Footnote B: Lectures and Addresses, vol. 2, p. 10.]
[Sidenote: The war concerning the earth's age has helped theology and science.]
When these immense periods of time were first suggested by students of science, a great shout of opposition arose from the camp of the theologians. The Bible story of creation had been taken literally, that in six days did the Lord create the heavens and the earth; and it was held to be blasphemy to believe anything else. The new revelation, given by God in the message of the rocks, was received as a man-made theory, that must be crushed to earth. It must be confessed likewise that many of the men of science, exulting in the new light, ridiculed the story told by Moses, and claimed that it was an evidence that the writings of Moses were not inspired, but merely man-made fables.
The war between the Mosaic and the geological record of creation became very bitter and lasted long, and it led to a merciless dissection and scrutiny of the first chapter of Genesis, as well as of the evidence upon which rests the geological theory of the age of the earth. When at last the din of the battle grew faint, and the smoke cleared away, it was quickly perceived by the unbiased on-lookers, that the Bible and science had both gained by the conflict. Geology had firmly established its claim, that the earth was not made in six days of twenty-four hours each; and the first chapter of Genesis had been shown to be a marvelously truthful record of the great events of creation.
[Sidenote: The word day in Genesis refers to indefinite time periods.]
Moses, in the first chapter of Genesis, enumerates the order of the events of creation. First, light was brought to the earth and was divided from darkness, "and the evening and the morning were the first day." Then the firmament was established in the midst of the waters, "and the evening and the morning were the second day." After each group of creative events, the same expression occurs, "and the evening and the morning were the third [fourth, fifth, and sixth] days." Those who insisted upon the literal interpretation of the language of the Bible maintained that the word day, as used in Genesis 1, referred to a day of twenty-four hours, and that all the events of creation were consummated by an all-powerful God in one hundred and forty-four earthly hours. An examination of the original Hebrew for the use of the word translated "day" in Genesis, revealed that it refers more frequently to periods of time of indefinite duration.[A] When this became clear, and the records of the rocks became better known, some theologians suggested, that as we are told that a thousand years are as one day to God, the day of Genesis 1 refers to periods of a thousand years each. This did not strengthen the argument. The best opinion of today, and it is well-nigh universal, is that the Mosaic record refers to indefinite periods of time corresponding to the great divisions of historical geology.
[Footnote A: Compare The Mosaic Record of Creation, A. McCaul, D. D., p. 213.]
Even as late as the sixties and seventies of the last century this question was still so unsettled as to warrant the publication of books defending the Mosaic account of creation.[A]
[Footnote A: For instance Aids to Faith, containing McCaul's most able discussion. The Origin of the World, J. W. Dawson.]
[Sidenote: Joseph Smith's teachings concerning creation found in the
Book of Abraham.]
In 1830, certain visions, given to the Jewish lawgiver Moses, were revealed to the Prophet Joseph Smith. These visions are now incorporated with other matter in the Pearl of Great Price, under the title, The Book of Moses. In chapter two of this book is found an account of the creation, which is nearly identical with the account found in Genesis 1. The slight variations which occur tend only to make the meaning of the writer clearer. In this account, the expression "and the evening and the morning were the first [etc.] day," occurs just as it does in the Mosaic account in the Bible. In 1835, certain ancient records found in the catacombs of Egypt fell into the hands of Joseph Smith, who found them to be some of the writings of Abraham, while he was in Egypt. The translation of these records is also found in the Pearl of Great Price, under the title, The Book of Abraham. In the fourth and fifth chapters of the book is found an account of the creation according to the knowledge of Abraham. The two accounts are essentially the same, but the Abrahamic version is so much fuller and clearer that it illumines the obscurer parts of the Mosaic account. We shall concern ourselves here only with the variation in the use of the word "day."
[Sidenote: The Book of Abraham conveys the idea that the creative periods included much time.]
In Genesis 1:5 we read, "And God called the light Day, and the darkness he called Night. And the evening and the morning were the fist day." The corresponding period is discussed in the Book of Abraham 4:5 as follows: "And the Gods called the light Day, and the darkness they called Night. And it came to pass that from the evening until the morning they called night; and from the morning until the evening they called day; and this was the first, or the beginning, of that which they called night and day."
It is to be noted that in Abraham's version names were given to the intervals between evening and morning, and morning and evening; but absolutely nothing is said about a first day: the statement is simply made, that this was the beginning of the alternating periods of light and darkness which they, the Gods, had named night and day. According to this version, the first creative period occupied an unknown period of time.
In Genesis 1:8 it further says: "And God called the firmament Heaven.
And the evening and the morning were the second day."
The corresponding passage in the Book of Abraham 4:8, reads, "And the Gods called the expanse Heaven. And it came to pass that it was from evening until morning that they called night; and it came to pass that it was from morning until evening that they called day, and this was the second time that they called night and day."
Here it must be noted that nothing is said about a second day. It is said that it was the second time that they called day—which leaves the second creative period entirely indefinite so far as time limits are concerned.
In Genesis 1:13, it reads, "and the evening and the morning were the third day."
In Abraham 4:13, the corresponding passage reads, "And it came to pass that they numbered the days; from the evening until the morning they called night; and it came to pass, from the morning until the evening they called day; and it was the third time."
Here it is explicitly stated that the Gods numbered the days; evidently, they counted the days that had passed during the third creative period, and it was the third time that the numbering had been done. Again, the third creative period is left indefinite, as to time limits.
Gen. 1:19, reads, "And the evening and the morning were the fourth day."
Correspondingly, in Abraham 4:19, is found, "And it came to pass that it was from evening until morning that it was night; and it came to pass that it was from morning until evening that it was day; and it was the fourth time."
This quotation from Abraham, standing alone, would be somewhat ambiguous, for it might indicate that it was the fourth time that the periods between evening and morning, and morning and evening were called night and day. In the light of previous passages, however, the meaning of the passage becomes clear. Certainly there is nothing in the verse to confine the fourth creative period within certain time limits.
The fifth day in Genesis closes as does the fourth; and the fifth time in Abraham closes as does the fourth. The remarks made concerning the fourth creative period apply to the fifth.
Concerning the sixth creative period, Gen. 1:31, says, "And God saw everything that he had made, and, behold, it was very good. And the evening and the morning were the sixth day."
Of the same period Abraham says, "And the Gods said: We will do everything that we have said, and organize them; and behold, they shall be very obedient. And it came to pass that it was from morning until evening that they called night; and it came to pass that it was from evening until morning that they called day; and they numbered the sixth time."
As in the previous periods, the sixth ended by the Gods numbering the days of the creative period; the sixth period, like those preceding, being indeterminate as to time.
Repeated reading and study of the Abrahamic account, as revealed through Joseph Smith, make it certain beyond doubt that the intent is to convey the idea that the creative periods included much time, and that, at the end of each period, the measure of night and day, was applied to the period, in order that its length might be determined. Whether or not the different creative periods represented days to the mighty beings concerned in the creation, we do not know, and it matters little to the argument of this article.[A]
[Footnote A: The writer understands the creation, reported in Abraham, 4th chapter, to be spiritual in its nature; but he also believes that this spiritual account is a perfect picture of the actual material creation. If chapter 4 of Abraham represents the Gods planning creation, the measuring of time becomes easily understood. It then means, "How long will it take to accomplish the work?" All this, however, has no bearing upon the present argument.]
Now, then, we must remember that Joseph Smith made this translation long before the theologians of the world had consented to admit that the Mosaic days meant long periods of time; and long before geology had established beyond question that immense time periods had been consumed in the preparation of the earth for man.
Joseph Smith, the humble, unlearned, despised boy, unfamiliar with books and the theories of men, stated with clear and simple certainty, if his works be read with the eye of candid truth, this fundamental truth of geological science and the Bible, long before the learned of the world had agreed upon the same truth.[A]
[Footnote A: It may be remarked that other geological doctrines were taught by the Prophet, that science has since confirmed. One of these was discussed by Dr. J.E. Talmage in the Improvement Era, Vol. 7, p. 481.]
Standing alone, this fact might be called a chance coincidence, a result of blind fate. But recalling that it is one of many similar and even more striking facts, what shall be said, Has ever impostor dared what Joseph Smith did? Has ever false prophet lived beyond his generation, if his prophecies were examined? Shall we of this foremost age accept convincing, logical truth, though it run counter to our preconceived notions? Glorious were the visions of Joseph the Prophet; unspeakable would be our joy, should they be given to us.
Chapter VIII.
ORGANIZED INTELLIGENCE.
[Sidenote: A complete philosophy must consider living beings.]
The student of the constitution of the universe must take into account living beings. Plants, animals and men are essentially different from the mass of matter. The rock, apparently, is the same forever; but the plant has a beginning, and after a comparatively short existence dies. Animals and men, likewise, begin their earthly existence; then, after a brief life, die, or disappear from the immediate knowledge of living things.
Man, the highest type of living things, differs from the rock, moreover, in that he possesses the power to exercise his will in directing natural forces. Animals and even plants seem to possess a similar power to a smaller degree. The rock on the hillside is pulled downward by gravitation, but can move only if the ground is removed from beneath it by some external force. Man, on the other hand, can walk up or down the hill, with or against the pull of gravity.
[Sidenote: Science teaches that all phenomena may be referred to matter and ether in motion.]
Modern science refers all phenomena to matter and motion; in other words, to matter and force or energy. In this general sense, matter includes the universal ether, and force includes any or all of the forces known, or that may be known, to man.
To illustrate: the electrician develops a current of electricity, which to the scientist is a portion of the universal ether moving in a certain definite manner. When the vibrations of the ether are caused to change, light, or magnetism or chemical affinity may result from the electricity. In every case, matter is in motion. The ear perceives a certain sound. It is produced by the movements of the air. In fact, sounds are carried from place to place by great air waves. The heat of the stove is due to the rapid vibration of the molecules in the iron of the stove, which set up corresponding vibrations in the ether.
In nature no exceptions have been found to the great scientific claim that all natural phenomena may be explained by referring them to matter in motion.[A] Variations in the kind of matter and the kind of motion, lead to all the variations found in the universe.
[Footnote A: Tyndall, Fragments of Science, I. chaps. I and II.]
[Sidenote: Life is a certain form of motion.]
By many it has been held that life and its phenomena transcend the ordinary explanations of nature. Yet, those who have learned, by laborious researches, that the fundamental ideas of the universe are only eternal matter, eternal energy and the universe-filling medium, the ether, find it very difficult to conceive of a special force of life, which concerns itself solely with very limited portions of matter, and is wholly distinct from all other natural forces.
To the student of science it seems more consistent to believe that life is nothing more than matter in motion; that, therefore, all matter possesses a kind of life; and that the special life possessed by plants, animals and man, is only the highest or most complex motion in the universe. The life of man, according to this view, is essentially different from the life of the rock; yet both are certain forms of the motion of matter, and may be explained ultimately by the same fundamental conceptions of science. Certainly, such an idea is more beautifully simple than that of a special force of life, distinct from all other natural forces.
It is argued by those who uphold this view, that the simple forces of nature are converted by living things into the higher forces that characterize life. For instance, to keep the human body, with its wonderful will and intelligence, in health, it is necessary to feed it. The food is actually burned within the body. The heat thus obtained gives to the man both physical and intellectual vigor. It would really appear, therefore, that heat, which is a well known, simple physical force, may be converted by the animal body into other and more complex forces, or modes of motion, such as the so-called life force.
[Sidenote: A certain organization characterizes life.]