E-text prepared by David Newman, Linda Cantoni,
and the Project Gutenberg Online Distributed Proofreading Team
([http://www.pgdp.net/]).
Thanks to Alex Guzman for the realization of the figured bass in Figure 67,
and to Bunji Hisamori and the Classical Midi Connection
([http://www.classicalmidiconnection.com])
for the MIDI sequence of the Beethoven Sonata Op. 31, No. 3.

Transcriber's Note: This e-text contains Unicode characters representing music symbols (sharp, flat, and natural) that may not display properly in your browser or font. A mouse-hover description of these symbols has been provided, e.g.: A♭ G♯ C♮.

MUSIC NOTATION
AND TERMINOLOGY

By KARL W. GEHRKENS, A.M.

ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF SCHOOL MUSIC
OBERLIN CONSERVATORY OF MUSIC

THE A. S. BARNES COMPANY
NEW YORK 1914

Copyright, 1914, by
THE A. S. BARNES COMPANY

PREFACE

The study of music notation and terminology by classes in conservatories and in music departments of colleges and normal schools is a comparative innovation, one reason for the non-existence of such courses in the past being the lack of a suitable text-book, in which might be found in related groups clear and accurate definitions of the really essential terms. But with the constantly increasing interest in music study (both private and in the public schools), and with the present persistent demand that music teaching shall become more systematic and therefore more efficient in turning out a more intelligent class of pupils, it has become increasingly necessary to establish courses in which the prospective teacher of music (after having had considerable experience with music itself) might acquire a concise and accurate knowledge of a fairly large number of terms, most of which he has probably already encountered as a student, and many of which he knows the general meaning of, but none of which he perhaps knows accurately enough to enable him to impart his knowledge clearly and economically to others.

To meet the need of a text-book for this purpose in his own classes the author has been for several years gathering material from all available sources, and it is hoped that the arrangement of this material in related groups as here presented will serve to give the student not only some insight into the present meaning of a goodly number of terms, but will also enable him to see more clearly why certain terms have the meaning which at present attaches to them. To this latter end the derivations of many of the terms are given in connection with their definition.

The aim has not been to present an exhaustive list, and the selection of terms has of course been influenced largely by the author's own individual experience, hence many teachers will probably feel that important terms have been omitted that should have been included. For this state of affairs no apology is offered except that it would probably be impossible to write a book on this subject which would satisfy everyone in either the selection or actual definition of terms.

In formulating the definitions themselves an attempt has been made to use such words as note, tone, et cetera with at least a fair degree of accuracy, and while the attitude of the author on this point may be criticized as being puristic and pedantic, it is nevertheless his opinion that the next generation of music students and teachers will be profited by a more accurate use of certain terms that have been inaccurately used for so long that the present generation has to a large extent lost sight of the fact that the use is inaccurate. The author is well aware of the fact that reform is a matter of growth rather than of edict, but he is also of the belief that before reform can actually begin to come, the need of reform must be felt by a fairly large number of actively interested persons. It is precisely because so few musicians realize the need of any change in music terminology that the changes recommended by committees who have given the matter careful thought are so slow in being adopted. It is hoped that some few points at which reform in the terminology of music is necessary may be brought to the attention of a few additional musicians thru this volume, and that the cause may thus be helped in some slight degree.

It is suggested that in using the book for class-room purposes the teacher emphasize not only the definition and derivation of all terms studied, but the spelling and pronunciation as well. For this latter purpose a pronouncing index has been appended.

It is impossible to give credit to all sources from which ideas have been drawn, but especial mention should be made of the eminently clear and beautifully worded definitions compiled by Professor Waldo S. Pratt or the Century Dictionary, and the exceedingly valuable articles on an almost all-inclusive range of topics found in the new edition of Grove's Dictionary. Especial thanks for valuable suggestions as to the arrangement of the material, etc., are also due to Dr. Raymond H. Stetson, Professor of Psychology, Oberlin College; Arthur E. Heacox, Professor of Theory, Oberlin Conservatory of Music; and Charles I. Rice, Supervisor of Music, Worcester, Mass., as well as to various members of the Music Teachers' National Association who have offered valuable advice along certain specific lines.

K.W.G.

Oberlin Conservatory of Music, June, 1913

CONTENTS

[Chapter I.]—Some Principles of Correct Notation [1]
1. Note.
2, 3. Rules for turning stems.
4. Use of cross-stroke.
5. Rest.
6. G Clef.
7. F Clef and C Clef.
8. Sharp and double-sharp.
9. Flat, double-flat and natural.
10. Tie.
11. Dot after a note.
[Chapter II.]—Symbols of Music Defined [5]
12. Staff and Great Staff.
13. Leger Lines.
14. Staff degrees.
15. Clef.
16. Treble and bass Clefs.
17. Movable C Clef.
18. Sharp.
19. Flat.
20. Double-sharp and double-flat.
[Chapter III.]—Symbols of Music Defined (continued) [8]
21. Natural
22, 23. Key-signature; how determine whether a major or minor key.
24, 25. Accidentals; with tie across bar.
26. Rules concerning altered staff degrees.
27. Enharmonic.
28. Notes; pitch and length of tones.
29. Rests.
30. Lists of notes and rests.
31. English names for.
32. Less common forms.
33. Whole rest, peculiar use of.
34. Bar.
35. Double-bar.
[Chapter IV.]—Abbreviations, Signs, etc. [13]
36-40. Signs for repetition.
41. Continuation.
42. Rest.
43. Pause.
44. Hold.
45-47. Alteration of Pitch.
48. Octave names.
[Chapter V.]—Abbreviations, Signs, etc. (continued) [17]
49-51. Dots after notes.
52. Dots over or under notes.
53. Dash over note.
54. Tie.
55. Slur.
56. Slur or tie with dots.
57. Dash over note.
58. Dash and dot over note.
59. Accent marks.
60. m.d., m.g., etc.
61. Arpeggio.
62. Messa di voce.
63. Violin bow signs.
[Chapter VI.]—Embellishments [22]
64. Definition and kinds.
65. Trill.
66-68. Mordent.
69-72. Turn.
73, 74. Appoggiatura.
75. Acciaccatura.
[Chapter VII.]—Scales [27]
76. Definition, and old forms.
77. Origin.
78. Key.
79. Three general classes.
80. Diatonic, defined.
81. Major diatonic.
82. Tetrachords.
83. The fifteen positions.
[Chapter VIII.]—Scales (continued) [33]
84. Minor diatonic.
85. Original form.
86. Harmonic minor.
87. Melodic minor.
88. Eleven positions.
89. Relative minor.
90. Tonic minor.
91. Diatonic scale names.
92. Syllable-names.
93. Chromatic scale.
94. Nine positions.
95. Whole-step scale.
[Chapter IX.]—Auxiliary Words and Endings [42]
[Chapter X.]—Measure [44]
97. Definition.—Two essential characteristics. Rhythm vers measure.
98. Syncopation.
99. Simple and compound measures.
100. Commonest varieties.
101. Other varieties.
102. Rare varieties.
103. The signs, C and

.
[Chapter XI.]—Tempo [48]
104. Misuses of the word "time."
105-107. How to correct these: by substituting "rhythm," "measure,"
and "tempo."
108. Three ways of finding the correct tempo.
109. A convenient grouping of tempo-terms.
[Chapter XII.]—Tempo (continued) [52]
110-119. Tempo-terms.
[Chapter XIII.]—Dynamics [56]
120-131. Terms relating to dynamics.
[Chapter XIV.]—Terms Relating to Forms and Styles [62]
132. Definition of form.
133. Basis of form.
134. Difference between form and style.
135. Introductory.
136. Two styles.
137. Monophonic music.
138. Polyphonic music.
139. Counterpoint.
140. Imitation.
141. Canon.
142. School round.
143. Fugue.
[Chapter XV.]—Terms Relating to Forms and Styles (continued) [67]
144. Phrase-section.
145. Period. Antecedent. Consequent.
146. Primary forms.
147. Theme.
148. Thematic development.
149. Rondo.
150. Suite.
151. Dances in suite.
152. Scherzo.
153. Sonata.
154. Trio. Quartet. Chamber Music.
155. Concerto.
156. Symphony.
157. Sonata-form.
158. Sonatina. Grand Sonata.
159. Program music.
160. Symphonic or tone poem.
[Chapter XVI.]—Terms Relating to Vocal Music [76]
161. Anthem.
162. A capella.
163. Motet.
164. Choral.
165. Mass.
166. Cantata.
167. Oratorio.
168. Opera.
169. Libretto.
170. Recitative.
171. Aria.
172. Lied.
173. Ballad.
174. Folk-song.
175. Madrigal.
176. Glee.
177. Part-song.
[Chapter XVII.]—Rhythm, Melody, Harmony and Intervals [82]
178. The four elements of music.
179. Rhythm.
180. Melody.
181. Harmony.
182. Timbre.
183. Interval—harmonic and melodic.
184. Number name and specific name.
185. Prime.
186. Second.
187. Third.
188. Fourth.
189. Fifth.
190. Sixth.
191. Seventh.
192. Octave.
193. Ninth.
194. Major, minor, perfect, diminished and augmented intervals.
195. Inverted intervals.
[Chapter XVIII.]—Chords, Cadences, etc. [87]
196. Chord. Triad. Root.
197. Major, minor, diminished, augmented triads.
198. The Common chords.
199. Fundamental position. First inversion. Second inversion.
200. Figured bass.
201. Seventh-chord. Ninth chord.
202. Cadence.
203. Authentic cadence.
204. Perfect authentic. Imperfect authentic.
205. Plagal cadence.
206. Half-cadence.
207. Deceptive cadence.
208. Sequence.
209. Modulation, harmonic and melodic: Dominant Seventh.
210. Suspension.
211. Retardation.
212. Anticipation.
213. Pedal point.
214. Close and open position.
215. Transposition.
[Chapter XIX.]—Miscellaneous Terms [95]
[Chapter XX.]—Miscellaneous Terms (continued) [98]
[Appendix A.]—The History of Music Notation [101]
[Appendix B.]—Musical Instruments [112]
1. Two classes.
2. Piano.
3, 4. Organ, reed and pipe.
5. Instruments used for ensemble playing.
6. Band.
7. Orchestra.
8. The stringed instruments.
9. Wood-wind.
10. Brass.
11. Percussion.
12. Proportion of instruments, in an orchestra.
13. Books recommended.
14. Violin.
15. Viola.
16. Violoncello.
17. Double-bass.
18. Flute.
19. Piccolo.
20. Oboe family.
21. Clarinet and bass clarinet; saxophone.
22. French horn.
23. Trumpet.
24. Cornet.
25. Trombone.
26. Tuba.
27. Kettle-drum.
28. Harp.
[Appendix C.]—Acoustics [131]
1. Definition.
2. Sound, production of.
3. Sound, transmission of.
4. Rate of travel.
5. Intensification of.
6. Classification of.
7. Tones, properties of.
8. Pitch.
9. Intensity.
10. Quality.
11. Overtones.
12. Equal temperament.
13. Standards of pitch.
[Appendix D.]—Terminology Reform [139]
[Appendix E.]—Analysis of Beethoven Sonata, Op. 31, No. 3 [149]
[Pronouncing Index] [159]

CHAPTER I

Some Principles of Correct Notation

[1.] The note (from nota—Latin—a mark or sign) consists of either one, two, or three parts, (

) these being referred to respectively as head, stem, and hook. The hook is often called tail or cross-stroke. The stem appears on the right side of the head when turned up, but on the left side when turned down.[1]

The hook is always on the right side.[2]

In writing music with pen the head and hook are best made with a heavy pressure on the pen point, but in writing at the board they are most easily made by using a piece of chalk about an inch long, turned on its side.

2. When only one part (or voice) is written on the staff, the following rules for turning stems apply: (1) If the note-head is below the third line, the stem must turn up. (2) If the note-head is above the third line the stem must turn down. (3) If the note-head is on the third line the stem is turned either up or down with due regard to the symmetrical appearance of the measure in which the note occurs. The following examples will illustrate these points.

[Listen]

3. When two parts are written on the same staff, the stems of the upper part all turn up, and those of the lower part turn down, in order that the parts may be clearly distinguished. (Fig. 2.) But in music for piano and other instruments on which complete chords can be sounded by one performer and also in simple, four-part vocal music in which all voices have approximately the same rhythm, several notes often have one stem in common as in Fig. 3.

[Listen]

[Listen]

4. Notes of small denomination (eighths and smaller) are often written in groups of two or more, all stems in the group being then connected by one cross-stroke. In such a case all the stems must of course be turned the same way, the direction being determined by the position of the majority of note-heads in the group. Notes thus stroked may be of the same or of different denomination. See Fig. 4.

[Listen]

In vocal music notes are never thus stroked when a syllable is given to each note. (See [p. 19], [Sec. 55], C.)

5. Rests, like notes, are best made with a heavy pen stroke or by using a piece of chalk on its side. (See note under [Sec. 1].) The double-whole rest, whole rest, and half rest occupy the third space unless for the sake of clearness in writing two parts on the same staff they are written higher or lower. The rests of smaller denomination may be placed at any point on the staff, the hooks being always placed on the spaces. The hook of the eighth rest is usually placed on the third space. Rests are sometimes dotted, but are never tied.

6. The G clef should be begun at the second line rather than below the staff. Experiments have shown clearly that beginners learn to make it most easily in this way, and the process may be further simplified by dividing it into two parts, thus,

. The descending stroke crosses the ascending curve at or near the fourth line. The circular part of the curve occupies approximately the first and second spaces.

7. The F clef is made either thus,

, or thus,

the dots being placed one on either side of the fourth line of the staff, which is the particular point that the clef marks. The C clef has also two forms,

and

.

8. The sharp is made with two light vertical strokes, and two heavy slanting ones, the slant of the latter being upward from left to right, ♯. The sharp should never be made thus, #.

The double sharp is made either thus

or *, the first form being at present the more common.

9. The flat is best made by a down stroke retraced part way up, the curve being made without lifting pen from paper. The double flat consists of two flats,[3] ♭♭. The natural or cancel is made in two strokes, down-right and right-down, thus

♮.

10. The tie usually connects the heads of notes, thus

.

11. The dot after a note always appears on a space, whether the note-head is on a line or space. (See Fig. 5.) In the case of a dot after a note on a line, the dot usually appears on the space above that line if the next note is higher in position and on the space below it if the following note is lower.

[Listen]

Note.—Correct notation must be made a habit rather than a theory, and in order to form the habit of writing correctly, drill is necessary. This may perhaps be best secured by asking students to write (at the board or on ruled paper) from verbal dictation, thus: Teacher says,

"Key of B♭, three-quarter measure: First measure, DO a quarter note, RE a quarter, and MI a quarter. Second measure, SOL a quarter, LA a quarter, and SOL a quarter. Third measure, LA, TI, DO, RE, MI, eighths, stroked in pairs. Fourth measure, high DO a dotted half." Pupils respond by writing the exercise dictated, after which mistakes in the turning of stems, etc., are corrected. The pitch names may be dictated instead of the syllables if desired, and still further practice may be provided by asking that the exercise be transposed to other keys.

CHAPTER II

Symbols of Music Defined

12. A staff is a collection of parallel lines, together with the spaces belonging to them. The modern staff has five lines and six spaces, these being ordinarily referred to as first line, second line, third line, fourth line, and fifth line (beginning with the lowest); and space below (i.e., space below the first line), first space, second space, third space, fourth space, and space above.

The definition and discussion above refer more specifically to one of the portions of the "great staff," the latter term being often applied to the combination of treble and bass staffs (with one leger line between) so commonly used in piano music, etc.

13. The extent of the staff may be increased either above or below by the addition of short lines called leger lines,[4] and notes may be written on either these lines or on the spaces above and below them.

14. The lines and spaces constituting the staff (including leger lines if any) are often referred to as staff degrees, i.e., each separate line and space is considered to be "a degree of the staff." The tones of a scale are also sometimes referred to as "degrees of the scale."

15. A clef[5] is a sign placed on the staff to designate what pitches are to be represented by its lines and spaces. Thus, e.g., the G clef shows us not only that the second line of the staff represents G, but that the first line represents E, the first space F, etc. The F clef similarly shows us that the fifth line of the bass staff represents the first A below middle C, the fourth line the first F below middle C, etc.

The student should note that these clefs are merely modified forms of the letters G and F, which (among others) were used to designate the pitches represented by certain lines when staff notation was first inaugurated. For a fuller discussion of this matter see [Appendix A], [p. 101].

16. When the G clef is used the staff is usually referred to as the treble staff, and when the F clef is used, as the bass staff. Such expressions as "singing from the treble clef," or "singing in the treble clef," and "singing in the bass clef" are still frequently heard, but are preferably replaced by "singing from the treble staff," and "singing from the bass staff." Fig. 6 shows the permanent names of lines and spaces when the G and F clefs are used.[6]

17. The movable C clef

or

, formerly in very common use, is now utilized for only two purposes, viz., (1) in music written for certain orchestral instruments (cello, viola, etc.) of extended range, in order to avoid having to use too many leger lines; and (2) for indicating the tenor part in vocal music. This latter usage seems also to be disappearing however, and the tenor part is commonly written on the treble staff, it being understood that the tones are to be sung an octave lower than the notes would indicate.

The C clef as used in its various positions is shown in Figs. 7, 8, and 9. It will be noted that in each case the line on which the clef is placed represents "middle C."

[18.] A sharp is a character which causes the degree of the staff with which it is associated to represent a pitch one half-step higher than it otherwise would.

Thus in Fig. 10 (a) the fifth line and first space represent the pitch F, but in Fig. 10 (b) these same staff degrees represent an entirely different tone—F♯. The student should note that the sharp does not then raise anything; it merely causes a staff degree to represent a higher tone than it otherwise would. There is just as much difference between F and F♯ as between B and C, and yet one would never think of referring to C as "B raised"!

19. A flat is a character that causes the degree of the staff with which it is associated to represent a tone one half-step lower than it otherwise would. (See note under [Sec. 18] and apply the same discussion here.)

20. A double-sharp causes the staff degree on which it is placed to represent a pitch one whole-step higher than it would without any sharp. Similarly, a double-flat causes the staff degree on which it is placed to represent a pitch one whole-step lower than it would without any flat.

Double-sharps and double-flats are generally used on staff degrees that have already been sharped or flatted, therefore their practical effect is to cause staff degrees to represent pitches respectively a half-step higher and a half-step lower than would be represented by those same degrees in their diatonic condition. Thus in Fig. 10 (b) the first space in its diatonic condition[7] represents F-sharp, and the double-sharp on this degree would cause it to represent a pitch one-half step higher than F-sharp, i.e., F-double-sharp.

CHAPTER III

Symbols of Music Defined (Continued)

21. The natural[8] (sometimes called cancel) annuls the effect of previous sharps, flats, double-sharps, and double-flats, within the measure in which it occurs. After a double-sharp or double-flat the combination of a natural with a sharp, or a natural with a flat is often found: in this case only one sharp or flat is annulled. (Sometimes also the single sharp or flat will be found by itself, cancelling the double-sharp or double-flat). The natural is often used when a composition changes key, as in Fig. 11, where a change from E to G is shown.

22. The group of sharps or flats (or absence of them) at the beginning of a staff partially indicates the key in which the composition is written. They are called collectively the key-signature.

23. The same key-signature may stand for either one of two keys, the major key, or its relative minor, hence in order to determine in what key a melody is one must note whether the tones are grouped about the major tonic DO or the minor tonic LA. In a harmonized composition it is almost always possible to determine the key by referring to the last bass note; if the final chord is clearly the DO chord the composition is in the major key, but if this final chord is clearly the LA chord then it is almost certain that the entire composition is in the minor key. Thus if a final chord appears as that in Fig. 12 the composition is clearly in G major, while if it appears as in Fig. 13, it is just as surely in E minor.

[Listen]

24. Sharps, flats, naturals, double-sharps and double-flats, occurring in the course of the composition (i.e., after the key signature) are called accidentals, whether they actually cause a staff degree to represent a different pitch as in Fig. 14 or simply make clear a notation about which there might otherwise be some doubt as in Fig. 15, measure two. The effect of such accidentals terminates at the bar.

[Listen]

25. In the case of a tie across a bar an accidental remains in force until the combined value of the tied notes expires. In Fig. 16 first measure, third beat, an accidental sharp makes the third space represent the pitch C sharp. By virtue of the tie across the bar the third space continues to represent C sharp thru the first beat of the second measure, but for the remainder of the measure the third space will represent C unless the sharp is repeated as in Fig. 17.

[Listen]

26. The following rules for making staff degrees represent pitches different from those of the diatonic scale will be found useful by the beginner in the study of music notation. These rules are quoted from "The Worcester Musical Manual," by Charles I. Rice.

1. To sharp a natural degree, use a sharp. Fig. 18.
2. To sharp a sharped degree, use a double sharp. Fig. 19.
3. To sharp a flatted degree, use a natural. Fig. 20.
4. To flat a natural degree, use a flat. Fig. 21.
5. To flat a flatted degree, use a double flat. Fig. 22.
6. To flat a sharped degree, use a natural. Fig. 23.

[Listen]

[27.] When two different notations represent the same pitch, the word enharmonic is applied. Thus we may say that F sharp and G flat (on keyboard instruments at least) are enharmonically the same.

This word enharmonic is used in such expressions as enharmonic change, enharmonic keys, enharmonic interval, enharmonic modulation, enharmonic relation, etc., and in all such combinations it has the same meaning, viz.—a change in notation but no change in the pitch represented.

28. A note is a character expressing relative duration, which when placed on a staff indicates that a certain tone is to be sounded for a certain relative length of time. The pitch of the tone to be sounded is shown by the position of the note on the staff, while the length of time it is to be prolonged is shown by the shape of the note. Thus e.g., a half-note on the second line of the treble staff indicates that a specific pitch (g') is to be played or sung for a period of time twice as long as would be indicated by a quarter-note in the same composition.

29. A rest is a character which indicates a rhythmic silence of a certain relative length.

30. The notes and rests in common use are as follows:

31. The English names for these notes are:

Whole-note—semi-breve.
Half-note—minim.
Quarter-note—crotchet.
Eighth-note—quaver.
Sixteenth-note—semi-quaver.
Thirty-second-note—demi-semi-quaver.

The corresponding rests are referred to by the same system of nomenclature: e.g., semi-breve rest, etc.

32. Sixty-fourth and one-hundred-and-twenty-eighth-notes are occasionally found, but are not in common use. The double-whole-note (breve), made

or

, is still used, especially in English music, which frequently employs the half-note as the beat-unit. Thus in four-half measure the breve would be necessary to indicate a tone having four beats.

33. The whole-rest has a peculiarity of usage not common to any of the other duration symbols, viz., that it is often employed as a measure-rest, filling an entire measure of beats, no matter what the measure-signature may be. Thus, not only in four-quarter-measure, but in two-quarter, three-quarter, six-eighth, and other varieties, the whole-rest fills the entire measure, having a value sometimes greater, sometimes less than the corresponding whole-note. Because of this peculiarity of usage the whole-rest is termed Takt-pausa (measure-rest) by the Germans.

34. A bar is a vertical line across the staff, dividing it into measures. The word bar is often used synonymously with measure by orchestral conductors and others; thus, "begin at the fourteenth bar after J." This use of the word, although popular, is incorrect.

35. A double-bar consists of two vertical lines across the staff, at least one of the two being a heavy line. The double bar marks the end of a division, movement, or entire composition.

CHAPTER IV

Abbreviations, Signs, Etc.

36. A double bar (or single heavy bar) with either two or four dots indicates that a section is to be repeated. If the repeat marks occur at only one point the entire preceding part is to be repeated, but if the marks occur twice (the first time at the right of the bar but the second time at the left), only the section thus enclosed by the marks is to be repeated.

37. Sometimes a different cadence (or ending) is to be used for the repetition, and this is indicated as in Fig. 24.

38. The Italian word bis is occasionally used to indicate that a certain passage or section is to be repeated. This use is becoming obsolete.

[39.] The words da capo (D.C.) mean literally "from the head," i.e., repeat from the beginning. The words dal segno (D.S.) indicate a repetition from the sign (

or

) instead of from the beginning.

In the case of both D.C. and D.S. the word fine (meaning literally the end) is ordinarily used to designate the point at which the repeated section is to terminate. The fermata (

) was formerly in common use for this same purpose, but is seldom so employed at present.

D.C. (sin[9]) al fine means—repeat from the beginning to the word "fine."

D.C. al

means—repeat to the fermata (or hold).

D.C. senza repetizione, or D.C. ma senza repetizione, both mean—repeat from the beginning, but without observing other repeat marks during the repetition.

D.C. e poi la coda means—repeat the first section only to the mark

, then skip to the coda. (See [p. 74], [Sec. 157], for discussion of coda).

40. In certain cases where the repetition of characteristic figures can be indicated without causing confusion, it is the practice of composers (especially in orchestral music) to make use of certain signs of repetition. Some of the commonest of these abbreviations are shown in the following examples.

[Listen]

In Fig. 28 the repetition of an entire measure is called for.

[Listen]

41. The word simile (sometimes segue) indicates that a certain effect previously begun is to be continued, as e.g., staccato playing, pedalling, style of bowing in violin music, etc. The word segue is also occasionally used to show that an accompaniment figure (especially in orchestral music) is to be continued.

42. When some part is to rest for two or more measures several methods of notation are possible. A rest of two measures is usually indicated thus

. Three measures thus

. Four measures thus

. Rests of more than four measures are usually indicated in one of the following ways:

. Sometimes the number of measures is written directly on the staff, thus;

.

43. The letters G.P. (general pause, or grosse pause), the words lunga pausa, or simply the word lunga, are sometimes written over a rest to show that there is to be a prolonged pause or rest in all parts. Such expressions are found only in ensemble music, i.e., music in which several performers are engaged at the same time.

44. The fermata or hold

over a note or chord indicates that the tone is to be prolonged, the duration of the prolongation depending upon the character of the music and the taste of the performer or conductor. It has already been noted that the hold over a bar was formerly used to designate the end of the composition, as the word fine is employed at present, but this usage has practically disappeared and the hold over the bar now usually indicates a short rest between two sections of a composition.

45. The sign 8va...... (an abbreviation of all'ottava, literally at the octave) above the staff, indicates that all tones are to be sounded an octave higher than the notes would indicate. When found below the staff the same sign serves to indicate that the tones are to be sounded an octave lower. The term 8va bassa has also this latter signification.

[46.] Sometimes the word loco (in place) is used to show that the part is no longer to be sounded an octave higher (or lower), but this is more often indicated by the termination of the dotted (or wavy) line.

47. The sign Col 8 (coll'ottava—with the octave) shows that the tones an octave higher or lower are to be sounded with the tones indicated by the printed notes.

48. For the sake of definiteness in referring to pitches, a particular name is applied to each octave, and all pitches in the octave are referred to by means of a uniform nomenclature. The following figure will make this system clear:

Thus e.g., "great G" (written simply G), is the G represented by the first line of the bass staff. Small A (written a), is represented by the fifth line of the bass staff. Two-lined G, (written

), is represented by the space above the fifth line, treble staff. Three-lined C, (written

), is represented by the second added line above the treble staff, etc. The one-lined octave may be described as the octave from middle C to the B represented by the third line of the treble staff, and any tone within that octave is referred to as "one-lined." Thus—one-lined D, one-lined G, etc.

In scientific works on acoustics, etc., the pitches in the sub octave (or sub-contra octave as it is often called) are referred to as C₂, D₂, E₂, etc.; those in the contra octave as C₁, D₁, etc.; in the great octave, as c¹, d¹, etc.; in the small octave as c², d², etc.

CHAPTER V

Abbreviations, Signs, Etc., (Continued)

[49.] A dot after a note shows that the value of the note is to be half again as great as it would be without the dot, i.e., the value is to be three-halves that of the original note.

[50.] When two dots follow the note the second dot adds half as much as the first dot has added, i.e., the entire value is seven-fourths that of the original note.

[51.] When three dots follow the note the third dot adds one-half the value added by the second, i.e., the entire value of the triple-dotted note is fifteen-eighths that of the original note.

52. A dot over or under a note is called the staccato mark and indicates that the tone is to be sounded and then instantly released.

In music for organ and for some other instruments the staccato note is sometimes interpreted differently, this depending on the character of the instrument.

On stringed instruments of the violin family the staccato effect is usually secured by a long, rapid stroke of the bow for each tone; in the case of harp and drum the hand is quickly brought in contact with the vibrating body, thus stopping the tone instantly. On the organ the tone is often prolonged to one-half the value of the printed note before the keys are released.

53. The wedge-shaped dash over the note (staccatissimo) was formerly employed to indicate a tone still more detached than that indicated by the dot, but this sign is really superfluous, and is seldom used at present.

54. A tie is a curved line connecting the heads of two notes that call for the same tone. It indicates that they are to be sounded as one tone having a duration equal to the combined value of both notes. E.g., a half-note tied to a quarter-note would indicate a tone equal in duration-length to that shown by a dotted half-note; two half-notes tied would indicate a tone equal in duration to that shown by a whole-note. (See examples under Sections [49], [50], and [51]).

Fig. 30 illustrates the more common variety of tie, while Fig. 31 shows an example of the enharmonic[10] tie.

[Listen]

[55.] The slur is used in so many different ways that it is impossible to give a general definition. It consists of a curved line, sometimes very short (in which case it looks like the tie), but sometimes very long, connecting ten, fifteen, or more notes. Some of the more common uses of the slur are:

A. To indicate legato (sustained or connected) tones, as contrasted with staccato (detached) ones.

In violin music this implies playing all tones thus slurred in one bow; in music for the voice and for wind instruments it implies singing or playing them in one breath.

B. As a phrase-mark, in the interpretation of which the first tone of the phrase is often accented slightly, and the last one shortened in value.

This interpretation of the phrase is especially common when the phrase is short (as in the two-note phrase), and when the tones constituting the phrase are of short duration, e.g., the phrase given in Fig. 32 would be played approximately as written in Fig. 33.

[Listen]

But if the notes are of greater value, especially in slow tempi, the slur merely indicates legato, i.e., sustained or connected rendition. Fig. 34 illustrates such a case.

[Listen]

This is a matter of such diverse usage that it is difficult to generalize regarding it. The tendency seems at present to be in the direction of using the slur (in instrumental music) as a phrase-mark exclusively, it being understood that unless there is some direction to the contrary, the tones are to be performed in a connected manner.

C. In vocal music, to show that two or more tones are to be sung to one syllable of text. See Fig. 35.

[Listen]

In notes of small denomination (eighths and smaller) this same thing is often indicated by stroking the stems together as in Fig. 36. This can only be done in cases where the natural grouping of notes in the measure will not be destroyed.

[Listen]

D. To mark special note-groups (triplets, etc.), in which case the slur is accompanied by a figure indicating the number of notes in the group. See Fig. 37 (a)

The most common of these irregular note-groups is the triplet, which consists of three notes to be performed in the time ordinarily given to two of the same value. Sometimes the triplet consists of only two notes as in Fig. 37 (b). In such a case the first two of the three notes composing the triplet are considered to be tied.

[Listen]

When the triplet form is perfectly obvious, the Fig. 3 (as well as the slur) may be omitted.

Other examples of irregular note-groups, together with the names commonly applied, follow.

56. The combination of slur or tie and dots over the notes indicates that the tones are to be somewhat detached, but not sharply so.

This effect is sometimes erroneously termed portamento (lit. carrying), but this term is more properly reserved for an entirely different effect, viz., when a singer, or player on a stringed instrument, passes from a high tone to a low one (or vice versa) touching lightly on some or all of the diatonic tones between the two melody tones.

57. The horizontal dash over a note

indicates that the tone is to be slightly accented, and sustained. This mark is also sometimes used after a staccato passage to show that the tones are no longer to be performed in detached fashion, but are to be sustained. This latter use is especially common in music for stringed instruments.

58. The combination of dash and dot over a note

indicates that the tone is to be slightly accented and separated from its neighboring tones.

59. Accent marks are made in a variety of fashions. The most common forms follow.

sf fz. All indicate that a certain tone or chord is to be differentiated from its neighboring tones or chords by receiving a certain relative amount of stress.

60. In music for keyboard instruments it is sometimes necessary to indicate that a certain part is to be played by a certain hand. The abbreviations r.h. (right hand), m.d. (mano destra, It.), and m.d. (main droite, Fr.), designate that a passage or tone is to be played with the right hand, while l.h. (left hand), m.s. (mano sinistra, It.), and m.g. (main gauche, Fr.), show that the left hand is to be employed.

61. The wavy line placed vertically beside a chord

indicates that the tones are to be sounded consecutively instead of simultaneously, beginning with the lowest tone, all tones being sustained until the duration-value of the chord has expired. This is called arpeggio playing. When the wavy line extends through the entire chord (covering both staffs) as in Fig. 38, all the tones of the chord are to be played one after another, beginning with the lowest: but if there is a separate wavy line for each staff as at Fig. 39 then the lowest tone represented on the upper staff is to be played simultaneously with the lowest tone represented on the bass staff.

[Listen]

The word arpeggio (plural arpeggi) is a derivation of the Italian word arpa (meaning harp), and from this word arpa and its corresponding verb arpeggiare (to play on the harp) are derived also a number of other terms commonly used in instrumental music. Among these are—arpeggiamento, arpeggiando, arpeggiato, etc., all of these terms referring to a harp style of performance, the tones being sounded one after another in rapid succession instead of simultaneously as on the piano.

62. The sign

over a note indicates that the tone is to be begun softly, gradually increased in power, and as gradually decreased again, ending as softly as it began. In vocal music this effect is called messa di voce.

63. In music for stringed instruments of the violin family, the sign

indicates down-bow and the sign

up-bow. In cello music the down-bow sign is sometimes written

.

CHAPTER VI

Embellishments

64. Embellishments (or graces) (Fr. agréments) are ornamental tones, either represented in full in the score or indicated by certain signs. The following are the embellishments most commonly found: Trill (or shake), mordent, inverted mordent (or prall trill), turn (gruppetto), inverted turn, appoggiatura and acciaccatura.

Usage varies greatly in the interpretation of the signs representing these embellishments and it is impossible to give examples of all the different forms. The following definitions represent therefore only the most commonly found examples and the most generally accepted interpretations.

65. The trill (or shake) consists of the rapid alternation of two tones to the full value of the printed note. The lower of these two tones is represented by the printed note, while the upper one is the next higher tone in the diatonic scale of the key in which the composition is written. The interval between the two tones may therefore be either a half-step or a whole-step.

Whether the trill is to begin with the principal tone (represented by the printed note) or with the one above is a matter of some dispute among theorists and performers, but it may safely be said that the majority of modern writers on the subject would have it begin on the principal tone rather than on the tone above. Fig. 40.

When the principal note is preceded by a small note on the degree above, it is of course understood that the trill begins on the tone above. Fig. 41.

The trill is indicated by the sign

.

[Listen]

[Listen]

The above examples would be termed perfect trills because they close with a turn. By inference, an imperfect trill is one closing without a turn.

66. The mordent

consists of three tones; first the one represented by the printed note; second the one next below it in the diatonic scale; third the one represented by the printed note again.

[Listen]

67. The double (or long) mordent has five tones (sometimes seven) instead of three, the first two of the three tones of the regular mordent being repeated once or more. (See Fig. 43.)

In the case of both mordent and double-mordent the tones are sounded as quickly as possible, the time taken by the embellishment being subtracted from the value of the principal note as printed.

[Listen]

68. The inverted mordent

(note the absence of the vertical line) is like the mordent except that the tone below is replaced by the tone above in each case. This ornament is sometimes called a "transient shake" because it is really only a part of the more elaborate grace called "trill." (See Fig. 44.)

[Listen]

The confusion at present attending the interpretation of the last two embellishments described, might be largely obviated if the suggestion of a recent writer[11] to call the one the upward mordent, and the other the downward mordent were to be universally adopted.

69. The turn consists of four tones; first, the diatonic scale-tone above the principal tone; second, the principal tone itself; third, the tone below the principal tone; and fourth, the principal tone again.

When the sign (

or

) occurs over a note of small value in rapid tempo (Fig. 45) the turn consists of four tones of equal value; but if it occurs over a note of greater value, or in a slow tempo, the tones are usually played quickly (like the mordent), and the fourth tone is then held until the time-value of the note has expired. (Fig. 46.)

[Listen]

70. When the turn-sign is placed a little to the right of the note the principal tone is sounded first and held to almost its full time-value, then the turn is played just before the next tone of the melody. In this case the four tones are of equal length as in the first example. (See Fig. 47.)

[Listen]

The student should note the difference between these two effects; in the case of a turn over the note the turn comes at the beginning, but in the case of the sign after the note the turn comes at the very end. But in both cases the time taken by the embellishment is taken from the time-value of the principal note. For further details see Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians, Vol. V, p. 184. Also Elson, op. cit. p. 274.

71. Sometimes an accidental occurs with the turn, and in this case when written above the sign it refers to the highest tone of the turn, but when written below, to the lowest (Fig. 48).

[Listen]

72. In the inverted turn the order of tones is reversed, the lowest one coming first, the principal tone next, the highest tone third, and the principal tone again, last.

[Listen]

73. The appoggiatura (lit. leaning note) consists of an ornamental tone introduced before a tone of a melody, thus delaying the melody tone until the ornamental tone has been heard. The time taken for this ornamental tone is taken from that of the melody tone.

The appoggiatura was formerly classified into long appoggiatura and short appoggiatura, but modern writers seem to consider the term "short appoggiatura" to be synonymous with acciaccatura[12], and to avoid confusion the word acciaccatura will be used in this sense, and defined under its own heading.

74. Three rules for the interpretation of the appoggiatura are commonly cited, viz.:

(1) When it is possible to divide the principal tone into halves, then the appoggiatura receives one-half the value of the printed note. (Fig. 50.)

(2) When the principal note is dotted (division into halves being therefore not possible), the appoggiatura receives two-thirds of the value. (Fig. 51.)

(3) When the principal note is tied to a note of smaller denomination the appoggiatura receives the value of the first of the two notes. (Fig. 52.)

[Listen]

75. The acciaccatura (or short appoggiatura) is written like the appoggiatura except that it has a light stroke across its stem.

It has no definite duration-value, but is sounded as quickly as possible, taking its time from that of the principal tone. The appoggiatura is always accented, but the acciaccatura never is, the stress always falling on the melody tone. (See Grove, op. cit. Vol. I, p. 96.)

The use of embellishments is on the wane, and the student of to-day needs the above information only to aid him in the interpretation of music written in previous centuries. In the early days of instrumental music it was necessary to introduce graces of all sorts because the instruments in use were not capable of sustaining tone for any length of time; but with the advent of the modern piano with its comparatively great sustaining power, and also with the advent in vocal music of a new style of singing (German Lieder singing as contrasted with Italian coloratura singing), ornamental tones were used less and less, and when found now are usually written out in full in the score instead of being indicated by signs.

CHAPTER VII

Scales

76. A scale (from scala, a Latin word meaning ladder; Ger. Ton-leiter) is an ascending or descending series of tones, progressing according to some definite system, and all bearing (in the case of tonality scales at least) a very intimate relation to the first tone—the key-tone or tonic. (See [p. 28], [Sec. 78]; also note 1 at bottom of[ p. 38].)

Many different kinds of scales have existed in various musical eras, the point of resemblance among them all being the fact that they have all more or less recognized the octave as the natural limit of the series. The difference among the various scales has been in the selection of intervals between the scale-tones, and, consequently, in the number of tones within the octave. Thus e.g., in our major scale the intervals between the tones are all whole-steps except two (which are half-steps), and the result is a scale of eight tones (including in this number both the key-tone and its octave): but in the so-called pentatonic scale of the Chinese and other older civilizations we find larger intervals (e.g., the step-and-a-half), and consequently a smaller number of tones within the octave. Thus in the scale upon which many of the older Scotch folk songs are based the intervals are arranged as follows:

The result is a scale of six tones, corresponding approximately with C—D—E—G—A—C in our modern system.

The term pentatonic is thus seen to be a misnomer since the sixth tone is necessary for the completion of the series, just as the eighth tone is essential in our diatonic scales.

The following Chinese tune (called "Jasmine") is based on the pentatonic scale.

[Listen]

77. In studying the theory of the scale the student should bear in mind the fact that a scale is not an arbitrary series of tones which some one has invented, and which others are required to make use of. It is rather the result of accustoming the ear to certain melodic combinations (which were originally hit upon by accident), and finally analyzing and systematizing these combinations into a certain definite order or arrangement. The application of this idea may be verified when it is recalled that most primitive peoples have invented melodies of some sort, but that only in modern times, and particularly since the development of instrumental music, have these melodies been analyzed, and the scale upon which they have been based, discovered, the inventors of the melodies being themselves wholly ignorant of the existence of such scales.

[78.] A key is a number of tones grouping themselves naturally (both melodically and harmonically) about a central tone—the key tone. The word tonality is often used synonymously with key in this sense.

The difference between key and scale is therefore this, that while both key and scale employ the same tone material, by key we mean the material in general, without any particular order or arrangement in mind, while by scale we mean the same tones, but now arranged into a regular ascending or descending series. It should be noted in this connection also that not all scales present an equally good opportunity of having their tones used as a basis for tonality or key-feeling: neither the chromatic nor the whole-step scale possess the necessary characteristics for being used as tonality scales in the same sense that our major and minor scales are so used.

[79.] There are three general classes of scales extant at the present time, viz.: (1) Diatonic; (2) Chromatic; (3) Whole-tone.[13]

80. The word diatonic means "through the tones" (i.e., through the tones of the key), and is applied to both major and minor scales of our modern tonality system. In general a diatonic scale may be defined as one which proceeds by half-steps and whole-steps. There is, however, one exception to this principle, viz., in the progression six to seven in the harmonic minor scale, which is of course a step-and-a-half. (See [p. 33], [Sec. 86].)

81. A major diatonic scale is one in which the intervals between the tones are arranged as follows:

In other words, a major diatonic scale is one in which the intervals between three and four, and between seven and eight are half-steps, all the others being whole-steps. A composition based on this scale is said to be written in the major mode, or in a major key. The major diatonic scale may begin on any one of the twelve pitches C, C♯ or D♭, D, D♯ or E♭, E, F, F♯ or G♭, G, G♯ or A♭, A, A♯ or B♭, B, but in each case it is the same scale because the intervals between its tones are the same. We have then one major scale only, but this scale may be written in many different positions, and may be sung or played beginning on any one of a number of different pitches.

82. It is interesting to note that the major scale consists of two identical series of four tones each; i.e., the first four tones of the scale are separated from one another by exactly the same intervals and these intervals appear in exactly the same order as in the case of the last four tones of the scale. Fig. 53 will make this clear. The first four tones of any diatonic scale (major or minor) are often referred to as the lower tetrachord[14] and the upper four tones as the upper tetrachord.

[Listen]

It is interesting further to note that the upper tetrachord of any sharp scale is always used without change as the lower tetrachord of the next major scale involving sharps, while the lower tetrachord of any flat scale is used as the upper tetrachord of the next flat scale. See Figs. 54 and 55.

[Listen]

83. From the standpoint of staff notation the major scale may be written in fifteen different positions, as follows:

[Listen]

It will be observed that in the above series of scales those beginning on F♯ and G♭ call for the same keys on the piano, i.e., while the notation is different, the actual tones of the scale are the same. The scales of C♯ and D♭ likewise employ the same tones. When two scales thus employ the same tones but differ in notation they are said to be enharmonic, (cf. [p. 38], [Sec. 93].)

Note.—The student is advised to adopt some uniform method of writing scales, preferably the one followed in those given above, the necessary sharps and flats appearing before the notes in the scale and then repeated collectively at the end as a signature. He is also advised to repeat these scales and signatures over and over until absolute familiarity is attained. E.g., E—F♯—G♯—A—B—C♯—D♯—E; signature, four sharps, F, C, G, and D.

CHAPTER VIII

Scales (Continued)

84. The minor diatonic scale is used in several slightly different forms, but the characteristic interval between the first and third tones (which differentiates it from the major scale) remains the same in every case. This interval between the first and third tones consists of four half-steps in the major scale and of three half-steps in the minor scale and this difference in size has given rise to the designation major for the scale having the larger third, and minor for the scale having the smaller one.

85. The original (or primitive) form of the minor scale has its tones arranged as follows.

As its name implies, this is the oldest of the three forms (being derived from the old Greek Aeolian scale), but because of the absence of a "leading tone" it is suitable for the simplest one-part music only, and is therefore little used at present.

[86.] The harmonic minor scale is like the primitive form except that it substitutes a tone one half-step higher for the seventh tone of the older (i.e., the primitive) form. This change was made because the development of writing music in several parts (particularly harmonic part-writing) made necessary a "leading tone," i.e., a tone with a strong tendency to move on up to the key-tone as a closing point. In order to secure a tone with such a strongly upward tendency the interval between seven and eight had to be reduced in size to a half-step. It should be noted that this change in the seventh tone of the scale caused an interval of a step-and-a-half between the sixth and seventh tones of the scale.

87. The melodic minor scale substitutes a tone one half-step higher than six as well as one a half-step higher than seven, but this change is made in the ascending scale only, the descending scale being like the primitive form. The higher sixth (commonly referred to as the "raised sixth") was used to get rid of the unmelodic interval of a step-and-a-half[15] (augmented second), while the return to the primitive form in descending is made because the ascending form is too much like the tonic major scale.

This form is used only to a very limited extent, and then principally in vocal music, the harmonic form being in almost universal use in spite of the augmented second.

88. The minor scale in its various positions (up to five sharps and five flats) and in all three forms follows: a composition based on any one of these forms (or upon a mixture of them, which often occurs) is said to be in the minor mode. It will be noted that the first four tones are alike in all three forms; i.e., the lower tetrachord in the minor scale is invariable no matter, what may happen to the upper tetrachord. The sign + marks the step-and-a-half.

[Enlarge]

[Listen to A minor scales]

Note.—The student is advised to recite the harmonic form of the minor scale as was suggested in the case of the major scale, noting that the "raised seventh" does not affect the key-signature. E.g.,—E—F♯—G—A—B—C—D♯—E; signature, one sharp, F.

89. A minor scale having the same signature as a major scale is said to be its relative minor. E.g.,—e is the relative minor of G, c of E♭, d of F, etc., the small letter being used to refer to the minor key or scale, while the capital letter indicates the major key or scale unless accompanied by the word minor. Relative keys are therefore defined as those having the same signature. G and e are relative keys, as are also A and f♯, etc.

90. A minor scale beginning with the same tone as a major scale is referred to as its tonic minor. Thus, e.g., c with three flats in its signature is the tonic minor of C with all degrees in natural condition; e with one sharp is the tonic minor of E with four sharps, etc. Tonic keys are therefore those having the same key-tone.

91. The eight tones of the diatonic scale (both major and minor) are often referred to by specific names, as follows:

1. Tonic—the tone. (This refers to the fact that the tonic is the principal tone, or generating tone of the key, i.e., it is the tone.)

2. Super-tonic—above the tone.

3. Mediant—midway between tonic and dominant.

4. Sub-dominant—the under dominant. (This name does not refer to the position of the tone under the dominant but to the fact that the fifth below the tonic is also a dominant tone—the under dominant—just as the fifth above is the upper dominant).

5. Dominant—the governing tone. (From the Latin word dominus meaning master.)

6. Super-dominant—above the dominant. Or Sub-mediant—midway between tonic and sub-dominant.

7. Leading tone—the tone which demands resolution to the tonic (one-half step above it).

8. Octave—the eighth tone.

92. The syllables commonly applied to the various major and minor scales in teaching sight-singing are as follows:[16]

Major—DO, RE, MI, FA, SOL, LA, TI, DO.
Minor[17]—original—LA, TI, DO, RE, MI, FA, SOL, LA.
harmonic—LA, TI, DO, RE, MI, FA, SI, LA.
melodic —LA, TI, DO, RE, MI, FI, SI, LA, SOL, FA, MI, RE, DO, TI, LA.

It is interesting to study the changes in both spelling and pronunciation that have occurred (and are still occurring) in these syllables. The first one (ut) was changed to DO as early as the sixteenth century because of the difficulty of producing a good singing tone on ut. For the same reason and also in order to avoid having two diatonic syllables with the same initial letter, the tonic-sol-fa system (invented in England about 1812 and systematized about 1850) changed SI to TI and this change has been almost universally adopted by teachers of sight-singing in this country. The more elaborate tonic-sol-fa spelling of the diatonic syllables (DOH, LAH, etc.), has not, however, been favorably received in this country and the tendency seems to be toward still further simplification rather than toward elaboration. It is probable that further changes in both spelling and pronunciation will be made in the near future, one such change that seems especially desirable being some other syllable than RE for the second tone of the major scale, so that the present syllable may be reserved for "flat-two," thus providing a uniform vowel-sound for all intermediate tones of the descending chromatic scale, as is already the case in the ascending form.

[93.] The chromatic scale[18] is one which proceeds always by half-steps. Its intervals are therefore always equal no matter with what tone it begins. Since, however, we have (from the standpoint of the piano keyboard) five pairs of tones[19] which are enharmonically the same, it may readily be seen that the chromatic scale might be notated in all sorts of fashions, and this is in fact the real status of the matter, there being no one method uniformly agreed upon by composers.

Parry (Grove's Dictionary, article chromatic) recommends writing the scale with such accidentals as can occur in chromatic chords without changing the key in which the passage occurs. Thus, taking C as a type, "the first accidental will be D♭, as the upper note of the minor ninth on the tonic; the next will be E♭, the minor third of the key; the next F♯, the major third of the super-tonic—all of which can occur without causing modulation—and the remaining two will be A♭ and B♭, the minor sixth and seventh of the key." According to this plan the chromatic scale beginning with C would be spelled—C, D♭, D, E♭, E, F, F♯, G, A♭, A, B♭, B, C—the form being the same both ascending and descending. This is of course written exclusively from a harmonic standpoint and the advantage of such a form is its definiteness.

94. For sight-singing purposes the chromatic scale[20] is usually written by representing the intermediate tones in ascending by sharps, (in some cases naturals and double-sharps), and the intermediate tones in descending by flats (sometimes naturals and double-flats). The chromatic scale in nine different positions, written from this standpoint, follows, and the syllables most commonly applied in sight-singing have also been added. In the first two scales the student of harmony is asked to note that because of the very common practice of modulating to the dominant and sub-dominant keys, the intermediate tones ♯4 and ♭7 are quite universally used in both ascending and descending melody passages. In other words the scales that follow would more nearly represent actual usage if in each case ♯4 (FI) were substituted for ♭5 (SE) in the descending scale; and if ♭7 (TE) were substituted for ♯6 (LI) in the ascending form.

[Listen to C chromatic scale]

Note.—In writing chromatic scales from this sight-singing standpoint the student is urged to adopt a three-step process; first, writing the major diatonic scale both ascending and descending; second, marking the half-steps; third, inserting accidental notes calling for the intermediate tones. In the above chromatic scales these intermediate tones have been represented by black note-heads so as to differentiate them from the notes representing diatonic scale tones.

95. The whole-step scale (the third type mentioned in [Sec. 79]) is, as its name implies, a scale in which the intervals between the tones consist in every instance of whole-steps. This reduces the number of tones in the scale to seven. Beginning with C the scale reads: C, D, E, F♯ or G♭, A♭, B♭, C. This scale has been used somewhat extensively by the ultramodern French school of composition represented by Debussy, Ravel, and others, but is not making any progress toward universal adoption. The remarks of a recent English writer[21] on this subject may be interesting to the student who is puzzled by the apparent present-day tendencies of French music. He says:

"The student of some interesting modern developments will also speedily discover that the adoption of the so-called whole-tone scale as a basis of music is, except upon a keyed instrument tuned to the compromise of equal temperament, unnatural and impossible. No player upon a stringed instrument can play the scale of whole-tones and arrive at an octave which is in tune with the starting note, unless he deliberately changes one of the notes on the road and alters it while playing it. The obvious result of the application of the whole-tone scale to an orchestra or a string quartet would be to force them to adopt the equal temperament of the pianoforte, and play every interval except the octave out of tune. When this modification had taken hold all music in the pure scale would be distorted and destroyed, unless string players were to face the practically impossible drudgery of studying both the equal temperament and the pure scale from the start, and were able to tackle either form at a moment's notice. A thorough knowledge of the natural genesis of the scale of western nations will be the best antidote to fads founded upon ignorance of it. It is a curious commentary upon this question that Wagner, in the opening of the third act of Tristan (bars 6 to 10), experimented with the whole-tone scale and drew his pen through it, as was to be expected from a composer whose every work proves the writer to have had the pure scale inbred in him."

There may be some difference of opinion among acousticians as to whether Mr. Stanford is correct in his scientific assumptions regarding the difference between "tempered" and "pure" scales,[22] but even so, there is a far more potent reason why the whole-step scale will probably never become popular as the major and minor scales now are, viz., the fact that it offers no possibility of inculcating tonality feeling, which has always been the basis of even the simplest primitive music. Tonality scales give rise to a feeling of alternate periods of contraction and relaxation—an active tone (or chord) followed by a passive one, but no such effect is possible in the whole-step scale, and it seems suitable therefore only for that class of music whose outlines are purposely intended to be vague and indefinite—the impressionistic style of music writing.

CHAPTER IX

Auxiliary Words and Endings

[96.] Being a list of articles, adverbs, conjunctions, prepositions, and endings, often utilized in compounding terms relating to musical effects.

A—preposition—variously translated to, at, for, by, in, with, towards.
A cappella—in church style.
A capriccio—at the fancy of the performer.
À deux mains—for two hands.
A mezza voce—with half voice.

À la, or alla—in the manner of. Alla marcia—in the style of a march.

Assai—very, or very much. Allegro assai—very fast.

Ben—well. Ben marcato—well marked.

Coi, con, col, colla, colle, collo—with, or with the.
Con amore—with tenderness.
Colla voce—with the voice.

Come—as, like. Come primo—as at first.

Contra—against. In compound words means "an octave below."

Da—from. Da Capo—from the head.

Di—by, with, of, for. Di bravura—with daring.

Di molto—exceedingly—very much. Allegro di molto—exceedingly rapid.

Doppio—double. Doppio movimento—double movement.

E, ed, et—and. Cresc. et accel.—louder and faster.

Ensemble—together, the opposite of solo.

Il, La, l', le—the. Il basso—the bass. L'istesso tempo—the same speed.

Il più—the most. Il più forte possible—as loudly as possible.

Issimo—Italian superlative ending. Forte—fortissimo.

Ino, etto—Italian diminutive endings. Andante—andantino. Poco—pochetto.

Meno—less. Meno forte—less loud.

Mente—the ending which changes a noun or adjective to an adverb. Largo largamente.

Mezzo or mezza—half, or medium. Mezzo forte—medium loud.

Molto—much, or very much. Molto cresc.—very much louder.

Nel, nella, etc.—in the, or at the. Nel battere—at the down beat.

Non—not. Non tanto—not too much.

Ossia—or else. Ossia più facile—or else more easily.

Per—for. Per il violino—for the violin.

Peu—little. Un peu cresc.—a little increase in tone.

Più—more. Più forte—more loudly.

Poco—little. Poco a poco—little by little.

Poi—then. E poi la coda—and then the coda.

Possibile—possible. Forte possibile—as loudly as possible.

Quasi—in the manner of. Allegro quasi andante—a fairly rapid movement, yet in the style of an andante; almost as slow as an andante.

Sans—without. Sans pedales—without pedals.

Sempre—always, or continually. Sempre forte—a long passage to be played forte throughout its entirety.

Senza—without. Senza accompagnamento—without accompaniment.

Sino, sin—as far as. See [p. 14], note.

Solo—alone. Opposite of ensemble.

Sub—under or lower. Sub-dominant—the under dominant.

Tanto—same as troppo, q.v.

Tre—three. Tre corde—three strings.

Très—very. Très vivement—very lively.

Troppo—too much. Non tanto allegro, or non troppo allegro—not too fast.

Una, un, uno—one, or a. Una corda—one string. Un peu—a little.

A working knowledge of these auxiliary terms will aid the student greatly in arriving at the meaning of hundreds of terms without stopping to look up each individual one.

CHAPTER X

Measure

[97.] From the standpoint of the eye, a measure is that portion of the staff found between two bars, (in certain cases this space may be less than a measure, as e.g., at the beginning and end of a movement); but from the standpoint of the ear a single, isolated measure is not possible, and the term must therefore be defined in the plural form.

Measures are similarly accented groups of evenly-spaced beats, each group having at least one accented and one non-accented beat. The strongest accent falls normally on the first beat in the measure.

Two essential characteristics are involved in the ordinary musical measure:

(1) A group of even beats (or pulses), always felt, though not always actually sounded, one or more of these beats being stronger than the rest;

(2) Certain rhythmic figures (

etc.) which form the actual musical content of these groups.

The student will note the essential difference between rhythm and measure. Rhythm is the regular recurrence of accent in a series of beats (or pulses), while measure is the grouping of these beats according to some specified system. In listening to a piece of music, two hearers A and B may feel the rhythm equally strongly, but A may subjectively group the beats into—one, two | one, two |—etc., while B feels the groups as—one, two, three, four | one, two, three, four |—etc. Rhythm is thus seen to be a fundamental thing, inherent in the music itself, while measure is to a certain extent at least an arbitrary grouping which musicians have adopted for practical purposes.

98. In syncopation the normal system of accenting is temporarily suspended and the accented tone falls on the regularly unaccented part of the measure. Syncopation may therefore be defined as the temporary interruption of a normal series of accents, i.e., accenting a beat that is usually not accented. Thus e.g., in Fig. 56, measure one has the regular system of accents normally found in four-quarter-measure, (strong accent on one, secondary accent on three); but measure three has only one accent, and it falls on the second beat.

[Listen]

[99.] Measures are usually classified as simple and compound. A simple measure is one which has but a single accent, i.e., the measure cannot be divided into smaller constituent groups. There are two main classes of simple measures, two-beat measure, and three-beat measure. A compound measure is (as its name implies) one made up by combining two or more simple measures, or by the elaboration of a single measure (in slow tempo) into several constituent groups. The principal compound measures are four-beat and six-beat, both being referred to as compound-duple measures. Five-beat, seven-beat, nine-beat, and twelve-beat measures are also classified as compound measures.

An English writer[23] classifies measures as duple, triple, or quadruple, specifying that a simple measure is one in which each beat is represented by a note whose value can be divided into halves (

etc.) and that a compound measure is one in which each beat is represented by a dotted-note, whose value can be divided into three parts, (

). There is thus seen to be considerable difference of opinion as to the meaning of the words simple and compound when applied in this connection, the principal question at issue being whether four-beat measure is an individual variety, or whether it is a variety compounded out of two-beat measures, either by placing two of these in a group or by the elaboration of a single measure into a larger number of beats, as is often necessary in slow tempi. Perhaps the easiest way out of the difficulty is to admit that both may be true—but in different compositions. That is, it is frequently impossible to tell whether a composition that is being listened to is in two-beat, or in four-beat measure; and yet it is sometimes possible so to discriminate. Since, however, one cannot in the majority of cases distinguish between two-beat and four-beat measures, it will probably be best to leave the original classification intact and regard four-beat measure as a compound variety.

100. The commonest varieties of measure are:

1. Duple (sometimes called even measure, or even time), in which there are two beats, the first one being accented. Examples of duple measure are 2/4, 2/8, 2/2, two-quarter,[24] two-eighth, and two-half measure, respectively.

2. Triple, (the old perfect measure), in which there are three beats, the first one being accented, the second and third unaccented. Examples are 3/8, 3/4, 3/2, three-eighth, three-quarter, and three-half measure, respectively.

3. Quadruple, in which there are four beats, the first and third being accented (primary accent on one, secondary accent on three), the second and fourth unaccented. (See note above, under [Sec. 99].)

4. Sextuple, in which there are six beats, the first and fourth being accented, the others not. In rapid tempi this is always taken as compound duple measure, a dotted quarter note having a beat. It will be noted that the two measures

are identical in effect with

.

101. Other varieties of measure sometimes found are 9/8 and 12/8, but these are practically always taken as three-beat and four-beat measures respectively, being equivalent to these if each group of three tones is thought of as a triplet.

is identical in effect with

.

102. Quintuple (five-beat) and septuple (seven-beat) measures are occasionally met with, but these are rare and will always be sporadic. The five-beat measure is taken as a combination of three and two, or of two and three (sometimes a mixture of both in the same composition), while the seven-beat measure is taken in groups of four and three, or of three and four.

103. The sign

is usually understood to mean four-quarter measure, and the sign

, two-half measure, but usage varies somewhat, and the second sign is sometimes used to indicate four-half measure. It may safely be said however that the sign

always indicates that a half-note has a beat.

may occasionally be found indicating four-half measure but this is rare.

The student will note that the sign

is not a letter C, but an incomplete circle, differentiating two-beat (imperfect) measure from three-beat (perfect) measure. See [Appendix A], p. [106].

CHAPTER XI

Tempo

104. The word time in musical nomenclature has been greatly abused, having been used to indicate:

(1) Rhythm; as "the time was wrong."

(2) Variety of measure-signature; as "two-four time."

(3) Rate of speed; as "the time was too slow."

To obviate the confusion naturally resulting from this three-fold and inexact use of the word, many teachers of music are adopting certain changes in terminology as noted in Sections [105], [106], and [107]. Such changes may cause some confusion at first, but seem to be necessary if our musical terminology is to be at all exact.

[105.] The first of the changes mentioned in the above paragraph is to substitute the word rhythm for the word time when correcting mistakes involving misplaced accent, etc. E.g., "Your rhythm in the third measure of the lower score was wrong," instead of "Your time—was wrong."

[106.] The second change mentioned would eliminate such blind and misleading expressions as "two-four time," "three-four time," "four-four time," "six-eight time," etc., and substitute therefor such self-explanatory designations as "two-quarter measure," "three-quarter measure," "four-quarter measure," "six-eighth measure," etc. E.g., "The first movement of the Beethoven Sonata Op. 2, No. 3, is in four-quarter measure."

[107.] The third change referred to above would substitute the word tempo (plural—tempi) for the word time in all allusions to rate of speed. E.g., "The scherzo was played in very rapid tempo."

The word tempo has been used in this connection so long by professional musicians that there can be no possible objection to it on the ground of its being a foreign word. In fact there is a decided advantage in having a word that is understood in all countries where modern music (i.e., civilized music) is performed, and just here is found the principal reason for the popularity of the Italian language in musical terminology. Schumann, MacDowell and other well known composers have tried to break down this popularity by using their own respective vernaculars in both tempo and dynamic indications, but in spite of these attempts the Italian language is still quite universally used for this purpose, and deservedly so, for if we are to have a music notation that is universal, so that an American is able to play music written by a Frenchman or a German, or a Russian, then we ought also to have a certain number of expressions referring to tempo, etc., which will be understood by all, i.e., a music terminology that is universal. The Italian language was the first in the field, is the most universally known in this particular at the present time, and is entirely adequate. It should therefore be retained in use as a sort of musical Esperanto.

108. There are several ways of finding the correct tempo of a composition:

1. From the metronomic indication found at the beginning of many compositions. Thus e.g., the mark M.M. 92 (Maelzel's Metronome 92) means that if the metronome (either Maelzel's or some other reliable make) is set with the sliding weight at the figure 92 there will be 92 clicks per minute, and they will serve to indicate to the player or singer the rate at which the beats (or pulses) should follow one another. This is undoubtedly the most accurate means of determining tempi in spite of slight inaccuracies in metronomes[25] and of the mistakes which composers themselves often make in giving metronomic indications.

2. Another means of determining the tempo of a composition is to play it at different tempi and then to choose the one that "feels right" for that particular piece of music. This is perhaps the best means of getting at the correct tempo but is open only to the musician of long experience, sure judgment, and sound scholarship.

3. A third method of finding tempi is through the interpretation of certain words used quite universally by composers to indicate the approximate rate of speed and the general mood of compositions. The difficulty with this method is that one can hardly find two composers who employ the same word to indicate the same tempo, so that no absolute rate of speed can be indicated, and in the last analysis the conductor or performer must fall back on the second method cited above—i.e., individual judgment.

[109.] In spite of the inexactness of use in the case of expressions relating to tempo, these expressions are nevertheless extremely useful in giving at least a hint of what was in the composer's mind as he conceived the music that we are trying to interpret. Since a number of the terms overlap in meaning, and since the meaning of no single term is absolute, these expressions relating to tempo are best studied in groups. Perhaps the most convenient grouping is as follows:

1. Grave (lit. weighty, serious), larghissimo, adagissimo, and lentissimo—indicating the very slowest tempo used in rendering music.

2. Largo,[26] adagio,[27] and lento—indicating quite a slow tempo.

3. Larghetto (i.e., a little largo) and adagietto (a little adagio)—a slow tempo, but not quite so slow as largo, etc.

4. Andante (going, or walking, as contrasted with running) and andantino—indicating a moderately slow tempo.

Andantino is now quite universally taken slightly faster than andante, in spite of the fact that if andante means "going," and if "ino" is the diminutive ending, then andantino means "going less," i.e., more slowly!

5. Moderato—a moderate tempo.

6. Allegro and allegretto[28]—a moderately quick tempo, allegretto being usually interpreted as meaning a tempo somewhat slower than allegro.

The word allegro means literally happy, joyous, and this literal meaning is still sometimes applicable, but in the majority of instances the term refers only to rate of speed.

7. Vivo, vivace, (lit. lively)—a tempo between allegro and presto.

8. Presto, prestissimo, vivacissimo, and prestissimo possibile—the most rapid tempo possible.

CHAPTER XII

Tempo (Continued)

110. Innumerable combinations of the words defined in [Sec. 109] with one another and with other words occur. Some of these combinations with their approximate meanings follow. The meaning of any such expression not found in the list may usually be arrived at by consulting the terms defined in [paragraph 109] and recalling the use of certain auxiliary terms quoted in [Chapter IX].

Largo assai—very slow.

Largo di molto—very slow.

Largo ma non troppo—slow, but not too slow.

Largo un poco—slow, but not so slow as largo. (Cf. larghetto.)

Lentemente—slowly.

Lentando—with increasing slowness.

Très lentement—very slowly.

Lentissamente—very slowly.

Lentissamamente—very slowly.

Lento assai—very slowly.

Lento a capriccio—slowly but capriciously.

Lento di molto—very slowly.

Andante affettuoso—moderately slow, and with tenderness and pathos.

Andante amabile—moderately slow, and lovingly.

Andante cantabile—moderately slow, and in singing style.

Andante grazioso—moderately slow, and gracefully.

Andante maestoso—moderately slow, and majestically.

Andante con moto—slightly faster than andante.

Andante (ma) non troppo—not too slowly.

Andante pastorale—moderately slow, and in simple and unaffected style; (lit. rural, pastoral).

Andante quasi allegro—almost as rapid in tempo as allegro; (lit. an andante in the style of allegro).

Andante sostenuto—moderately slow and sustained.

Allegrissimo—much faster than allegro. (The superlative degree of allegro.)

Allegro agitato—a moderately rapid tempo, and in agitated style.

Allegro appassionata—a moderately rapid tempo, and in passionate style.

Allegro assai (very allegro)—faster than allegro.

Allegro commodo—a conveniently rapid tempo.

Allegro con brio—an allegro played in brilliant style. Faster than allegro.

Allegro con fuoco—an allegro played with fire, i.e., with extreme animation. Faster than allegro.

Allegro con spirito—an allegro performed with spirit.

Allegro con moto—faster than allegro.

Allegro di bravura—an allegro performed in brilliant style, i.e., demanding great skill in execution.

Allegro furioso (furiously)—quicker than allegro; very brilliant.

Allegro giusto—an allegro movement, but in exact rhythm.

Allegro ma grazioso—an allegro played in graceful style.

Allegro (ma) non tanto—an allegro movement, but not too rapid.

Allegro (ma) non troppo—an allegro movement, but not too rapid.

Allegro (ma) non presto—an allegro movement, but not too rapid.

Allegro moderato—slower than allegro.

Allegro vivace—faster than allegro.

Presto assai—as rapidly as possible.

Presto (ma) non troppo—a presto movement, but not too rapid.

111. There are certain terms which indicate a modification of the normal tempo of a movement, these being divided into two classes, (a) those terms which indicate in general a slower tempo, and (b) those which indicate in general a more rapid tempo. The further subdivisions of these two classes are shown below.

(a) Terms indicating a slower tempo.

1. Terms indicating a gradual retard.

Ritenente, (rit.), ritenuto (rit.), ritardando (rit.), rallentando (rall.), slentando.

2. Terms indicating a tempo which is to become definitely slower at once.

Più lento (lit. more slowly), meno mosso (lit. less movement).

3. Terms indicating a slower tempo combined with an increase in power.

Largando, allargando. These words are both derived from largo, meaning large, broad.

(For terms indicating both slower tempo and softer tone, see [page 59], [Sec. 127].)

The student should note the difference between groups 1 and 2 as given above: the terms in group 1 indicate that each measure, and even each pulse in the measure, is a little slower than the preceding one, while such terms as più lento and meno mosso indicate a rate of speed becoming instantly slower and extending over an entire phrase or passage. Some composers (e.g., Beethoven and Couperin) have evidently had this same distinction in mind between rallentando and ritardando on the one hand, and ritenuto and ritenente on the other, considering the former (rall. and rit.) to indicate a gradually slackening speed, and the latter (ritenuto and ritenente) to indicate a definitely slower rate. The majority of composers do not however differentiate between them in this way, and it will therefore hardly be worth while for the student to try to remember the distinction.

(b) Terms indicating a more rapid tempo.

1. Terms indicating a gradual acceleration.

Accelerando, affrettando (this term implies some degree of excitement also), stringendo, poco a poco animato.

2. Terms indicating a tempo which is to become definitely faster at once.

Più allegro, più tosto, più mosso, stretto, un poco animato.

112. After any modification in tempo (either faster or slower) has been suggested it is usual to indicate a return to the normal rate by some such expression as a tempo (lit. in time), a tempo primo (lit. in the first time), tempo primo, or tempo.

113. Tempo rubato (or a tempo rubato) means literally in robbed time, i.e., duration taken from one measure or beat and given to another, but in modern practice the term is quite generally applied to any irregularity of rhythm or tempo not definitely indicated in the score.

The terms ad libitum, (ad lib.), a piacere, and a capriccio, also indicate a modification of the tempo at the will of the performer. Ad libitum means at liberty; a piacere, at pleasure; and a capriccio, at the caprice (of the performer).

114. The term tempo giusto is the opposite of tempo rubato (and of the other terms defined in paragraph 113). It means literally in exact time. (Tempo giusto is sometimes translated quite rapidly,[29] but this is very unusual.)

115. L'istesso tempo means—at the same rate of speed. E.g., when a measure signature changes from 2/4 to 6/8 with a change in beat-note from a quarter to a dotted-quarter, but with the same tempo carried through the entire movement.

116. Tenuto (ten.) indicates that a tone or chord is to be held to its full value. This word is sometimes used after a staccato passage to show that the staccato effect is to be discontinued, but is often used merely as a warning not to slight a melody-tone—i.e., to give it its full value.

117. Veloce means—swiftly, and is applied to brilliant passages (e.g., cadenzas) which are to be played as rapidly as possible without much regard for measure rhythm. The words rapidamente, brillante and volante (flying) have the same meaning as veloce.

118. The following expressions referring to tempo are also in common use but cannot easily be classified with any of the groups already defined.

Con moto—with motion; i.e., not too slow.

Pesante—slowly, heavily.

Doppio movimento—twice as rapid as before.

Tempo ordinario—in ordinary tempo.

Tempo commodo—in convenient tempo.

Sempre lento malinconico assai—always slowly and in a very melancholy style.

Animando, animato, con anima—with animation.

Agitato—agitated.

119. Tempo di marcia is given by Riemann (Dictionary of Music, p. 783) as equivalent to andante, M.M. 72-84. The same writer gives tempo di menuetto as equivalent to allegretto, and tempo di valso as equivalent to allegro moderato (which he regards as indicating a more rapid tempo than allegretto).

CHAPTER XIII

Dynamics

[120.] The word dynamics (cf. dynamic—the opposite of static) as used in the nomenclature of music has to do with the various degrees of power (i.e., the comparative loudness and softness) of tones.

As in the case of words referring to tempo, the expressions referring to dynamics are always relative, never absolute; it is possible to indicate that one measure is to be louder than another, but it is not possible (nor desirable) to indicate exactly how loud either is to be. Thus dynamics, perhaps even more than tempo, will be seen to depend on the taste of the performer or conductor.

The following words referring to dynamics are in common use:

Pianisissimo (ppp)—as softly as possible. (It will be noted that this is a sort of hyper-superlative of piano.)

Pianissimo (pp)—very softly. (The superlative of piano.)

Piano (p)—softly.

Mezzo piano (mp)—medium softly.

Mezzo forte (mf)—medium loudly.

Forte (f)—loudly (lit. strong).

Fortissimo (ff)—very loudly. (The superlative of forte.)

Fortisissimo (fff)—as loudly as possible.

The lack of a one-word comparative degree in the case of both piano and forte seems to necessitate the hyper-superlative degree as given above, but the practice of using four, or even five p's or f's is not desirable.

121. The terms defined in [Sec. 120] are often combined with others, as e.g.,

Pianissimo possibile—as softly as possible.

Piano assai—very softly.

Fortissimo possibile—as loudly as possible.

Forte piano (fp)—loud, followed at once by soft.

As in the case of terms relating to tempo, the meaning of many other expressions relating to dynamics may easily be arrived at by recalling the list of auxiliary terms quoted under [Sec. 96].

122. The terms sforzando, forzando, sforzato and forzato all indicate a strong accent on a single tone or chord. These words are abbreviated as follows:—sf,fz, and sfz, the abbreviation being placed directly above (sometimes below) the note or chord affected. The signs

and

are also commonly used to indicate such an accent.

In interpreting these accent marks the student must bear in mind again the fact that they have a relative rather than an absolute meaning: the mark sf occurring in the midst of a piano passage will indicate a much milder form of accent than would the same mark occurring in the midst of a forte passage.

123. The words rinforzando and rinforzato (abb.—rinf. and rfz.) mean literally reinforced, and are used to indicate a sudden increase in power usually extending over an entire phrase or passage instead of applying only to a single tone or chord as in the case of sforzando, etc.

124. Crescendo (abb.—cresc. or

) means a gradual increase in power. It will be noted that this word does not mean loud, nor does it mean a sudden increase in power unless accompanied by some auxiliary term such as subito, or molto.

Broadly speaking there are two varieties of crescendo: (1) that in which the same tone increases in power while being prolonged; (2) that in which succeeding tones are each sounded more strongly than the preceding one. The first variety is possible only on instruments giving forth a tone which can be varied after it begins. Thus e.g., the human voice, the violin, the organ enclosed in a swell box, and certain wind instruments, are all capable of sounding a tone softly at first and gradually increasing the volume until the maximal point of power has been reached. But on the piano, organ not enclosed in a swell-box, kettle drum, etc., the power of the tone cannot be varied after the tone has once been sounded, and a crescendo effect is therefore possible only in a passage, in rendering which each succeeding tone is struck more forcibly than its immediate predecessor. This second variety of crescendo offers a means of dramatic effect which may be employed most strikingly, as e.g., when a long passage begins very softly and increases in power little by little until the utmost resources of the instrument or orchestra have been reached. A notable example of such an effect is found in the transition from the third to the fourth movements of the Beethoven Fifth Symphony.

The difference between sforzando, rinforzando, and crescendo should now be noted: sforzando indicates that a single tone or chord is to be louder; rinforzando, that an entire passage is to be louder, beginning with its first tone; but crescendo indicates that there is to be a gradual increase in power, this increase sometimes occurring during the sounding of a single tone, but more often in a passage.

125. Certain combinations of the word crescendo with other words are so common that they should be especially noted. Among these are:

Crescendo al fortissimo—keep on gradually increasing in power until the fortissimo (or very loud) point has been reached.

Crescendo subito—increase in power suddenly (or rapidly).

Crescendo poco a poco—increase in power very, very gradually.

Crescendo poi diminuendo—first increase, then diminish the tone.

Crescendo e diminuendo—same as cresc. poi dim.

Crescendo molto—increase in power very greatly.

Crescendo ed animando poco a poco—growing gradually louder in tone and quicker in tempo.

Crescendo ed affrettando—gradually louder and faster.

Crescendo poco a poco sin al fine—crescendo gradually even up to the very end.

126. Decrescendo (decresc. or

) means a gradual diminishing of the tone. It is the opposite of crescendo. The word diminuendo is synonymous with decrescendo.

Decrescendo (or diminuendo) al pianissimo means—decrease gradually in power until the pianissimo (or very soft) point is reached.

[127.] A number of terms referring to both softer tone and slower tempo are in use. The most common of these are:—mancando, moriente,[30] morendo, perdendo (from perdere—to lose), perdendosi, calando, and smorzando.[31] Such expressions are usually translated—"gradually dying away."

128. In piano music the abbreviation Ped. indicates that the damper pedal (the one at the right) is to be depressed, while the sign

shows that it is to be released. In many modern editions this depression and release of the damper pedal are more accurately indicated by the sign

.

The term senza sordini is also occasionally found in old editions, indicating that the damper pedal is to be depressed, while con sordini shows that it is to be released. These expressions are taken from a usage in music for stringed instruments, in which the term con sordini means that the mute (a small clamp of metal, ivory or hardwood) is to be affixed to the bridge, this causing a modification in both power and quality of the tone. The damper on the piano does not in any way correspond to the mute thus used on stringed instruments, and the terms above explained as sometimes occurring in piano music are not to be recommended, even though Beethoven used them in this sense in all his earlier sonatas.

129. The words una corda (lit.—one string) indicate that the "soft pedal" (the one at the left) is to be depressed, while the words tre corde (lit. three strings) or tutte le corde (all the strings) show that the same pedal is to be released. These expressions refer to the fact that on grand pianos the "soft pedal" when depressed moves the hammers to one side so that instead of striking three strings they strike only two (in the older pianos only one, hence una corda), all three strings (tre corde) being struck again after the release of the pedal.

130. Other terms relating either directly or indirectly to the subject of dynamics are:

Con alcuna licenza—with some degree of license.

Con amore—with tenderness.

Con bravura—with boldness.

Con celerita—with rapidity.

Con delicato—with delicacy.

Con energico—with energy.

Con espressione—with expression.

Con forza—with force.

Con fuoco—with fire and passion.

Con grand' espressione—with great expression.

Con grazia—with grace.

Con melinconia—with melancholy.

Con passione—with passion.

Con spirito—with spirit.

Con tenerezza—with tenderness.

Delicato—delicately.

Dolce—sweetly, gently.

Dolcissimo—most sweetly.

Dolce e cantabile—gently and with singing tone.

Dolente }
Doloroso } plaintively or sorrowfully.

Espressivo—expressively.

Grandioso—grandly, pompously.

Grazioso—gracefully.

Giocoso—humorously, (cf. jocose).

Giojoso—joyfully, (cf. joyous).

Lacrimando, lacrimoso—sorrowfully.

Legato—smoothly.

Leggiero—lightly.

Leggierissimo—most lightly; almost a staccato.

Lusingando—caressingly, coaxingly, tenderly.

Maesta, maestoso—majestically.

Martellando, martellato—strongly accented, (lit.—hammered).

Marziale—martial—war-like.

Mesto—pensively.

Mezzo voce—with half voice.

Misterioso—mysteriously.

Parlando—well accented or enunciated; applied to melody playing. (The word parlando means literally-speaking.)

Pastorale—in simple and unaffected style, (lit.—pastoral, rural).

Pomposo—pompously.

Precipitoso—precipitously.

Recitativo—well enunciated. (This meaning applies only in instrumental music in which a melody is to stand out above the accompaniment. For def. of recitative in vocal music, see [p. 78].)

Risoluto—firmly, resolutely.

Scherzando, scherzoso, etc.—jokingly. These terms are derived from the word scherzo meaning a musical joke.

Semplice—simply.

Sempre marcatissimo—always well marked, i.e., strongly accented.

Sentimento—with sentiment.

Solenne—solemn.

Sotto voce—in subdued voice.

Spiritoso—with spirit.

Strepitoso—precipitously.

Tranquillo—tranquilly.

Tristamente—sadly.

131. Many other terms are encountered which on their face sometimes seem to be quite formidable, but which yield readily to analysis. Thus e.g., crescendo poco a poco al forte ed un pochettino accelerando, is seen to mean merely—"increase gradually to forte and accelerate a very little bit." A liberal application of common sense will aid greatly in the interpretation of such expressions.

CHAPTER XIV

Terms Relating to Forms and Styles

132. A form in music is a specific arrangement of the various parts of a composition resulting in a structure so characteristic that it is easily recognized by the ear. Thus e.g., although every fugue is different from all other fugues in actual material, yet the arrangement of the various parts is so characteristic that no one who knows the fugue form has any doubt as to what kind of a composition he is hearing whenever a fugue is played. The word form is therefore seen to be somewhat synonymous with the word plan as used in architecture; it is the structure or design underlying music. Examples of form are the canon, the fugue, the sonata, etc.

Speaking broadly we may say that form in any art consists in the placing together of certain parts in such relations of proportion and symmetry as to make a unified whole. In music this implies unity of tonality and of general rhythmic effect, as well as unity in the grouping of the various parts of the work (phrases, periods, movements) so as to weld them into one whole, giving the impression of completeness to the hearer.

133. The primal basis of form is the repetition of some characteristic effect, and the problem of the composer is to bring about these repetitions in such a way that the ear will recognize them as being the same material and will nevertheless not grow weary of them. This is accomplished by varying the material (cf. thematic development), by introducing contrasting material, and by choice of key.

[134.] The student should note at the outset of this topic the difference in meaning between the terms form and style: A form is a plan for building a certain definite kind of composition, but a style is merely a manner of writing. Thus e.g., the fugue is a form—i.e., it is a plan, which although capable of variation in details, is yet carried out fairly definitely in every case; but counterpoint is merely a style or manner of writing (just as Gothic architecture is a style of building), which may be cast into any one of several forms.

135. The material found in the following sections is an attempt to explain in simple language certain terms relating to forms and styles which are in common use; in many cases the definition is too meagre to give anything but a very general idea, but it is hoped that the student will at least be set to thinking and that he will eventually be led to a more detailed and scholarly study of the subject. (The article "Form" and the separate articles under each term here defined, as found in Grove's Dictionary, are especially recommended. For examples of the various forms described, see also Mason and Surette—"The Appreciation of Music," Supplementary Volume.)

136. In a very general way there may be said to be two styles of musical composition, the monophonic (or homophonic)—the one-voiced—and the polyphonic—the many voiced. The polyphonic[32] style antedates the monophonic historically.

137. In monophonic music there is one voice which has a pronounced melody, the other voices (if present) supporting this melody as a harmonic (and often rhythmic) background. An example of this is the ordinary hymn-tune with its melody in the highest part, and with three other voices forming a "four-part harmony." The sonata, symphony, opera, modern piano piece, etc., are also largely monophonic, though polyphonic passages by way of contrast are often to be found.

138. In polyphonic music each voice is to a certain extent melodically interesting, and the "harmony" is the result of combining several melodies in such a way as to give a pleasing effect, instead of treating a melody by adding chords as an accompaniment or support. Counterpoint, canon, round, fugue, etc., are all polyphonic in style. The word contrapuntal is often used synonymously with polyphonic.

(Sections [139] to [143] relate especially to terms describing polyphonic music.)

[139.] Counterpoint is the art of adding one or more parts or melodies to a given melody, the latter being known as the "cantus firmus," or subject. It may therefore be broadly defined as "the art of combining melodies."

The word counterpoint comes from the three words "punctus contra punctum," meaning "point against point." The word point as here used refers to the punctus—one of the neumae of the mediaeval system, these neumae being the immediate predecessors of modern notes.

Both vocal and instrumental music have been written in contrapuntal style. The familiar two- and three-part "inventions" by Bach are excellent examples of instrumental counterpoint, while such choruses as those in "The Messiah" by Handel illustrate the highest type of vocal counterpoint.

140. Imitation is the repetition by one part, of a subject or theme previously introduced by another part. If the imitation is exact, the term strict imitation is applied, but if only approximate, then the term free imitation is used in referring to it. The repetition need not have the exact pitches of the subject in order to be strict; on the contrary the imitation is usually at the interval of an octave, or a fifth, or a second, etc. Fig. 57 shows an example of strict imitation in which the third part comes in an octave lower than the first part.

141. A canon is a contrapuntal composition in the style of strict imitation, one part repeating exactly (but at any interval) what another part has played or sung. The term "canonic style" is sometimes applied to music in which the imitation is not exact. An example of three-part canon is given in Fig. 57.

CANON IN THREE VOICES, IN THE UNISON AND OCTAVE

[Listen]

The word canon means law, and was applied to this particular form of composition because the rules relating to its composition were invariable. It is because of this non-flexibility that the canon is so little used as a form at the present time: the modern composer demands a plan of writing that is capable of being varied to such an extent as to give him room for the exercise of his own particular individuality of conception, and this the canon does not do. For this same reason too the fugue and the sonata have successively gone out of fashion and from Schumann down to the present time composers have as it were created their own forms, the difficulty in listening arising from the fact that no one but the composer himself could recognize the form as a form because it had not been adopted to a great enough extent by other composers to make it in any sense universal. The result is that in much present-day music it is very difficult for the hearer to discover any trace of familiar design, and the impression made by such music is in consequence much less definite than that made by music of the classic school. It is probable that a reaction from this state of affairs will come in the near future, for in any art it is necessary that there should be at least enough semblance of structure to make the art work capable of standing as a universal thing rather than as the mere temporary expression of some particular composer or of some period of composition.

142. The common school round is an example of canon, each voice repeating exactly what the first voice has sung, while this first voice is going on with its melody. The round is therefore defined as a variety of canon in which the imitation is always in unison with the subject.

[143.] The fugue (Latin, fuga = flight) is a form of contrapuntal composition in which the imitation is always in the dominant key, i.e., a fifth above or a fourth below. The imitation (called "the answer") may be an exact repetition of the subject (sometimes called "the question"), but is usually not so.

The fugue differs from the canon also in that the subject is given in complete form before the answer begins, while in the canon the imitation begins while the subject is still going on. The fugue is not nearly so strict in form as the canon and gives the composer much greater opportunity for expressing musical ideas. A canon may be perfect in form and yet be very poor music; this same statement might of course be made about any form, but is especially true in the stricter ones.

CHAPTER XV

Terms Relating to Forms and Styles (Continued)

(Sections [144] to [160] relate particularly to terms used in descriptions of monophonic music[33].)

[144.] A phrase is a short musical thought (at least two measures in length) closing with either a complete or an incomplete cadence. The typical phrase is four measures long. The two-measure phrase is often called section. The word phrase as used in music terminology corresponds with the same word as used in language study.

145. A period is a little piece of music typically eight measures long, either complete in itself or forming one of the clearly defined divisions of a larger form. The period (when complete in itself) is the smallest monophonic form.

The essential characteristic of the regular period is the fact that it usually consists of two balanced phrases (often called antecedent and consequent or thesis and antithesis), the first phrase giving rise to the feeling of incompleteness (by means of a cadence in another key, deceptive cadence, etc.,) the second phrase giving the effect of completeness by means of a definite cadence at the close.

The second half of the period is sometimes a literal repetition of the first half, in all respects except the cadence, but in many cases too it is a repetition of only one of the elements—rhythm, intervals, or general outline. Figs. 58 and 59 show examples of both types. The principle almost invariably holds that the simpler the music (cf. folk-tunes) the more obvious the form of the period, while the more complex the music, the less regular the period.

[Listen to Fig. 58]

[Listen to Fig. 59]

146. The primary forms are built up by combining two or more periods.

The small two-part primary form (often called song-form or Lied-form) consists of two periods so placed that the second constitutes a consequent or antithesis to the first. The second half of this second period is often exactly the same as the second half of the first period, thus binding the two periods together into absolute unity. The theme of the choral movement of the Ninth Symphony (Beethoven) quoted below is a perfect example of this form. Other examples are "Drink to Me Only With Thine Eyes," and "The Last Rose of Summer."

[Listen]

The small three-part primary form is like the two-part primary form except that it has a section of contrasting material interpolated between the two periods. This middle part is usually an eight-measure phrase.

The large two- and three-part primary forms usually have sixteen-measure periods instead of eight-measure ones, but are otherwise similar in construction.

These various primary forms are used in constructing many varieties of compositions, among them the theme and variations, the polka, the waltz, the march, etc., as well as most of the shorter movements in sonatas, quartets, etc. They are used in vocal music also, but are less apt to be regular here because the form of vocal music is largely dependent upon the structure of the text.

147. A theme is a fragment of melody used as the subject of a fugue, as the basis of the development section in "sonata form," etc. Sometimes it is a complete tune (often in period form), on which variations are made, as e.g., in the familiar theme and variations.

[148.] Thematic development consists in taking a short theme (or several short themes) and by means of transposition, interval expansion and contraction, rhythmic augmentation and diminution, inversion, tonality changes, etc., building out of it a lengthy composition or section of a composition. Fig. 60 b, c, d, e, and f show how the theme given in Fig. 60 (a) may be varied in a few of these ways. There are hundreds of other fashions in which this same theme might be varied without destroying its identity. For other examples of thematic development see the development section of Sonata Op. 31, No. 3, as analyzed in [Appendix E].

[Listen]

For further illustrations of development in the case of this same theme, see—Christiani—The Principles of Expression in Pianoforte playing, p. 144, ff. from which the foregoing themes have been adapted.

149. A rondo is an instrumental composition (in homophonic style) in which a certain theme appears several times almost always in the same form (i.e., not thematically varied), the repetitions of this theme being separated by contrasting material.

The rondo is the oldest of the larger monophonic forms and has been used in many different ways, but perhaps its most characteristic construction is as follows: (1) Principal subject; (2) second subject in dominant key; (3) principal subject; (4) third subject; (5) first subject again; (6) second subject, in tonic key; (7) coda (or ending).

The student should note particularly the problem of repetition and contrast (mentioned in [Sec. 134]) as here worked out, as the rondo was the first monophonic form in which this matter was at all satisfactorily solved, and its construction is especially interesting because it is readily seen to be one of the direct predecessors of the highest form of all—the sonata. Examples of rondos may be found in any volume of sonatas or sonatinas.

150. A suite is a set of instrumental dances all in the same or in nearly related keys. The first dance is usually preceded by an introduction or prelude, and the various dances are so grouped as to secure contrast of movement—a quick dance being usually followed by a slower one.

The suite is interesting to students of the development of music as being the first form in several movements to be generally adopted by composers. It retained its popularity from the beginning of the seventeenth to the end of the eighteenth centuries, being finally displaced by the sonata, whose immediate predecessor it is thus seen to be.

The suite was formerly written for solo instrument only (harpsichord, clavichord, piano) but modern composers like Dvořák, Lachner, Moszkowski, and others have written suites for full orchestra also.

[151.] Among the dances commonly found in suites are the following:

Allemande—duple or quadruple measure.

Bolero—triple measure.

Bourée—duple or quadruple measure.

Chaconne—triple measure.

Courante—a very old dance in triple measure.

Csardas—Hungarian dance in duple or quadruple measure.

Gavotte—quadruple measure.

Gigue (or jig)—duple measure.

Habanera—Spanish dance in triple measure.

Minuet—slow dance in triple measure.

Mazurka—Polish dance in triple measure.

Polonaise—Polish dance in triple measure.

Rigaudon—lively dance in duple or triple measure.

Sarabande—triple measure.

Tarantella—swift Italian dance in sextuple measure.

The allemande is especially interesting to students of music form because of its relation to the sonata, it being the prototype of the sonata-allegro (i.e., the first movement of the sonata). The sarabande and courante are likewise interesting as the prototypes of the second movement, and the bourée, minuet, etc., for their connection with the third movement.

152. The scherzo (lit. musical joke) is a fanciful instrumental composition. It was used by Beethoven as the third movement of the sonata instead of the more limited minuet, but is also often found as an independent piece.

153. A sonata is an instrumental composition of three or more movements (usually four), the first and last of which are almost always in rapid tempo. Each of these movements is a piece of music with a unity of its own, but they are all merged together in a larger whole with a broad underlying unity of larger scope. The composition receives its name from the fact that its first movement is cast in sonata-form. (See [Sec. 157] for description of sonata-form.)

When the sonata has four movements, these are usually arranged as follows:

1. A quick movement (allegro, presto, etc.), often preceded by a slower introduction.

2. A slow movement (largo, andante, adagio, etc.).

3. A minuet or scherzo, often with a trio added, in which case the part preceding the trio is repeated after the trio is played.

4. A quick movement—the finale, sometimes a rondo, sometimes another sonata-form, sometimes a theme with variations.

These movements are all in closely related keys, but in a variety of contrasting rhythms.

154. A trio is a sonata for three instruments (such as piano, violin, and cello), while a quartet is a sonata for four instruments, the most common quartet combination being as follows: First and second violins, viola, and violoncello.

The term chamber music is often applied to instrumental music for trio, quartet, quintet, and other similar combinations which are suitable for a small room rather than for a large concert hall.

The words trio and quartet are also applied to vocal works for three and four voices respectively, these having no relation whatsoever to the sonata as described above. The word trio is also applied to the middle section of minuets, scherzas, marches, etc., the term originating in the old usage of writing this part for three instruments only.

155. A concerto is a sonata for a solo instrument with orchestral accompaniment, the form being usually somewhat modified so as to adapt it to a composition in which there must necessarily be opportunity for a good deal of technical display. There are usually but three movements in the concerto.

The great majority of concertos are for piano and orchestra, but examples of concertos for violin, cello, flute, oboe, and other solo instruments (all with orchestral accompaniment) have also been written. A few modern composers have applied the term concerto to certain large organ works (with no orchestral accompaniment, the composition being written for just the one instrument), but this use of the word is so contrary to the accepted definition that it is hardly justifiable.

When a concerto is played on two pianos (without orchestra), this does not mean that there is no orchestral part, but that there is no orchestra to play it, and so the parts that should be played by the orchestral instruments have simply been arranged for a second piano (sometimes organ).

156. A symphony is a sonata for full orchestra. In general its construction is the same as that of the sonata, but it is usually of much larger proportions and has in it much greater variety of both tonal and rhythmic material. The symphony is generally conceded to be the highest type of instrumental music ever evolved.

The symphony was accepted as a standard form in the time of Haydn (1732-1809) and was developed enormously by Haydn himself, Mozart (1756-1791), and Beethoven (1770-1827), reaching perhaps its highest point in the famous "Nine Symphonies" of the last-named composer. Later symphony writers whose works are at present being performed include Schumann, Tschaikowsky, and Dvořák.

The word symphony was formerly used synonymously with ritornelle, both words being applied to instrumental interludes between parts of vocal works, but this usage has now entirely disappeared.

[157.] Sonata-form (sometimes called sonata-allegro) is a plan for the construction of instrumental music (sonatas, quartets, symphonies, etc.), in which three rather definite divisions always occur, the third division being a more or less literal repetition of the first.

These three parts of sonata-form with their usual subdivisions are:

I. Exposition

(1) Principal theme (or first subject).

(2) Link-episode (or modulation group).

(3) Secondary theme (or song group), always in a nearly related key.

(4) Closing group.

(5) Coda.

II. Development Section

Treating the themes introduced in the exposition in an almost infinite variety of fashions, according to the principles of thematic development. (See [Sec. 148]).

III. Recapitulation (or Reprise)

Consisting essentially of the same subdivisions found in the exposition, but differing from this first section in one essential point, viz., that instead of stating the secondary theme in a related key, the entire recapitulation is in the principal key. This third section is always followed by a coda (which may either be very short or quite extended), bringing the whole movement to a more definite close.

The second part of sonata-form (the development section) is sometimes the longest and most intricate of the three divisions, and it is at this point that the composer has an opportunity of displaying to the full his originality and inventive skill. It is principally because of this development section that the sonata is so far superior as a form to its predecessors. For an analyzed example of sonata-form, see [Appendix E]. The student is advised to take other sonatas and go through the first movements with a view to finding at least the three main divisions mentioned above. In some cases the form will of course be so irregular that all the parts indicated cannot be discovered, but the general outlines of the scheme will always be present.

158. A sonatina, as its name implies, is a little sonata. It differs from the sonata proper principally in having little or no development, the second section being of slight importance as compared with the corresponding section of a sonata.

A grand sonata is like an ordinary sonata in form, but is of unusually large dimensions.

159. Program music is instrumental music which is supposed to convey to the listener an image or a succession of images that will arouse in him certain emotions which have been previously aroused in the composer's mind by some scene, event, or idea. The clue to the general idea is usually given at the beginning of the music in the form of a poem or a short description of the thing in the mind of the composer, but there are many examples in which there is no clue whatsoever except the title of the composition.

Program music represents a mean between pure music (cf. the piano sonata or the string quartet) on the one hand, and descriptive music (in which actual imitations of bird-calls, whistles, the blowing of the wind, the galloping of horses, the rolling of thunder, etc., occur), on the other. Most program music is written for the orchestra, examples being Liszt's "The Preludes," Strauss' "Till Eulenspiegel," etc.

[160.] A symphonic poem (or tone poem) is an orchestral composition of large dimensions (resembling the symphony in size), usually embodying the program idea. It has no prescribed form and seems indeed to be often characterized by an almost total lack of design, but there are also examples of symphonic poems in which the same theme runs throughout the entire composition, being adapted at the various points at which it occurs to the particular moods expressed by the program at those points.

The symphonic poem was invented by Liszt (1811-1886) and has since been used extensively by Strauss, Saint-Saëns and others. It came into existence as a part of the general movement which has caused the fugue and the sonata successively to go out of fashion, viz., the tendency to invent forms which would not hamper the composer in any way, but would leave him absolutely free to express his ideas in his own individual way.

CHAPTER XVI

Terms Relating to Vocal Music

161. An anthem is a sacred choral composition, usually based on Biblical or liturgical[34] words. It may or may not have an instrumental accompaniment, and is usually written in four parts, but may have five, six, eight, or more.

The word anthem is derived from antifona (or antiphona), meaning a psalm or hymn sung responsively, i.e., antiphonally, by two choirs, or by choir and congregation.

A full anthem is one containing no solo parts; a solo anthem is one in which the solo part is predominant over the chorus, while a verse anthem is one in which the chorus parts alternate with passages for concerted solo voices (i.e., trios, quartets, etc.).

[162.] A capella (sometimes spelled cappella) or alla capella music is part-singing (either sacred or secular) without accompaniment.

This term means literally "in chapel style," and refers to the fact that in the early days of the church all singing was unaccompanied.

163. A motet is a sacred choral composition in contrapuntal style. It has no solo parts, thus corresponding to the madrigal (q.v.) in secular music. The motet is intended for a capella performance, but is often given with organ accompaniment.

164. A choral is a hymn-tune of the German Protestant Church. It is usually harmonized in four voices. The choral (sometimes spelled chorale) is described as having "a plain melody, a strong harmony, and a stately rhythm." It differs from the ordinary English and American hymn-tune in being usually sung at a much slower tempo, and in having a pause at the end of each line of text.

[165.] The mass is the liturgy for the celebration of the Lord's Supper in the service of the Roman Catholic Church. As used in the terminology of music the word refers to the six hymns which are always included when a composer writes a musical mass, and which form the basis of the celebration of the Communion.[35] These six hymns are as follows:

Kyrie.

Gloria (including the Gratias agimus, Qui tollis, Quoniam, Cum Sancto Spirito).

Credo (including the Et Incarnatus, Crucifixus, and Et Resurrexit).

Sanctus (including the Hosanna).

Benedictus.

Agnus Dei (including the Dona nobis).

The requiem mass is the "mass for the dead" and differs considerably from the ordinary mass. Both regular and requiem masses have been written by many of the great composers (Bach, Beethoven, Verdi, Gounod), and in many cases these masses are so complex that they are not practicable for the actual service of the Church, and are therefore performed only by large choral societies, as concert works.

166. A cantata is a vocal composition for chorus and soloists, the text being either sacred or secular. The accompaniment may be written for piano, organ, or orchestra.

When sacred in character the cantata differs from the oratorio in being shorter and less dramatic, in not usually having definite characters, and in being written for church use, while the oratorio is intended for concert performance.

When secular in subject the cantata differs from the opera in not usually having definite characters, and in being always rendered without scenery or action.

Examples of the sacred cantata are: Stainer's "The Crucifixion," Clough-Leighter's "The Righteous Branch," and Gaul's "The Holy City." Examples of the secular cantata are: Bruch's "Armenius," Coleridge-Taylor's "Hiawatha."

167. An oratorio is a composition on a large scale for chorus, soloists, and orchestra, the text usually dealing with some religious subject. The oratorio, as noted above, is not intended for the church service, but is written for concert performance.

168. An opera is a composition for vocal soloists, chorus, and orchestra, with characters, action, scenery, and dramatic movement. It is a drama set to music.

Grand opera is opera with a serious plot, in which everything is sung, there being no spoken dialog at all.

Opera comique is a species of opera in which part of the dialog is spoken and part sung. Opera comique is not synonymous with comic opera, for the plot of opera comique is as often serious as not. In fact the entire distinction between the terms grand opera and opera comique is being broken down, the latter term referring merely to operas first given at the Opera Comique in Paris, and the former term to those given at the Grand Opera House in the same city.

A comic opera is a humorous opera, the plot providing many amusing situations and the whole ending happily. It corresponds with the comedy in literature.

A light opera is one with an exceedingly trivial plot, in which songs, dances, and pretty scenery contribute to the amusement of the audience. The music is lively, but usually as trivial as the plot.

The term music drama was used by Wagner in referring to his own operas, and is also sometimes applied to other modern operas in which the dramatic element is supposed to predominate over the musical.

169. A libretto (lit.—little book) is the word-text of an opera, oratorio, cantata, or some other similar work.

[170.] Recitative is a style of vocal solo common to operas, oratorios, and cantatas, especially those written some time ago. Its main characteristic is that the word-text is of paramount importance, both rhythm and tone-progression being governed by rhetorical rather than by musical considerations.

Recitative undoubtedly originated in the intoning of the priest in the ritualistic service of the Church, but when applied to the opera it became an important means of securing dramatic effects, especially in situations in which the action of the play moved along rapidly. Recitative is thus seen to be a species of musical declamation.

In the early examples of recitative there was scarcely any accompaniment, often only one instrument (like the cello) being employed to play a sort of obbligato melody: when full chords were played they were not written out in the score, but were merely indicated in a more or less general way by certain signs and figures. (See "thorough-bass," [p. 85], [Sec. 200].)

But about the middle of the seventeenth century a slightly different style of recitative was invented, and in this type the orchestra was employed much more freely in the accompaniment, especially in the parts between the phrases of the text, but to some extent also to support the voice while singing. This new style was called recitativo stromento (i.e., accompanied recitative), while the original type was called recitativo secco (i.e., dry recitative).

During the last century the style of recitative has been still further developed by Gluck and Wagner, both of whom used the orchestra as an independent entity, with interesting melodies, harmonies and rhythms all its own, while the vocal part is a sort of obbligato to this accompaniment. But even in this latest phase of recitative, it is the word-text that decides the style of both melody and rhythm in the voice part. Fig. 61 shows an example of dry recitative, taken from "The Messiah."

[Listen]

[171.] Aria is likewise a style of vocal solo found in operas, etc., but its predominating characteristic is diametrically opposed to that of the recitative. In the aria the word-text is usually entirely subordinate to the melody, and the latter is often very ornate, containing trills, runs, etc.

The rendition of this ornate style of music is often referred to as "coloratura singing," but it should be noted that not all arias are coloratura in style.

The familiar solos from The Messiah—"Rejoice Greatly," and "The trumpet shall sound" are good examples of the aria style.

172. A lied (Ger. = song) is a vocal solo in which the text, the melody, and the accompaniment contribute more or less equally to the effect of the whole.

Strictly speaking the word lied means "a poem to be sung," and this meaning will explain at once the difference between the lied on the one hand, and the Italian recitative and aria on the other, for in the lied the text is of great importance, but the music is also interesting, while in the recitative the text was important but the music very slight, and in the aria the text was usually inconsequential while the music held the center of interest.

The most pronounced characteristic of the lied is the fact that it usually portrays a single mood, sentiment, or picture, thus differing from the ballad, which is narrative in style. It will be noted that this "single mood, or sentiment, or picture" was originally conceived by the poet who wrote the word-text, and that the composer in writing music to this text has first tried to get at the thought of the poet, and has then attempted to compose music which would intensify and make more vivid that thought. This intensification of the poet's thought comes as often through the rhythm, harmony, and dynamics of the accompaniment as through the expressiveness of the voice part.

The style of song-writing in which each verse is sung to the same tune is called the "strophe form," while that in which each verse has a different melody is often referred to as the "continuous" or "through-composed" form (Ger. durch-componiert).

173. A ballad was originally a short, simple song, the words being in narrative style, i.e., the word-text telling a story. In the earlier ballads each verse of the poem was usually sung to the same tune (strophe form), but in the art-ballad as developed by Loewe and others the continuous style of composition is employed, this giving the composer greater opportunities of making vivid through his music the events described by the poem. These later ballads are in consequence neither "short" nor "simple" but compare in structure with the lied itself.

174. A folk-song is a short song sung by and usually originating among the common people. Its dominant characteristic is usually simplicity, this applying to word-text, melody, and accompaniment (if there is one). The text of the folk-song is usually based on some event connected with ordinary life, but there are also many examples in which historical and legendary happenings are dealt with. Auld Lang Syne, and Comin' thru the Rye, are examples of folk-songs.

There has been some difference of opinion as to whether a song, the composer of which is known, can ever constitute a real folk-song: recent writers seem to be taking the sensible view of the matter, viz.: that if a song has the characteristics of a folk- rather than an art-song, and if it remains popular for some time among the common people, then it is just as much a folk-song whether the composer happens to be known or not.

175. A madrigal is a secular vocal composition having from three to eight parts. It is in contrapuntal style, like the motet, and is usually sung a capella.

176. A glee is a vocal composition in three or more parts, being usually more simple in style than the madrigal, and sometimes having more than one movement. The glee may be either gay or sad in mood, and seems to be a composition peculiar to the English people.

177. A part-song is a composition for two or more voices, (usually four) to be sung a capella. It is written in monophonic rather than in polyphonic style, thus differing from the madrigal and glee. Morley's "Now is the Month of Maying" is an example of the part-song, as is also Sullivan's "O Hush Thee, My Baby." The term part-song is often loosely applied to glees, madrigals, etc.

CHAPTER XVII

Rhythm, Melody, Harmony and Intervals

178. The four elements commonly attributed to music (in the order of their development) are: Rhythm, Melody, Harmony, and Timbre (or tone-color).

179. Rhythm is the regular recurrence of accent. In music it is more specifically the regular recurrence of groups of accented and non-accented beats (or pulses)—according to some specified measure-system. Since rhythm implies continuity, there must usually be at least two such measure groups in order to make musical rhythm possible. (See [p. 44], [Sec. 97].)

180. A melody is a succession of single tones of various pitches so arranged that the effect of the whole will be unified, coherent, and pleasing to the ear.

The soprano part of hymn-tunes and other simple harmonized compositions is often referred to as "the melody."

181. Harmony is the science of chord construction and combination.

The term harmony refers to tones sounding simultaneously, i.e., to chords, as differentiated from tones sounding consecutively, as in melody. The word harmony may therefore be applied to any group of tones of different pitches sounded as a chord, although specifically we usually refer to a succession of such chords when we speak of "harmony." It is possible to use the same combination of tones in either melody or harmony; in fact these two elements as applied to modern music have developed together and the style of present-day melody is directly based upon the development that has recently taken place in harmonic construction.

Harmony (as contrasted with counterpoint) first began to be an important factor in music about 1600 A.D., i.e., at the time when opera and oratorio came into existence, when form was established, and when our modern major and minor scales were adopted. Before this practically all music was composed on a contrapuntal basis.

182. Timbre is that peculiar quality of sound which enables one to distinguish a tone produced by one instrument (or voice) from a tone produced by an equal number of vibrations on another instrument.

The word timbre is synonymous with the terms quality of tone, and tone quality (Ger.—Klang-farbe), the excuse for using it being that it expresses adequately in one word an idea that in our language takes at least two: this excuse would disappear (and incidentally a much-mispronounced word would be eliminated) if the single word quality were to be adopted as the equivalent of timbre. Thus, e.g., the soprano voice singing c' has a quality different from the contralto voice singing the same tone.

(The remainder of this chapter and all of [Chapter XVIII] deal with terms commonly encountered in the study of harmony. Courses in this subject usually begin with a study of scales, but since this subject has already been somewhat extensively treated, this chapter will omit it, and will begin with the next topic in harmony study, viz.—the interval.)

183. An interval is the relation of two tones with regard to pitch. If the two tones are sounded simultaneously the result is an harmonic interval, but if sounded consecutively the result is a melodic interval. Fig. 62 represents the pitches f' and a' as a harmonic interval, while Fig. 63 represents the same pitches arranged as a melodic interval.

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184. In classifying intervals two facts should be constantly kept in mind:

(1) The number name of the interval (third, fifth, sixth, etc.), is derived from the order of letters as found in the diatonic scale. Thus the interval C—E is a third because E is the third tone from C (counting C as one) in the diatonic scale. C—G is a fifth because G is the fifth tone above C in the diatonic scale.

It should be noted however that the same number-names apply even though one or both letters of the interval are qualified by sharps, flats, etc. Thus e.g., C—G♯ is still a fifth, as are also C♯—G♭ and C♭—G♯.

(2) In determining the specific name of any interval (perfect fifth, major third, etc.), the half-step and whole-step (often referred to respectively as minor second, and major second) are used as units of measurement.

The half-step is usually defined as "the smallest usable interval between two tones." Thus, C—C♯ is a half-step, as are also B—C, F—G♭, etc.

A whole-step consists of two half-steps. C—D is a whole-step, as are also B♭—C, E—F♯, F♯—G♯, G♭—A♭, etc.

The expressions half-step and whole-step are much to be preferred to half-tone and whole-tone, as being more clear and definite. Thus e.g., the sentence "The two tones are a half-step apart" is much better than "The two tones are a half-tone apart."

185. A prime is the relation between two tones whose pitches are properly represented by the same degree of the staff.

A perfect prime is one whose tones have the same pitch. Middle C sounded by piano and violin at the same time would offer an example.

An augmented prime is one whose second tone is one half-step higher than the first. Ex. C—C♯.

186. A second is the relation between two tones whose pitches are properly represented by adjacent degrees of the staff. (The first line and first space are adjacent degrees, as are also the third line and fourth space.)

A minor second is one comprising one half-step. Ex. B—C.

A major second is one comprising two half-steps. Ex. B—C♯.

An augmented second is one comprising three half-steps. Ex. F—G♯.

187. A third is an interval comprising two seconds.

A diminished third has two minor seconds (i.e., two half-steps). C—E♭♭.

A minor third has one minor and one major second (i.e., three half-steps). C—E♭.

A major third has two major seconds (i.e., four half-steps). C—E.

188. A fourth is an interval comprising three seconds.

A diminished fourth has two minor and one major second. C♯—F.

A perfect fourth has one minor and two major seconds. C—F.

An augmented fourth (tritone) has three major seconds. C—F♯.

189. A fifth is an interval comprising four seconds.

A diminished fifth has two minor and two major seconds. C—G♭.

A perfect fifth has one minor and three major seconds. C—G.

An augmented fifth has four major seconds. C—G♯.

190. A sixth is an interval comprising five seconds.

A minor sixth has two minor and three major seconds. C—A♭.

A major sixth has one minor and four major seconds. C—A.

An augmented sixth has five major seconds. C—A♯.

191. A seventh is an interval comprising six seconds.

A diminished seventh has three minor and three major seconds. C—B♭♭.

A minor seventh has two minor and four major seconds. C—B♭.

A major seventh has one minor and five major seconds. C—B.

192. An octave is an interval comprising seven seconds.

A diminished octave has three minor and four major seconds. C—C♭.

A perfect octave has two minor and five major seconds. C—C.

An augmented octave has one minor and six major seconds. C—C♯.

193. A ninth is usually treated as a second, a tenth as a third, etc. The interval of two octaves is often referred to as a fifteenth.

194. If the major diatonic scale be written and the interval between each tone and the key-tone noted, it will be observed that the intervals are all either major or perfect. See Fig. 64.

[Listen]

In this connection also it will be noted that the interval next smaller than major is always minor, while that next smaller than perfect or minor is always diminished: but that the interval next larger than both major and perfect is augmented.

195. An interval is said to be inverted when the tone originally the upper becomes the lower. Thus C—E, a major third, inverted becomes E—C, a minor sixth.

CHAPTER XVIII

Chords, Cadences, Etc.

196. A chord is a combination of several tones sounding together and bearing an harmonic relation to each other. The simplest chord is the triad, which consists of a fundamental tone called the root, with the third and fifth above it. C—E—G is a triad, as are also D—F—A, F—A—C, and G—B—D.

197. Triads are classified as major, minor, diminished, or augmented.

A major triad has a major third and a perfect fifth, i.e., it is a major third with a minor third on top of it. Ex. C—E—G.

A minor triad has a minor third and a perfect fifth, i.e., it is a minor third with a major third on top of it. Ex. C—E♭—G.

A diminished triad has a minor third and a diminished fifth, i.e., it is a minor third with another minor third on top of it. Ex. C—E♭—G♭.

An augmented triad has a major third and an augmented fifth, i.e., it is a major third with another major third on top of it. Ex. C—E—G♯.

198. A triad may be built on any scale-tone, but those on I, IV, and V, are used so much oftener than the others that they are often called the common chords. In referring to triads the Roman numerals are used to show on what scale-tone the triad is based, the size of the numeral (with other signs) indicating the kind of triad found on each tone of the scale. Thus e.g., the large I shows that the triad on the first tone (in major) is a major triad, the small ii shows that the triad on the second tone is minor, etc. The following figure will make this clear.

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The triads in the minor scale are as follows:

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199. A triad is said to be in fundamental position when its root is the lowest tone. It is said to be in the first inversion when the third is the lowest tone, and in the second inversion when the fifth is the lowest tone. Thus e.g., in Fig. 66 the same chord (C—E—G) is arranged in three different positions, at (a) in fundamental position, at (b) in the first inversion, and at (c) in the second inversion.

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[200.] When the root is not the bass note, figures are sometimes used to show what chord is to be played or written. Thus, e.g., the figure 6 over a bass note means that the note given is the third of a chord, the root being found by going up a sixth from the bass note: i.e., the chord is to be sounded in its first inversion. In the same way the figures 6/4 indicate that the note given is the fifth of the chord, the root and fifth being found by going up a sixth and a fourth from the note given; i.e., the chord is to be sounded in its second inversion.

The use of these and other similar figures and signs is called figured bass (or thorough bass) notation. An example of a figured bass is given in Fig. 67.

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Thorough bass notation was formerly used extensively in writing accompaniments to vocal works, the accompanist having to interpret the notes and signs given, and then to make up an interesting accompaniment as he went along. Much of Handel's music was written in this way, but in modern editions of these works the chords have been printed in full and the signs omitted.

[201.] A seventh chord consists of a fundamental tone with its third, fifth, and seventh. The fifth is sometimes omitted. A ninth chord consists of a fundamental with its third, fifth, seventh, and ninth.

202. A cadence is the close of a musical phrase: in melody it refers to the last two tones; in harmony to the last two chords.

The word cadence is derived from cadere, a Latin word meaning to fall, the reference being to the falling of the voice (i.e., the dropping to the normal pitch) at the close of a sentence.

203. The most frequent cadence in harmony is that involving the chord on I preceded by the chord on V. Because of its directness the cadence V—I is called the authentic cadence.

204. The most satisfactory form (to the ear) of the authentic cadence is that in which the highest voice (the soprano) of the final chord is the root of that chord. When the final chord appears in this position the cadence is called perfect[36] authentic, and when the third or fifth of the chord appear in the soprano, the cadence is called imperfect authentic. Fig. 68 shows the chord G—B—D cadencing to C—E—G in three different ways. The first one (a) is called a perfect authentic cadence, but the last two (c) and (d) are imperfect authentic.

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205. A plagal cadence is one in which the tonic chord is preceded by the sub-dominant chord (IV—I). The plagal cadence (sometimes called the church cadence, or amen cadence), like the authentic, is described as being perfect when the soprano of the tonic chord is the root of that chord, and imperfect when the soprano of the final chord is the third or fifth of that chord. Fig. 69 shows the chord F—A—C cadencing to C—E—G in three ways. The first one (a) is called a perfect plagal cadence, the last two are imperfect plagal.

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206. A half-cadence occurs when the dominant chord is used as the final chord of a phrase, and is immediately preceded by the tonic chord. This form is used to give variety in the course of a composition, but is not available at the end because it does not give a definite close in the tonic key. Fig. 70 shows the use of the half-cadence at the close of such a phrase.

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