NOTES ON ISLAM

BY

SIR AHMED HUSSAIN, K.C.I.E., C.S.I.
(NAWAB AMIN JUNG BAHADUR)

Collected and Edited
by
Khan Bahadur Hajee Khaja Muhammad Hussain

"The fear of the Lord is the beginning
of knowledge."—Proverb

HYDERABAD, DECCAN
GOVERNMENT CENTRAL PRESS
1922

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

TO
THE MEMORY
OF
K. AMJUD HUSSAIN.
One of the four for whom these Notes
were first written,
in 1917.

FOREWORD

The following Notes were enclosed by the author in his weekly letters to his brother and sons who were students in the Universities of Cambridge, Edinburgh and Birmingham. I persuaded him to allow me to have them printed, as I thought they were suggestive and useful. He has however desired me to say that they should not be regarded as anything but concise memoranda jotted down (at short intervals between the busy hours of his official life) as general answers to questions put to him. They contain some passages which are too concise or abstract, if not vague or enigmatic. But, the author says, he left them designedly so in order to induce his readers to try to understand them or at least to seek explanation and illustration. Numerous foot-notes have been added for the same purpose.

He frankly admits that his view of Islam is neither quite orthodox nor quite heterodox but something midway between the two. It was put forward in order to make his boys think for themselves and argue with him. The first three Notes may be 'skipped' at the first reading.

Sincere acknowledgments are due to Nawab Imad-ul-Mulk Bahadur Bilgrami, c.s.i., Mr. J.C. Molony, i.c.s., Khan Bahadur Abdur Rahim, b.a., b.l., Mr. Syed Ross Masood, m.a., and others who very kindly read the proofs and favoured the author with valuable suggestions.

Banganapalle,		K.M.H.
11th August 1922.

Duty is Deity Work is Worship.—Sanskrit Proverb

CONTENTS

Worship Truth Love Humanity.—Islamic Maxim

THE MUSLIM PRAYER.[1]

Surai Fatiha

Praise be to Thee my God, Lord of the Worlds! O Merciful, Compassionate art Thou! The King of all on Day of Reckoning, Thee only do we worship and adore, To Thee, most merciful, we cry for help; O guide us ever more on the straight path, The path of those to whom Thou gracious art On whom Thine anger falls not then nor now, The path of them that from Thee go not stray. Amen.

Grant that the knowledge I get may be the knowledge worth having.—Thomas a Kempis.

NOTES ON ISLAM

Note 1.

Introduction.

WO of you—Lateef and Altaf—will recollect that more than a year ago you wrote to me saying that you were puzzled by certain questions which a Missionary had put to you. I remember that Amjud or Mahmood even went so far as to ask what was the good of Islam, when countries and people professing that faith had weak governments and were crumbling to pieces under the influence of Christian Powers.[2] I answered your queries only in a general way as your University education had not then advanced far enough. But I think the time has now come when I should try to explain to you what I conceive to be the true spirit of the religion of our fore-fathers.

I firmly believe that Islam is the best[3] religion in the world—I mean, Islam rightly understood and interpreted and not the Muhammadanism[4] of some of our formularist Maulavies,[5] who say that a man goes to Hell or Heaven according as he wears his trousers lower or higher than his ankles! They have degraded our religion by paying undue attention to formulas and forms to the exclusion and neglect of its living spirit and reality[6]. The poet Hafiz rightly stigmatised their vain controversies when he said that چون نديدند حقيقت ره افسانه زدند "since they did not see the fact, they ran after fiction."

I am more than ever convinced of two characteristics of Islam:—

1st.—It is not inconsistent with true Christianity, or with any other true religion[7] of which the fundamental principle is توحيد One God لا شريك له و حده "the Peerless One."[8]

2nd.—It conforms to modern scientific ideas better than any other religion.

I have already explained, in some of my letters[9] to you, why I believe that Islam is but a continuation and consummation of Christianity as taught by Jesus himself in his own speeches which are reported in the Synoptic Gospels of the New Testament. We have nothing to do with the interpretation of his words by his Apostles and others after them. If we take the plain words and the plain meaning of those words reported to have proceeded from his own blessed mouth,[10] we clearly see that they teach the same sublime truths as our Prophet himself inculcated. Jesus did not live long to complete his mission, Muhammad completed it. Both were God's holy messengers رسل ال. Says the Qur'an: "This day I have completed your religion for you." اليوم اكملت اكم دينكم

I need not now go into details, or refer to other religions, to shew that the spirit of Islam is not inconsistent with their true spirit, if rightly conceived and interpreted in the light of modern science. I hope I shall be able some day to write down the result of my own thought and investigation in the matter. I content myself at present with drawing your attention to the first characteristic of Islam, and I propose to write a few Notes to draw your special attention to its second characteristic which is the more remarkable—the characteristic that it is quite consistent with modern ideas of science.

No scientific idea influenced the thought of the last century more profoundly than the idea of progress or development embodied in what is called the Law of Evolution. It is now widely accepted. You will be surprised to know that many an Islamic tenet is entirely in accord with it. Indeed Maulana Rumi outlined it poetically in his famous Masnavi in the thirteenth century, in the same manner as Lord Tennyson did in his Princess in the nineteenth. I desire that you should try to understand it in its modern form. I strongly recommend that you should read an admirable book by Edward Clodd called The Story of Creation[11]. When I first read it, some years ago, I felt it was as pleasant and interesting as a novel. Its introduction and Part II are quite easy to read. They will give you a very good idea of the great revolution which Darwin and Wallace, Huxley and Spencer have wrought in the thought of our own times.

Note 2.

The First Chapter of the Qur'an.

HE following is a translation of the "Opening Chapter" of our Holy Qur'an. I have analysed it by placing Roman and Arabic numerals, the first indicating verses آيات and the second indicating sub-divisions of verses.

The whole Sura divides itself into three parts and each part into three divisions thus:—

If you will carefully compare the parts of each Prayer which I have written as separate paragraphs marked (a), (b) and (c), you will observe that there is difference only in the language, but no difference whatever in the real meaning. There is in both Prayers absolutely the same spirit of

a) Adoration,
(b) Submission, and
(c) Supplication.

Both begin with the praise of the Lord to whom all praise is due. This is followed in both by an expression of our entire dependence on Him and submission to His will. Lastly, there is solicitation for guidance, positive and negative, viz., guidance towards right action and guidance for avoiding temptation.

The three parts (a), (b) and (c) of the Christian as well as of the Muslim Prayer are in perfect accord with the results of a comparative study of the religious systems of the world. They correspond to three essential elements in all religions, viz.,

(a) Belief in the existence of a Supreme Power which is Infinite and Absolute,

(b) Feeling of man's entire dependence on that Power, and

(c) Desire to seek or solicit guidance of that Power in the daily life of man.

You will thus see that both the Lord's Prayer in the Bible and the Opening Chapter of the Qur'an go to the roots of all religions ever professed by man. They are truly Universal Prayers. No man need hesitate to join in the solemn recitation of either.

We ought to view all monotheistic religions—religions which enjoin belief in one God—in the spirit in which St. Peter viewed them when he said (Acts x. 34-5): "Of a truth I perceive that God is no respecter of persons, but in every nation he that feareth Him and worketh righteousness is accepted with Him." The same is the spirit of the oft-repeated definition of 'Muslims' in the Qur'an: الذين آمتواوعملوا الصلحت "those who believe and work righteousness." "Trust in the Lord and do good," as the Psalm says.

Note 3.

I.—What is Religion?

have said that true Islam is the best religion in the world. I must prove my assertion. In order to do so I have to explain:—

I.—Religion, God and Nature.

Religion.—No thinking man can help asking himself the questions: "Whence has this world come? Whither is it bound to go?" in other words, "What was the origin مبداٌ and what will be the end معاد of the world of men, animals, plants and things that I perceive?" The answers which each man gives to these questions constitute his religion. A few earnest persons (poets, philosophers and theologians) try to answer these questions for themselves by patient study and earnest thought[13]. But a large majority of men and women merely take the answers taught them by their parents, teachers or priests. There may possibly be a small number of men who do not trouble themselves about these questions. These are not "thinking men" and may therefore be left out of account.

Religion is a silent and subtle power that works in the heart of man and makes for righteousness. It is generated by his conviction as to the beginning and end of himself and the world in which he lives and moves[14].

God.—No intelligent and intelligible answers can be given to questions as to the origin and the end or the government of Nature[15] without assuming the existence of the One and only one God who is Infinite and Absolute, i.e., One who hath neither beginning nor end and who is not conditioned or limited by anything whatever[16]. The Infinite and Absolute One has been called by different names by different people at different times[17]. Yezdan, Ishwara, Jehovah, God, and Allah are the names, in different languages, of the same Infinite and Absolute God.

God of the Granite and the Rose Soul of the Sparrow and the Bee! The mighty tide of being flows Through countless channels, Lord, from Thee.

[*] Conceptions of God, His attributes, and His relation to Nature.—These have been and will ever be many and various. But I summarise three principal conceptions under each head, for I believe that other ideas, notions or conceptions are but combinations of two or more of these:—

I. Conceptions of God:—

1. God as the Ultimate Law.
2. God as the Omnipotent Energy or Power.
3. God as the Supreme Being or Person[18].

II. Notions of God's principal attributes:—

1. God as Creator or Nourisher.
2. God as Preserver or Protector.
3. God as Adjuster or Judge[19].

[*]Paragraphs marked with asterisks and their footnotes may be omitted at the first reading.

III. Ideas of God's relation with Nature[20] (i.e., with the world of men, animals, plants and other objects, and their inter-relations, of which men are aware):—

* The above is but a rough summary. I have neither time nor space to explain and illustrate it. I have ventured to give some hints—imperfect hints, I fear—in the footnotes. I may however state here that, of the above three conceptions, notions or ideas Islam accepts the medium or the middle one which, as a little thought will show, includes the other two conceptions also. You need not at present try to understand the summary or the words given in brackets. My subsequent Notes will explain it to some extent. Please remember that there are many men and many minds, and that there are likely to be as many religions, as many conceptions of God, as many notions of His attributes, and as many ideas of the beginning or end of things, (مبد اٌو معاد) as there are thinking minds[22].

Let me conclude this Note with a short answer to the question why religion is necessary to Man[23]. No society is possible without religion, because of the dual nature of Man. As our poet says, با بها ئم بهره داري با ملائك نيزهم and as all modern men of science (such as Sir Oliver Lodge and others) admit, there is a higher and a lower in every man's nature, the one lifts him up and the other pulls him down in the scale of animal and social existence. Religion is necessary in order that every man's higher nature may conquer his lower nature in order that he may become a social being who is virtuous and does good of his own accord, and may not remain a mere beast whom the whip alone prevents from doing mischief. It is religion that fosters high-thinking and holy-living, so necessary for the advancement of the human race.

Note 4.

II.—What is true Islam?

HE answer to this question is contained within the four corners, as it were, of the Opening Sura[24] سورة فاتحة which is a general summary of the whole Qur'an. I have already analysed it and asked you to compare it with the Christian prayer called the Lord's prayer. I am sure you have noted and admired its simplicity and clearness and its almost scientific precision and comprehensiveness. I am only amplifying what I have already said when I say that the Sura teaches three cardinal and eternal truths:—

1st.—There is but One God who has created the worlds, maintains them, and rules them. In the inimitable words of the Sura of Purity.

			سورةاخلاص
قل هوالله احد	Say, God is one.		= One.
اللهالصمد	God is Eternal.		= Infinite.
لميلد و لميولد و لم يكن له كفواً احد	He does not beget		= Absolute.[25]
	nor is He begotten.
	And He hath no
	kith or kin.

2ndly.—(a) God being our Creator, we have to worship, adore and love Him and Him alone. This is the duty we owe to God. (b) Again, God being our merciful Preserver, we have to seek the protection of Him and Him alone. This is the duty we owe to ourselves. (c) Finally, God being our Judge or Ruler, we have to solicit guidance of Him and Him alone. This is the duty we owe to our fellow-creatures (including lower animals) in the world we live in.

You must not fall into the error of believing that God is Creator at one time or place, that He is Maintainer or Preserver at another time or place, and that He is Judge or Ruler at a third time or place. No, no; He, being the One and only God, is all the three together, Creator, Preserver and Ruler, at all times and in all places. It is we who, in order to understand Him properly and adore Him rightly, separate in our minds His three principal attributes, and think of Him as our Creator when we worship Him, think of Him as our Preserver when we seek His protection, and think of Him as our Ruler or Judge when we solicit His guidance. It is only we, finite and conditioned creatures, that are tied down to and limited by time, place and circumstances. To God there are none such. He is the One Infinite and Absolute, the One who hath neither beginning nor end—the One who is absolutely unlimited and unconditioned by time, place, circumstances, or anything else. This is the Islamic conception or idea of God.

3rdly.—What does the Sura teach us as to the guidance which we have to ask of God in our dealings with our fellow-creatures? It is guidance into the straight path. What is the straight path? It is the path of righteousness or the path of Grace which is between two extremes, the path of Sin and the path of Error. A Muslim's right path, i.e., his right course of conduct, lies between two extreme paths or courses of conduct, viz., on the one hand, the path of those who sin, who knowingly and deliberately go against the will of God, which is manifest in Nature, and on the other hand, the path of those who unwittingly, through ignorance, go against His will. The right path lies thus:—

Path of Sin		Path of Grace		Path of Error
which leads		which leads to		which leads to
to ruin or		eternal bliss.		confusion worse
destruction.				confounded.

You thus see that true Islam consists in a threefold duty to God, to oneself, and to others, and this duty is to be discharged by simply adopting, under God's guidance, the mean between two extremes. As our Prophet has pithily expressed it خير الامور اوسطها "the best of things is the medium thing." This is the fundamental principle which underlies everything which is Islamic or Muslim.[26] Please remember it, as also the three-fold Islamic Duty:—

(a) Duty to God, which is Worship or Adoration implying, as it does, complete submission to His will = اسلام

(b) Duty to yourself, which is self-preservation or self-perfection = اسلام

(c) Duty to others, which is peace and good will towards them = اسلام

"Islam"[27] as a religion means nothing more nor less than those three duties.

Islam is not Philosophy, much less is it Science. It is but a Religion, an attitude of man's mind towards his environment—the attitude of self towards others and God. Both Philosophy and Science influence one's attitude of mind. To that extent Islam has to reckon with both. It is therefore that Sufis and other philosophic sects have risen in Islam from time to time. The sphere of Islam is Faith manifesting itself in good works; and the spheres of Science and Philosophy are Knowledge and Reason. The latter often come into contact with the former, but can never be identified with it.

Note 5.

What is not Islam.

N my previous Note I tried to sketch briefly what is true Islam. I now offer a few observations on, or illustrations of, what is not Islam. In order to know anything quite well, it is desirable not only to know what it is but also to know what it is not.

1. The religion taught by the Qur'an and the Traditions احاديث of our Prophet is Islam and not "Muhammadanism," as it is often named. Those who profess Islam are Muslims and not "Muhammadans," as they are called. The word "Musalman" is but a corruption of the Arabic plural مسلمون مسلمين of the singular مسلم. We and our religion have been called[28] after the name of Muhammad just as the terms Christians and Christianity have been derived from the name Christ. But "Muhammadanism" and "Muhammadans" are not at all the correct names of "Islam" and "Muslims" as you will presently see.[29]

2. From the point of view of Islam, all religions may be divided thus:

Religions are either,

Observe that a pure Religion, such as true Islam, comes in between false Religions and mistaken or mixed Religions, just as the Quranic Path of Grace lies between the Path of Sin and the Path of Error. It is the mean between two extremes.

3. It is not Islam to believe that there has been no true religion besides Islam.[30] Such an erroneous belief leads to intolerance, thereby begetting bigotry and fanaticism تعصب. It is contrary to the teaching of the Qur'an and the Prophet. The first verse of the second Sura الم = سورة بقرة commands us to believe in not only what was revealed to Muhammad but also in what was revealed to those who went before him. It clearly indicates that there are, and will ever be, many true religions of which Islam is one. Almost the first saying of our Prophet reported in collections of his traditions احاديث is "whoever says 'there is no god but God,' will attain Salvation" i.e., will obtain eternal bliss. This shews clearly that all religions which inculcate belief in one God are true religions—are right Paths of Grace which lead to eternal bliss. Observe that most Muhammadans (not Muslims) of to-day have forgotten this principle and have therefore become intolerant fanatics,[31] which accounts largely for the loss of political power of most Muhammadan Governments of modern times.

4. Neither is it Islam to believe that all religions are true. Such an erroneous belief leads to indifference, thereby begetting caprice and impiety. It is obviously contrary to the teaching of the Qur'an and the Prophet, for they both denounce many a false religion. If everybody thinks that every religion is true, there will be no two men professing the same religion, and there will be no real agreement between their thoughts and actions. Co-operation[32] اتفاق و ايحاد among men (which is the root of Family, Society and State) would tend to become impossible. Note that it is the indifference to religion and the consequent impiety of some of the Muhammadans of to-day that accounts mostly for their lack of co-operation, and for their loss of political power in modern times. Degradation is the lot of faithless Muslims, for as the Qur'an says, "Ye will be exalted only if ye be faithful Muslims."

From what has been said you can easily infer that we should adopt the mean between two extremes and must therefore believe that neither are all religions true nor are they all false, but that some religions are true and that Islam is one of them. The characteristic mark of true religions is belief in one God; and this indeed is the reason why Muslims are permitted to eat and live with, and even marry, Jewesses, Christians and others who believe in one God and possess sacred Scriptures.

5. I, for one, would not hesitate to call all Monotheists (Jews, Christians, and other Unitarians موحدين) Muslims, because they believe in one God: but I would not call them Momins مومن, because they do not believe in one God in accordance with the teaching of our Prophet. You know that our Creed كلمة consists of two parts:—

(i) There is no god but God,
(ii) And Muhammad is His Messenger.

Those who believe in the first part are Muslims (مسلم = the peaceful)[33] and those who believe in the first as well as the second part of the Creed are Momins (مومن = the faithful). Both Muslims and Momins are believers in one God; the only difference between them is that Muslims may not (like Momins) accept Muhammad as their guide in the belief. The Qur'an (iii. 83) defines Islam thus:—

Say ye; We believe in God, and that which hath been sent down (revealed) to us, and that which hath been sent down to Abraham and Ismail and Issac and Jacob and the tribes; and that which hath been given to Moses and to Jesus and that which was given to the Prophets from their Lord. No difference do we make between them—and to God we are resigned (Muslims).

[6.] "There is no deity but God." Since God is One, His Revelation to Man cannot be other than one and the same for all time. There has therefore been and will ever be but one true religion. That religion is Islam. إن الدين عند الله الاسلام "Verily the (only) religion with God is Islam" (Q. iii 17). All the prophets from Adam to Muhammad received but one and the same Revelation and therefore preached Islam and Islam only. ذالك الدين اقيم "It was (and is) the standard religion"—Q. xii. 41.[34]

Whenever any people went astray and deserted Islam for idolatry a prophet arose among them to preach Islam and bring them back to righteousness.[35] Each prophet or messenger of God did nothing but try to restore the universal religion to its pristine simplicity and purity.

It was only in interpreting the Revelation and applying it to the practical needs of their age, that successive prophets and their followers differed; and the differences gave rise to the so-called religions and religious systems of the world.

Note 6.

"Islam" and "not-Islam".

must devote this Note also to my observations on "Islam" and "not-Islam" in order to prepare you for a just appreciation of my contention that there are many good religions in the world but Islam is the best of them[36].

1. The Prophet Muhammad lived and died more than thirteen hundred years ago. There are now on the face of the earth no less than 250 millions (= 25 crores) of human beings who profess his religion, and who love and respect him just as his own immediate followers loved and respected him. These two simple facts are enough to prove—

(1) that there must be something real and true in the religion professed by so many people, and

(2) that the man who preached and established it must have been both great and good to an extraordinary degree;

for common experience leads us to conclude (a) that nothing which is false or unreal can survive centuries of change and (b) that none who is not good and great can be loved and respected by millions of men. No Muslim or Momin need therefore believe in any thing more than:—

(i) that Islam is a real and true religion, and

(ii) that Muhammad was a very great and good man.[37]

Thus, your belief in one God لا اله الالله makes you a Muslim[38] (= peaceful), no matter by what other name you call yourself; and your belief in the goodness and greatness[39] of Muhammad محمد رسول الله makes you a Momin (= faithful), no matter by what name others may call you. Let me quote here a passage from Sir Edwin Arnold's Preface to his beautiful poem "The Pearls of Faith: the Ninety-Nine Names of Allah:" اسماء حسنى

"The soul of Islam is its declaration of the unity of God: its heart is the inculcation of an absolute resignation to His will. Not more sublime, in religious history appears the figure of Paul the tent-maker, proclaiming 'the

Unknown God' at Athens, than that of the camel-driver Muhammad, son of Abdullah and Amina, abolishing all the idols of the Arabian Pantheon, except their chief—Allahu ta 'Ala, God the Most High—and under that ancient and well-received appellation establishing the one-ness of the origin, government, and life of the Universe. Thereby that marvellous and gifted Teacher created a vast empire of new belief and new civilization, and prepared a sixth part of humanity for the developments and reconciliations which later times will bring. For Islam must be conciliated; it cannot be thrust scornfully aside or rooted out. It shares the task of the education of the world with its sister religions, and it will contribute its eventual portion to

—"that far-off divine event Towards which the whole creation moves."

The italics are mine. I shall have to refer to them in my subsequent Notes. Observe, the cosmopolitan poet uses only the word "Islam" and not "Muhammadanism".

2. It is not Islam or Eman ايمان to deify Muhammad or to represent him to be akin to God, as sometimes some Moulvies represent him and call him "the One (Ahad) in the guise of Ahmad[40]." Our Prophet himself never claimed that he was anything more than a mere man. Indeed, he taught us all to say اثهد ان لا اله الا الله و اثهد ان محمداً عبده و رسوله that he was but "a servant and messenger of God." The only thing he ever claimed for himself was that God had chosen him to be a messenger رسول to convey His messages to men. "That an immense mass of fable and silly legend," says Rodwell, "has been built up upon the basis of the Qur'an, is beyond a doubt; but for this Muhammad is not answerable,[41] any more than he is for the wild and bloodthirsty excesses of his followers in after ages."

3. God's messages which Muhammad delivered to men were all collected soon after his death and are preserved intact in a remarkable book called the Qur'an—a book which has lived through no less than thirteen centuries without undergoing the least alteration in a single word or even a dot! The difference in the messages contained in the Qur'an and the ordinary sayings of the Prophet reported in books on Hadis حديث is simply this:—that when delivering God's messages Muhammad himself felt, and those who were in his company witnessed, that he was inspired by some divine energy or power which impelled him to say what he said; whereas at other times, when he was talking like an ordinary man, no signs of divine energy or inspiration were visible. It will carry me too far if I endeavour to explain here the real nature of "the divine inspiration" under which he delivered what he and others believed to be "divine messages". You will understand it if you read such books as Professor James's Varieties of Religious Experience. Let us, like good Momins, take it as a fact, what our Prophet's intimate companions صحابة vouched, that he appeared to be quite a different man when he uttered such messages. Their style or matter itself even to this day proves to all unbiassed minds that they are no ordinary sayings of an ordinary man. There is something unique in them which we can only feel but cannot define or express in words. Even historians and biographers like Gibbon and Muir and translators like Rodwell, Palmer and Lane-Poole are obliged, in spite of themselves, to admit and admire, what some of them call, the rugged grandeur and eloquence of the Qur'an. Even Sale says that some passages are really sublime.

4. We call the Qur'an the word of God, chiefly because it contains messages of high spiritual value delivered by an illiterate man like Muhammad. It is neither a history like some of the books of the Old Testament, nor a biography like the four Gospels of the Bible. It is only a collection of sermons, commands, and instructions delivered and issued from time to time as occasions required. It contains, indeed, references to stories of older Prophets and previous events well known to the people of Arabia. But they are less by way of narration than by way of illustration. They are parables more or less [42] (تلك الامثال نضر بها لناس). Commentators like Zamakh-shari (تفسير كشاف) and Imam Razi (تفسير كبير) whose learning and authority cannot be questioned, have clearly proved that there is nothing in the Qur'an which is improbable or cannot be rationally explained to be quite in accordance with the laws of Nature قانون قدرت. If you read Sir Syed Ahmad's Commentary تفسير احمدى or his Essays خطبات you will find rational explanations of the ideas of Paradise and Hell, the Day of Judgment,[43] etc. I need not dwell on them here. I would however draw your attention to what is called the rule of "Parsimony in Thought" which is in vogue among men of Science. It is that if and when you can explain anything by what is well-known and understood by every one, you should not believe in the existence of "supermen" or assume the occurrence of supernatural events. When, for example, we can explain any action of Muhammad as an ordinary action of a reasonable man, we should not assume or believe that he performed a miracle. If we can explain the defeat and discomfiture of Abraham's Army by natural causes, such as an epidemic, we ought not to assume the occurrence of any supernatural event[44].

5. The Qur'an does not favour any particular system of Philosophy. It leaves Muslims free to adopt any system of thought that commends itself to them, provided that it is not inconsistent with the (توحيد) idea of the one eternal and absolute God. Thus the Qur'an confines itself to the sphere of religion—the sphere where man is brought face to face with his God.

(a) What, then, is the object or aim of the Qur'an?

من عرف نفسه فقد عرف ربه (He who has understood himself has understood his God.)

(b) Why should a man be revealed unto himself?

In order that he might know his true relation with the rest of the world so that he might shape his conduct accordingly i.e., be true to himself, true to others, and true to his God in thoughts, words, and deeds.

(c) How does the Qur'an reveal a man unto himself?

By showing him:—

(1) God in History[45] (هوا لا ول و الاخر He is the First and the Last.)

(2) God in Nature[46] (و الظا هر He is the Manifest.)

(3) God in Man's Conscience[47] (والباطن and He is the Hidden—Qur'an lvii. 3.)

In this sense the Qur'an is truly a revelation!

His sign is in allthings,		* ففى كلشى له آية
Indicating that He isOne.		* تدلعلىا انه واحد

Note 7.

III.—Why is Islam the best religion?

Y real task begins with this Note. I have to explain to you why I consider Islam[48] the best of the religions that are now professed by men all over the world. Mark, I do not say that other religions are not good, but I only say that Islam is the best religion of all those I know. Why do I say so? Because no other religion accords so well as Islam with the modern ideas of Science.

By applying the adjectives "good," "better" and "best" to religions, I indicate the degree to which each religion, by its tenets and teaching, induces men to seek their welfare فلاح: and by the word "Science" علم I mean simply the systematised knowledge of things known and knowable.

Science discovers things that are necessary or desirable for human welfare. Arts generally show the way in which those things can be obtained or manufactured. Governments provide, or ought to provide, facilities for scientific investigation and for improvement in arts. And it is Religion that should move men to take the fullest advantage of the science and arts of the time. You may take a horse to a river but you cannot make him drink unless he is thirsty. If he is thirsty he will drink of his own accord; but if he is not, neither the appearance of clear water, nor the easy way to get at it, nor indeed your whip or coaxing can ever induce him to drink. In the same way Science may show you water or anything that is useful, Arts may show you different ways of getting it, the Government of your State may offer rewards or even threaten punishment; but you will not drink, that is to say, you will not take advantage of the good things shown you and placed at your disposal, unless you are thirsty, unless there is something in you which impels you to it. This thirst, this something that is the moving force or motive, is created or furnished by Religion.

The chief use of religion lies in the desire that it fosters in men to live well, and virtuously.[49] It is true that for most men the fear of punishment and the hope of reward, either here or hereafter, are motives for right conduct: and some religions (and even Islam as taught by some Moulvies) give glowing pictures of Heaven and Hell awaiting good and bad people after death.[50] But these motives are unworthy of the higher nature قوا ئى ملكو تى of man. They are like the crack of a whip or the show of green grass to a horse that will not run. They are not so effective and lasting as the high spiritual motive for a virtuous life furnished by true religion. I cannot dwell further on this point without entering upon a philosophical or metaphysical discussion which is foreign to the purpose of these Notes. Suffice it to say that the spiritual or religious motive for virtuous conduct is the best of all motives, as it conforms to the higher or angelic ماكو تى nature of man and assists him in subduing his lower or animal بها ئمى nature.[51]

"The son of man is a unique andcomplex product (of Evolution) which has combined in him thenatures of both the angel and the beast. If he leans towards thelatter, his animal nature, he falls lower than the beast itself,but if he turns his attention to the former, his angelic nature, herises higher than the angel himself."

آدمىزاده طرفىمعجونےاست از فر شتى سرشتى وزحيوان گر كند ميلاين شود كمازين ور كند قصدآن شود بىازان

It is but religion, true Religion, that enables the "son of man" i.e., mankind to surpass angels in godliness. Note, this is exactly what Sir Oliver Lodge says in his book, The Substance of Faith allied with Science.

There is another use of Religion to which I should refer briefly before I pass on to the main argument. You always intend doing many things but never succeed in doing them all, either because you change your mind or because somebody or something prevents you from carrying them out. It is nevertheless important to yourself and society that your wishes, which are naturally more numerous than your actions, should be as good as the actions themselves. Laws and social conventions cannot adequately control them, for they take account of only outward manifestations, that is, actions which flow or result from your inward desires, passions and prejudices. These are controlled by such religions as true Christianity and true Islam which take that as done which was merely intended to be done, and inhibit bad intentions even before they appear in action.

Now, whatever religion supplies the best motives for virtuous conduct and most effectively prevents mischievous intentions, must necessarily be one which conforms best with the most approved ideas of the science and arts of the time. I hold that Islam is such a religion.[52]

Let me begin by showing a conformity of Islam to a modern idea, that there are more worlds than one.[53] There are still some religions which assume that there is no other world than the world we live in, and that God created and maintains it for men only. Science has proved that such assumptions are unwarranted, and has even suggested grounds for believing that there are beings in the innumerable worlds of stars. This world of ours with its inhabitants has therefore no right to monopolise God to itself. Nor indeed have we, human beings, any right to consider ourselves as its superior inhabitants. Science is now-a-days on the track of finding out beings who are or who may be superior to man. Note that all this is implied in the expression رب العا لمين "the Lord of the worlds" contained in the Sura and other parts of the Qur'an. It does not say "the king of the world" (رب العالمين) or of men رب العالم but says generally and truly that God is the King or Lord of great or grand worlds: رب الانسان, the definite article رب العالمين in Arabic is often used to express greatness or grandeur as in the word ال which means the Most High God.

According to Islam there are two sources of knowledge, Science and Revelation: the one represents man's effort to learn God's ways, and the other represents God's grace to discover His ways to man.[54] I for one believe that the difference between the two sources of knowledge corresponds to the difference between "Experience" and "Intuition," between Acquired Ideas and Innate Ideas—a difference which modern philosophers (Spencer and Bergson) consider to be one of degree only and not of kind.

Note 8.

Unity[55] and Union.

cannot go over the whole field of Muslim theology to show how its ideas are in accord with the scientific thought of our days. I will confine myself to three principles and three maxims implied in the analysis of the Opening Sura سورة فتحة given in one of my previous Notes[56].

I. The verse الحمد لله رب العالمين الرحمن الرحيم مالك يوم الدين points to the Principle of Unity:

There is but one God who created the worlds, maintains and rules them.

From this results the Maxim of Union & Loyalty:

Union is strength = Be loyal to your King.

II. The verse اياك نعبد و اياك نستعين اهدنا الصراط المستقيم points to the Principle of Perfection:

Worship of God, His protection, and guidance are necessary for the perfection of our mind and body.

From this results the Maxim of Self-help:

God helps those who help themselves = Be true to yourself.

III. The verse صراط الذين انعمت عليهم غير المغضوب عليهم و لا الضالين points to the Principle of Moderation:

It is the straight path of righteousness that enables you to avoid crooked paths of sin and error and leads you to happiness.

From this results the Maxim of the Average:

Adopt the mean of two extremes = Be moderate in everything.

I will now endeavour to shew, as briefly and as simply as possible, how the principles and maxims I have stated correspond with the best scientific ideas of the present age. By "the best scientific ideas," I mean nothing more than conclusions arrived at by eminent men of science after severe study and prolonged investigation. I can only refer to the conclusions as such without attempting to summarise the reasoning, etc. by which they have been reached. You may read the works of authors I shall name, if you wish to learn more of their thoughts.

I.

Principle of Unity.

1. The first Principle of Unity توحيد implies that there is but one Energy or Force whose different transformations we call forces, but one Life whose appearance in different shapes we call lives, and but one Mind whose different manifestations we call minds. But the universal Energy, the universal Life, and the universal Mind[57] الرحمن الرحيم مالك يوم الدين رب العالمين are themselves but so many forms, appearances or manifestations of the one Being الله who is Infinite الصمد and Absolute لم يلد و لم يولد و لم يكن له كفوا احد. This is exactly what scientific men and philosophers have said and are saying to-day. Read the works of any of the eminent men mentioned in the margin, 1. Herbert Spencer.
2. Dr. A.R. Wallace.
3. Prof. James.
4. Sir Oliver Lodge.
5. Dr. Theodore Merz. and you will find that the conclusion they have reached after life-long investigations, tallies remarkably with the conception of God which Islam formulated centuries ago.

Every child begins with the experience of 'This is mine' and 'That is not mine.' This experience matures in the adult into "I" and "not-I"—the subject that knows and the object that is known. We call the knower or subject, Mind; and the known or object, Matter. Most modern Philosophers agree in believing that Mind and Matter are but two aspects of One Reality underlying All. Just as a big building like the Falaknuma Palace presents different aspects when viewed from different directions, and yet is one and the same building; so the Reality of Existence appears to us in different aspects as Mind and Matter, and yet is one and the same Reality[58].

Dr. Theodore Merz of the Durham University, at the end of his grand survey of the Scientific Thought of Europe in the 19th Century,[59] says: "The scientific mind advances from the idea of Order or arrangement to that of Unity through the idea of Continuity."

The process adopted by Science of arriving at Unity is only the reverse of what Islam adopted: the former begins a posteriori with Order, finds Continuity and arrives at Unity, but the latter started a priori with Unity, passed over Continuity, and found Order, thus:—

What Sir Edwin Arnold calls the soul of Islam, i.e., the Principle of Unity, so patently corresponds with the ultimate results of modern Science and Philosophy, that I need not dwell on it at any great length. It is sufficient to point out that Science has now proved three Unities, the Unity of Substance, the Unity of Force, and the Unity of Process; and Philosophy has shown that the three Unities resolve themselves into One Infinite Power.[61]

"There is no strength (to avoidevil) nor ability (to do good)except through God who is great andsupreme."

لا حولو لا قوة الابا للهالعلىالعظيم

Maxim of Union and Loyalty.

2. How is the Maxim of Union and Loyalty inferred from the principle of Unity? Man, being a creature of God, should try to be godly and godlike, try to imitate God in actions, try to co-operate with his fellow creatures for the good of all, and should thus attain the ideal: "Union is Strength." This is the Islamic doctrine of Atonement[62] (= at-one-ment فنا فى الله): to be at one with God by union and co-operation with God's creatures so far as your and their constitutions and environments allow. But you need not bother yourself with theories at present. It will be enough if you remember that the ultimate aim or the sole object of the Prophet's mission was to establish the universal union and brotherhood of mankind by means of a firm belief in the eternal truth of God's unity. He preached the Unity of God and worked all his life for the union of men into a universal Brotherhood.

In order that you should co-operate, i.e., work together with your fellow-men for the good of all, your work must needs be co-ordinated. It must be guided and directed so that it tallies with the work of others. This guidance and direction comes from your leader, whom you and your fellow-workers must obey, in order to attain the best results. Co-operation thus implies Co-ordination which requires a leader—Caliph or King—whom you ought to follow loyally. Loyalty to your leader is therefore the gist of co-operation. The Qur'an and the Traditions are full of injunctions for obedience to "those in authority among you" [63] اولوا الامر منكم "The surest way of pleasing God is to obey the King."

Modern Science teaches exactly the same thing. I have a series of little books in my Library called "People's Books" published at 6d. each by Messrs. Jack, London. One of them on "Zoology" is written by Professor MacBride, F.R.S. He traces the development of Man from Protozoa,—little specks of animalculæ—and points out how each species of animals has risen higher than another by (i) greater "inventive capacity", the capacity of adopting new means to an old end and old means to a new end: and (ii) higher "tribal morality" implied in co-operation and loyalty to leaders. He says: "Mankind progresses by the appearance of individuals in whom (besides the inventive genius) the instincts of co-operation and loyalty are more strongly developed". It is precisely those instincts that Islam fosters by its doctrine of the universal brotherhood of Muslims—a doctrine which implies primarily loyalty to your King. Just as the affairs of a family like yours, consisting of a dozen members, cannot prosper unless each follows loyally the lead of the eldest, or the wisest among you; so the affairs of a nation can never be in a satisfactory condition unless each individual is loyal to his King and country, and co-operates with his Government by willingly doing what is required of him.

Muhammad enjoined اطلب العلم و لو كان بالضين "Seek knowledge even if thou hast to go for it to China"—(the farthest country known in his days).

Delve gems of Science divine Ev'n unto Cathay's mine.

He said that wisdom was the birthright of every Muslim who should seize it wherever he found it. He thus encouraged the learning of Science and the consequent acquirement of inventive capacity which is biologically as essential for human progress as co-operation and loyalty.

A study of animal life from the lowest animalcule to the highly civilized man, teaches us to know, feel and act, in a particular manner, viz.,

(a) to know our environment, i.e., to know the Laws of Nature in order to improve our general capacity for invention, manufacture and commerce, (Knowledge)

(b) to feel for our fellow-men in order to increase mutual good-will so necessary for co-operation, (Sympathy)

(c) and to act for the general good of our race under the guidance of our political and social leaders, (Loyalty).

"Knowledge, Sympathy and Loyalty" are thus the watchwords of the Science of to-day no less than of the Islam of our ancestors.[64]

Note 9.

Perfection and Self-help.

LLOW me to explain here that my object is not to persuade you to believe what I say but only to make you think for yourself. I will therefore avoid arguments and discussions as much as possible and content myself with bare outlines of certain Islamic doctrines and brief references to the corresponding ideas of modern Science. I shall be very pleased if they serve to excite your curiosity and stimulate your thought.

II.

Principle of Perfection.

1. The second Muslim doctrine which I have called the Principle of Perfection may be inferred from the second part of the Sura:—It is essential for our perfect development that we should worship God and implore Him for help and guidance in the discharge of the three-fold duty of our life.

No sane man thinks that he is perfect as he is. There is always a feeling of some sort in our mind that somehow, and in some respect or other, we are not as perfect as we should be. It is to remove this feeling of imperfection inherent in us that we have to worship God and supplicate His help and guidance. If you ask: "Why should I worship God?" Islam answers your question by asking another: "Why should you admire beauty in Nature and Art?" You can answer only: "Because it is beautiful. I am so constituted that I cannot do otherwise than admire a beautiful object when I see it". You are unable to give any other reason satisfactorily accounting for your admiration of the beautiful. Islam returns a similar answer to your question: "You should worship God because He is God". You, as one of His creatures, cannot help worshipping or reverently adoring Him when you see, at every instant of your life, manifold manifestations of His divine Goodness and Beauty. Some Sufis[65] even go to the extent of identifying God with "Infinite Beauty" حسن ازلى which is the object of their love عشق and ecstacy وجد.

You remember the verse which every devout Muslim recites when he hears the news of the death of any one: انا لله و انا اليه راجعون

"Verily we are God's and to Him we shall return".

This as well as some other verses support the Islamic belief in the re-union of a man's soul with God. As I have mentioned in my previous Note, Islam conceives that there is but one Universal Soul. Small parts—infinitesimal fractions—of the Universal Soul are confined in men's bodies and break free at death to re-join the Whole[66]. This belief is in entire accord with Sir Oliver Lodge's theory (or "speculation", as he calls it) put forward in his book, Faith allied to Science. Without stopping to enquire how far the belief indicated by Qur'anic verses, or the theory advanced by a man of science, is supported by scientific facts, I would only point out that it gives a clear and intelligible meaning to the word "worship" عبادت. It is the communion of the fractional soul, which is somehow confined in a man's living body, with the Whole Soul, the Soul of the Universe, to which it—the fractional soul—shall return some day freed from the trammels of the flesh. This "communion" عبادت includes Adoration تسبيح و تهليل and Prayer دعا.

I cannot do better than quote Sir Oliver Lodge's admirable description of the meaning and object of Prayer:—

"In prayer we come into close communion with a Higher than we know, and seek to contemplate Divine perfection. Its climax and consummation is attained when we realize the universal Permeance, the entire Goodness and the Fatherly Love of the Divine Being."

[الحد لله رب العالمن الرحمن مالك يم الدين

Praise be to God, Lord of the worlds, compassionate and merciful, King of the day of Reckoning.]

"Through prayer we admit our dependance on a Higher Power, for existence and health and everything we possess; we are encouraged to ask for whatever we need as children ask parents; [ادعونى استجب لكم Call upon me—I will hearken unto you] and we inevitably cry for mercy and comfort in times of tribulation and anguish."

"The spirit of simple supplication may desire chiefly:—

"1. Insight and receptiveness to truth and knowledge.

[ايم نعبد We worship Thee alone.]

"2. Help and guidance in the practical management of life.

[واياك نستعين We seek help from Thee alone.]

"3. Ability and willingness to follow the light withersoever it leads."

[اهدنا الصراط المستقيم Guide us into the right path]

Compare the verses I have placed in brackets with what Sir Oliver says, and you will observe how well he has interpreted the Qur'an. It looks as if he had the Opening Sura سورة فاتحة before him when he wrote. Even the sequence of his ideas corresponds practically with the order of the verses. But you may be quite sure that he never thought of the Qur'an at all. He evolved it all from his own inner consciousness well trained by scientific studies.

Maxim of Self-help.

2. There are numerous verses in the Qur'an which enjoin "purification تز كيم of one's self" and prohibit "cruelty ظلم to one's own mind". They obviously imply the rule of conduct which I have called the Maxim of Self-help. No one has expressed it more beautifully and truthfully than Shakespeare in the well-known speech of Polonius.

This above all: to thine own self be true, And it must follow, as the night the day, Thou canst not then be false to any man.

Herbert Spencer, Prof. T.H. Green, Lecky (Historian), Profs. Muirhead, Mackenzie, and Sen.

It is the basis of the ethical system advocated by authors mentioned in the margin. There are at present two contending schools of Morality. Each tries to determine what is 'good' or 'bad', and sets up a 'standard' or test by which men's actions should be judged as 'right' or 'wrong'. The standard according to the one school is Happiness (the surplus of pleasure over pain); according to the other it is Perfection (the fullest development of men as social beings). I think the latter school is more in favour now than it was at the end of the last century. Men of science now-a-days realize with Herbert Spencer that every one ought to develop himself by freely exercising all the powers of his mind and body to the fullest extent consistent with, and limited by, the like exercise by his fellow men.[67] I cannot expatiate on this subject without entering into the realms of philosophy and metaphysics. I have only to say that the teaching of Islam as regards self-development is in entire accord with the views of latter-day moralists.

If you are a student of Ethics you will observe that the doctrine of "making the most of oneself" (Perfection) is, in accordance with the Islamic principle of Moderation, the mean of two extreme doctrines:—the doctrine of "duty for duty's sake" (Rigourism) on the one hand, and the doctrine of "the greatest happiness of the greatest number" (Utilitarianism) on the other.

Duty—Perfection—Utility.

I have to add that "self-perfection" really means "self-help," = due exercise of one's faculties with patience and perseverance. If you have not read Dr. Smiles' book on Self-help, you had better read it at your earliest convenience. I can recommend no better commentary on the saying: "God helps those who help themselves."[68]

Note 10.

Moderation and Via Media.

slam[69] is, so to speak, the youngest of all the great religions that are now professed by millions of people. Like a child who is heir to all the mental and physical tendencies inherited and acquired by his ancestors, Islam inherited all the revelations which "one hundred and eighty thousand" (i.e. innumerable) prophets had communicated to the world before the advent of Muhammad. I have already referred to the injunction, contained in the Qur'an, that we should believe not only what was revealed to Muhammad himself, but also what was revealed to all "Messengers of God" who had come before him; provided always that we have authentic records of those revelations.[70] (This proviso is very important.) It is therefore no detraction from the merits of Islam that some of its doctrines resemble those of other revealed religions. Parsis say that Islam borrowed: بسم الله الرحمن الرحيم "In the name of God the most merciful and most compassionate"[71] from their holy scripture, Zendavesta, which begins with the words بنام ايزد بخشا ئنده بخشا يشگر مهربان داد گر. Some Christian writers on Islam seem to take delight in pointing out that the Prophet of Arabia borrowed this, that, and the other doctrine from certain Christians and Jews whom he had met in his earlier life. It is very doubtful whether he had ever met such people. But it is certain that he was too illiterate امى to understand their recondite doctrines if they had condescended to teach him. Even if we admit that he borrowed doctrines from other religions, his own religion is not thereby rendered the less valuable; for there is no religion which is absolutely original. He never denounced former religions but only claimed to have confirmed and supplemented them by the religion revealed to him. He always referred to "former revelations" with great respect.

Muslims picture the Supreme Truth as a beautiful citadel built on the top of a steep mountain. Different religions are but so many paths مذا هب leading to it from different directions. In their estimation Islam is the best and the easiest path of all. This fanciful idea implies that some of the paths might cross each other at different parts of their course, and others might run parallel to one another or even run together for a considerable distance. Many religions may therefore have certain doctrines bearing close resemblance to each other like parallel paths. Some religions may even have certain doctrines in common, like paths running together. All religions are, and purport to be, paths leading to one and the same citadel of Truth.[72] None the less has each of them an individuality of its own and a claim that it is better and easier than all others.[73]

III.

Principle of Moderation.

I have prefaced this Note with the above remarks because the Principle of Moderation and the connected Maxim of the Mean, which are indicated in the third and last part of the Sura, were enunciated by Plato فلا طون and his disciple Aristotle ارسطو who lived more than 1,000 years before Muhammad. Some Muslims count those great sages of ancient Greece among the innumerable (1,800,000) Messengers of God who preceded our Prophet.[74] The records[75] صحايف possess an authority second only to that of the Qur'an itself, being in fact revelations which God vouchsafed from time to time for the benefit and guidance of mankind.

1. I need not repeat what I have already said as to 'the Path of Grace' صراط الذين انعمت عليهم being the mean between two extremes, 'the Path of Sin' غير المغضوب عليهم and 'the Path of Error' و لا الضالين. I may however explain that the pursuit of the Path of Grace implies the Principle of Moderation in the sense that we should fully and freely exercise all our mental and physical powers with due regard to their respective limitations. For all practical purposes, you may take Reason, Passion and Action as the principal representatives of a man's powers, and view Reason as the guiding force in his constitution,

Passion as the moving force, and Action (voluntary acts and omissions) as the resultant of the guiding and moving forces thus:—

Now, the Principle of Moderation means simply that you should not allow your passions to influence your actions unduly, nor should you allow your reason to control your passions unduly; but you should ever try to hold the balance even between them in order that the resultant action might be quite right—might discharge the three-fold duty of man,—and might thereby tend (be it in ever so small a degree) to the perfection of the individual and the race. If at any time your passion over-rides your reason, you commit Sin; and on the contrary, if you exercise your reason so much as to stifle your passion altogether, you fall into Error. If you permit neither reason, nor passion to discharge their respective functions, you lapse into Inaction which is again an Error. Undue suppression of Passion, and over-exercise of Reason, as well as non-exercise of both—militate against the Principle of Moderation, the essence of which is (as Aristotle pointed out) that no power should tyrannize over any other in our constitution.

What is "due" or "undue" exercise of a power, is a question which your common sense should decide in each case with reference to the person acting and the circumstances under which he acts. The only general rule that can be laid down is implied in the ideal of perfection explained in the previous Notes. Every exercise of any of your mental or bodily power is right or wrong according as it does, or does not, tend to the perfection of yourselves or your offspring, and your community or race.

I have only to add that the Principle of Moderation, in the form in which I have roughly described it, is fully recognized by such up-to-date writers on the Science of Ethics as Sir Leslie Stephen, one of the two talented Editors of the Dictionary of National Biography.

Maxim of the Mean or Average.

2. Addressing Muslims the Qur'an says:—
كذا لك جعلناكم امة وسطا لتكونوا شهداء على الناس
"We have thus made you a middle nation (= a moderate people) in order that you should be an example to mankind."—i. 137.

One of the ways in which God has made Muslims a moderate people is by enjoining them to avoid extreme courses of action and to adopt the middle or the mean course whenever and wherever it is possible[76].

The Maxim of the Mean is the objective counter-part of the subjective Principle of Moderation. The latter says: Don't over-, or under-exercise any of your faculties; and the former says: Don't have too much or too little of any thing. Too much of any thing is good for nothing. Too little of it is worse than nothing. "Too much" and "too little" are relative terms and signify nothing by themselves. It is only with reference to oneself and one's environment at any particular time and place that they acquire a meaning as "excess" and "defect" respectively. I cannot explain it better than give a few instances in a tabular form where the "mean" comes between the "excess" and the "defect" of a quality of the head or heart, or a course of action.

(1) Qualities of the Head (Reason):—

(2) Qualities of the Heart (Passions):—

(3) Courses of Action:—

You will find out for yourself what are the appropriate qualities or courses of conduct, of which the excess, mean and defect are expressed by the words given above. Fear, for example, is the feeling of which excess is Cowardice and defect is Rashness, while the mean is Courage. Similarly as regards one's own opinion of one's powers, excess is Conceit and defect is Diffidence, while the mean is Modesty. Again too much or too little restraint on action is Restriction or Licence while the mean is Liberty.

It will be a useful exercise to make a long list of such words as express the difference of degrees of the various qualities or functions of Reason, Passion and Action (= Knowledge, Feeling and Will.) But it will not always be possible to find three contrasted words, like those in the table, for every quality or action; because no language is so perfect as to have separate and single words to express the immense number and manifold shades of ideas which our mind is capable of entertaining. Still the fact is duly recognized by modern Science that there are differences not only of kind but also of degree in everything—ideas, feelings, desires, actions, objects and attributes of objects—with which we are concerned. Although you may not have a word expressive of degree in every case, yet you can practically ascertain the extremes and the mean in all cases without exception, and can so order your conduct as to avoid the one and adopt the other in all cases. I may point out here that "the Mean" is not the "arithmetical mean" (like 6½ which is the arithmetical mean of 5 and 8) but only an approximately medium or middle course of conduct—via media.[77] خيرا لا مو ر ا و سطا

You may object that, since the ascertainment of the mean in each case requires calm thought with reference to yourself and your environment, the rule is too difficult to follow in these days of quick communication, speedy locomotion, and urgent action. I answer that it is but an ideal rule of conduct. Like all rules of Logic (Thought), Æsthetics (Beauty), or Ethics (Conduct), it sets before you an ideal which you should ever strive to attain though you may not attain it fully at any time. No thinker may have been absolutely logical, no Artist may have wrought a perfect work of beauty, and no man may have ever been quite moral. But that is no reason why thinkers, artists, and men generally, should not endeavour to attain perfection in their respective spheres of thought and action.

There is a further and greater objection to the rule of the middle course, viz., that, if followed strictly, it will reduce all men to a dead level of mediocrity, and will not foster the development of men of genius. I have to admit regretfully that such will be the case, and, as my next Note will show, it will be in accordance with a Law of Nature recently discovered. Some writers have even attempted to prove that genius or excessive intelligence is a form of madness as bad as its opposite form, imbecility or defective intelligence. They seem to believe that only the men of average intelligence are quite sane.

Great wits are sure to madness near allied And thin partitions do their bounds divide.—Dryden.

The late Sir John Gorst created a sensation when he declared in the House of Commons that great countries were governed by mediocrities only.