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THE

EAST INDIA

VADE-MECUM.

THE
EAST INDIA
VADE-MECUM;

OR,

Complete Guide

TO

GENTLEMEN INTENDED FOR THE

CIVIL, MILITARY, OR NAVAL SERVICE

OF THE

HON. EAST INDIA COMPANY.

BY

CAPTAIN THOMAS WILLIAMSON,

Author of ‘The Wild Sports of the East.’

IN TWO VOLUMES.

VOL. II.

LONDON:

PRINTED FOR BLACK, PARRY, AND KINGSBURY,

Booksellers to the Honorable East India Company,

7,

LEADENHALL-STREET.

1810.

CONTENTS
OF
VOL. II.

THE

EAST INDIA

VADE-MECUM.

For some months, generally during the latter part of the rains, the weather is so close and sultry, that universal exudation takes place, even while sitting quiet. The natives, as I remarked in the outset of this subject, have, from experience, adopted a very different mode from that we should have expected to find in use, under such a latitude. We should, no doubt, have been prepared to see airy habitations, through which the wind could pass freely in every direction. But it is far otherwise; and Europeans have, at length, become convinced, that the most insupportable heats are derived from the glare of light objects; or, in other words, from the reflection of surfaces intensely acted upon by a vertical sun.

Some conception may be formed of that intensity, from the fact of meat having been broiled on the cannon mounted upon the ramparts of Fort-William! We, therefore, must coincide with the habits of the natives, to a certain extent, if we mean to retain health, or to acquire comfort. Such, indeed, should, in every country, be held in view: for, however absurd many practices may at first appear, it will ordinarily result that necessity was their parent. I do not mean to say that we should imitate, much less adopt, without discrimination, all we see; but it may be considered an axiom, that, by taking the general outline of indigenous customs for our guide, if we err, it will be on the safe side. Nothing can be more preposterous than the significant sneers of gentlemen on their first arrival in India; meaning, thereby, to ridicule, or to despise, what they consider effeminacy, or luxury. Thus, several may be seen annually walking about without chattahs, (i.e. umbrellas,) during the greatest heats; they affect to be ashamed of requiring aid, and endeavor to uphold, by such a display of indifference, the great reliance placed on strength of constitution. This unhappy infatuation rarely exceeds a few days; at the end of that time, sometimes only of a week, (nay, I have known the period to be much shorter,) we too often are called upon to attend the funeral of the self-deluded victim! The first attack is generally announced by cold shiverings, and bilious vomiting; delirium speedily ensues, when putrefaction advances with such hasty strides, as often to render interment necessary so soon as can possibly be effected.

The glare is certainly far more distressing than exposure to the sun, at some seasons: but nothing can equal the effects of both glare and sun-shine, acting upon the human frame, during a Midsummer’s day; when, perhaps, not a breath of air is moving, when every leaf seems to repose, and every bird, saving the vulture, the adjutant, (or argeelah,) and the kite, retires to some shady spot, to avoid the solar ray. At such times, the peaceful Hindu confines himself to an apartment, from which light is generally excluded: there he sits among his family, enjoying his pipe, refreshing himself occasionally by bathing, drinking the pure beverage afforded by some adjacent spring or well; and, in general, avoiding to eat, except of ripe fruits, especially the turbooz, or water-melon, until the cool of the evening. In the meanwhile, however, he perspires copiously, even though in a state of inactivity, unless when refreshed by a punkah, or fan, moved either by his own hand, or by that of some menial.

The instinct of the birds above named, to wit, the argeelah, the vulture, and the kite, all of which are extremely numerous throughout India, and contribute greatly to the salubrity of the air, by carrying off astonishing quantities of putrefactive offal, &c., is wonderful! About mid-day, when the sun’s beams strike with incredible force upon the earth’s surface, these feathered scavengers ascend, perhaps to the height of seven or eight hundred yards, so that the largest of them, (the argeelah) is scarcely discernible: there they soar beyond the reach of reflection from the heated soil, enjoying the freshness of a cooler atmosphere, and descending only when allured by the scent of prey. Their sense of smelling must, indeed, be acute; for we see them, especially the vultures, flying for miles, and from all quarters, towards some carcase, usually that of a Hindu, floating down the stream, or stranded upon some shelving bank; but so situated as to render it perfectly certain that the visual faculties could have no concern in the discovery.

Few of the natives have tatties applied to their doors, or windows; though by no means insensible to the gratification they afford; but penury, or, to say the least, close and parsimonious economy, prompt to the denial of such a comfort; a comfort without which any constitution, not inured to the climate, would speedily give way. It is really curious to observe what may be effected by habit! When we understand how fatally the sun’s rays act upon our European frames, even while under the shade of a thick painted umbrella, and although our diet may be nearly similar to that of the most abstemious Hindu, it certainly must appear wonderful, that children, of whatever age, whose rapid circulation, and sable color, should, according to the estimates we form of temperament, be highly unfavorable to such exposure, run about at all seasons, bare-headed, and perfectly nude; seeming to set the sun, the wind, and the rain, alike at defiance. We see the same individuals making long journies, in the most torrid seasons, under nearly similar circumstances; nay, they even carry bangies, containing, on an average, full a maund, (82lb. avoirdupoise,) sixteen, eighteen, twenty miles, or even more, under such an oppressive heat as would kill an European outright; and this, too, for a few pence. If, in considering this point, we urge the benefits of extreme temperance, we urge that which often does not exist; since many, who practise the above, may be ranked among the most arduous votaries of Bacchus, devouring fish, flesh, and fowl, highly spiced, whenever their purses, or the bounty of others, may afford them so welcome a regale. When we see the several shop-keepers, in every city and town, serving their customers, or, in their absence, smoking like Vesuvius, in their little boutiques, exposed to the glare, and to the burning winds; when we see these persons, with parched skins, and their eyes violently irritated, and clogged, by the clouds of dust which range along the streets, and which, occasionally taking a whirl, nearly suffocate all within their reach; we may then fairly admire the force of habit, and congratulate ourselves on the blessings of a more temperate climate!

In the same situations, we see two classes of persons, both natives of the soil, acting in diametric opposition to each other; and exhibiting that powerful resistance capable of being made by long residence, or rather by aboriginal habitude, against that which never fails to consign our countrymen to the grave. The former class confine themselves, as much as their avocations may permit, within gloomy, but cool, chambers; living most abstemiously, yet, at certain times, exposing themselves in the most unequivocal manner to the severest heats: the other, perfectly inattentive to the dictates of prudence, yet performing what we may fairly term wonders, in opposition to their destructive locality. When the English first visited India, they adopted a mode of building by no means consistent with common sense, and displaying a total ignorance of the most simple of nature’s laws. We accordingly find, that all the old buildings, such as may lay claim to a duration of from forty to sixty years, were, like the celebrated Black-Hole, constructed more like ovens, than like the habitations of enlightened beings. The doors were very small, the windows still less, in proportion, while the roofs were carried up many feet above both. Those roofs were in themselves calculated to retain heat to an extreme, being built of solid tarras, at least a foot thick, lying horizontally upon immense timbers, chiefly of teak, or of saul wood. Again, when they built bungalows, (i.e. thatched houses,) of one (ground) floor only, the utmost care was taken to close up all the intervals between the thatch, and the walls, on which it rested; so as to exclude the external air, as well as the dust: a practice religiously observed even to the present date. The obvious consequence of this latter construction is, that, whatever air is retained between the thatch, (which, in the course of the day, becomes very, very warm,) and the upper lines of the windows must be highly rarefied.

Thus, we invariably observe, that, towards sun-set, when the inhabitants quit the inner hall, &c., either to sit out on chabootahs, (i.e. large terraces,) raised perhaps a foot or two from the level of the area, and abundantly watered for the occasion; or when they remove to the windward veranda (or balcony); on either of these occasions, the interior becomes intolerably hot, on account of the rarefied air being drawn down by that current inevitably attendant upon the removal of all the tatties; and, by the throwing open of all the doors and windows.

In a preceding page, I have shewn, that the French generally acted upon more philosophical principles; they making their doors and windows remarkably high: but, there yet remains a very important improvement to be made; namely, the introduction of tin ventilators, to be inserted near the summits of the thatches. It is a fact, that, during many months in the year, the houses built by most Europeans, and especially their bungalows, are so extremely heated, as to render it absolutely impossible to sleep in their interior, without the intervention of some artificial means for keeping the air around the bed at a proper temperature.

However faulty the first European builders in India might have been, the moderns have by no means made such improvements as we should suppose experience would have led them to adopt. Whether from economy, or from more attention to exterior, than to comfort, scarce a house is now built with such spacious, lofty, and substantial verandas, as are to be seen on the south side of almost every old mansion. Some of these antiquated edifices had verandas on several sides, and a few might be quoted having them all around; as seen in the officers’ quarters at Berhampore, and Dinapore. It can scarcely be doubted, that such verandas are, in every respect, admirably suited to the climate; since they prevent the sun from striking on the main wall; which, in exposed situations, have been known to give from 8° to 10° difference on the thermometer; under circumstances in every other respect similar.

It is peculiar, that, until within the last twenty-five years, the ground floors, that is, the whole of the basements, of those fine large houses to be seen in all quarters of Calcutta, and in various parts of the interior, were consigned to the reception of palanquins, gigs, water-stores, or to be wine-godowns, (or cellars,) butler-connahs, (or pantries,) and even, in some instances, stables! In those days, the whole of the family resided in, and confined themselves to, the first floor; which was then the summit of the habitation: leaving to their luggage, cattle, and menials, that part which has lately been discovered to be, in every respect, most suitable to the accommodation of the European population. In houses of agency, &c., we now see the basement converted partly into offices, and but rarely any portion of it appropriated as above described; while, the generality of new houses are built upon a scale such as favors this salutary change, by giving sufficient height to the lower apartments; thereby adapting them to every purpose, and occasioning a considerable reduction of the ground plan, in consequence of the accommodations thus gained.

The practice of building houses without verandas, certainly cannot be approved; whereas, the old mode of building them on pillars, was highly ornamental, and, at some seasons, not less appropriate: but, the great art of keeping a house cool during the prevalence of the hot-winds, rests entirely on shutting them out, except at some few apertures supplied with tatties; which, being kept constantly moist, or, indeed, dripping wet, produce such an immense evaporation, as to cool the interior completely: of course, a suitable draught must be preserved, by opening some window, &c. on the lee-side. This is commonly effected by means of Venetians; which allow the air to pass, but debar the access of glare. Without adverting to the expence, it should seem that a close-veranda is by far preferable to an open one; and, were it not for the immense additional charges, we can hardly doubt that the European inhabitants of Calcutta would, in imitation of the generality of bungalow-residents, have their apartments surrounded by a veranda, of full fourteen feet in width; with apertures, of a good size, in the exterior wall, corresponding with those of the interior. This arrangement renders the generality of bungalows remarkably pleasant; but, it must be noticed, that there is a very wide difference in the expence incurred in rendering them so: their roofs being of thatch, and their walls of sun-burnt bricks, plastered with mud and chaff, offer a great contrast in the out-lay, both as relating to the labor, and to the materials, in a house constructed of burnt bricks, and good lime, whose roof is of masonry, and in which timbers of great price are every where used. Accordingly, we find, that, in almost every part of India, an excellent bungalow may be built for about five thousand rupees, completely fitted with glass doors, and windows, and with all the necessary out-offices duly tiled, or thatched, according to their purposes; while, a house suited to the accommodation of the same family, in Calcutta, could not be finished for less than ten times that sum.

The bricks form a very, very small portion of the disbursements incident to building in India: so cheap, indeed, are they, that most of the made-roads about Calcutta, and in other parts, are formed by laying broken, or even whole, bricks regularly; giving the centre two or three layers, gradually tapered off to the sides, and then covering them with a coat of rubbish, or, which is far better, coarse sand. Such roads are extremely firm, and far more durable, than those we make with gravel, flint, lime-stone, &c. But great allowance must be made for the heavy machines used among us, and carrying such tremendous burthens; whereas, an Indian hackery can rarely weigh five cwt., nor can its load be averaged at more than fifteen cwt., being altogether only a ton. We well know, that our common narrow-wheeled waggons weigh from fifteen to twenty-five cwt.; and, that, except where weigh-bridges limit their burthens, it is by no means uncommon to see them carrying from two and a half, up to four, tons. Three chaldron of coals will be found to average about seventy cwt.; yet, are often drawn by three horses through the streets of London.

The lime used in Calcutta, is brought down from the Morungs, and their vicinity, in large boats, being previously slaked; though it is sometimes imported in its quick state, or as nearly so as accident may permit. It may readily be concluded, that, after a passage of from three to four hundred miles, this article is rather deteriorated; especially as the voyage can rarely be effected under three weeks or a month. The prices of this kind of lime, made from a very firm stone, called gutty, abundant in some parts, vary much according to the season, and to the demand: it has been sold as low as six or seven rupees per hundred maunds, but, at other times, has reached to twenty and twenty-five.

At Madras, and indeed all along the coast of Coromandel, as well as on some parts of the Malabar border, an excellent kind of lime is made from sea shells. This nearly equals what is made in Italy, from the refuse of marble, and receives an extraordinary fine surface, competiting even with that of polished glass; at the same time that it is incomparably firm, and durable. When laid upon a wall, which is done only by way of a finish, it is carefully freed from grit, and kept working, and rubbing, until nearly dry; thereby to prevent the surface from cracking, as it would be subject to do, when acted upon by the hot air at mid-day: when nearly dry, it is rubbed with coarse calico cloths, until it receives a beautiful lustre, which causes it to appear semi-diaphanous. A few houses at Calcutta have been finished with this kind of lime, conveyed from Madras by shipping; but the expence, being very considerable, has occasioned the common Morung lime to be generally employed, both for cement, and for white-washing.

In the ordinary buildings constructed in the upper parts of the country, a weaker kind of lime is obtained by burning a substance called kunkur, which, at first, might be mistaken for small rugged flints, slightly coated with soil. The experiments made upon these alkaline concretions, which abound in most parts above Bengal Proper, and, in some places, prove extremely troublesome to the farmer, but especially to the horticulturist, give the following result: calcareous earth, 41, cilicious earth, 16, calx of iron, 3, and air, 40. Kunkur is not easily reduced to a calx, it requiring a greater heat than is necessary to burn the harder kinds of gutty; it is, likewise, less durable and tenacious as a cement; of which the color, viz. commonly what we call fawn, is a strong indication.

Whether from want of sufficient power in their kilns, or that the kunkur is so peculiarly hard, we commonly find that, on slaking, a large portion of the interior of each lump remains unsubdued. These insoluble masses are often pounded by means of a dainky, or foot-break, and mixed with the perfect calx: nor is the lime burner very scrupulous in regard to keeping out the wood ashes, &c., remaining at the bottom of the kiln, after the kunkur has been taken out; on the contrary, he will, if not very narrowly watched, mix as much as he can with the calx; thereby causing the lime to be very considerably deteriorated. This kind of lime, commonly called cutcha, (i.e. weak,) sells for about six or seven rupees per hundred maunds.

In all parts of India, the lime-burners proceed on the most expensive plan; their kilns being rarely more than four feet in diameter, nor above that much in height: consequently, they have not sufficient accumulation, concentration, or reverberation of heat, to burn the stones properly; neither do they, in general, break them sufficiently small, but bundle them in, with very little attention to regularity or economy. It is the same with the brick and tile-kilns; which are, for the most part, of a pyramidal form; the raw bricks being laid intermediately with the fuel, and the exterior being plastered over, perhaps half a foot in thickness, with mud. The best bricks I ever saw in India were made by an engineer officer, who had some extensive public works to carry on. He first built the whole of the walls of a bungalow he required, with sun-burnt bricks, properly cemented with mud well filled in; taking care to arch over the door and window openings in such way, that the frames could be afterwards introduced. The whole interior was then laid with bricks and fuel, while the exterior of the veranda walls were also closed in with sufficient to heat them thoroughly; and a complete coating was given, in the ordinary way. The bricks baked uncommonly well, while the walls became a solid mass, capable of resisting all the elements, should they unite for its destruction. The bungalow proved remarkably dry, and the plaster was found to adhere in a surprizing manner, while rats, snakes, &c., were all set at defiance; it being impossible for them to burrow in so hard a substance: the greater part of the cement, which happened to contain cilicious particles, was nearly vitrified.

Thirty years ago, the generality of houses were coated with the same kind of tarras as is employed for laying the floors, and the roofs: this was made of chunam, (i.e. white-lime,) one third; soorky, (i.e. brick-dust,) one third; and sand, one third; these, being mixed duly with a large portion of cut hemp, (wool being very scarce, and short hair not to be procured on any terms,) together with some jaggery, or refuse molasses, made a tolerably strong cement. The surface, after a house had been duly plastered, was washed, while yet moist, with a strong solution of lime in water. This would have been enough to blind every man, woman, or child, in the place, had it not been partially remedied, by the admixture of some coloring matter with the finishing wash: but, whether red, yellow, or blue, which were the prevailing colors, it was found that the alkali generally destroyed their appearance, and left a motley kind of work.

The good taste of a few individuals, chiefly gentlemen in the corps of engineers, gradually overcame this vile imitation of Dutch and Portugueze finery, they substituting, in their public works, a plaster composed of river sand, saturated with a solution of white lime, of the consistency of cream. The addition of the usual allowance of cut hemp, gave this simple compound, (if I may so blend the terms,) not only much additional durability, but a remarkably neat appearance; especially when the body of the building was of that fine grey, thus obtained, and the cornices, &c. were finished of a pure white. Houses thus exteriorly finished became yet further neat, by the contrast of their Venetian windows, invariably painted green: some prefer all verdigris; others, a deep clear green for the frame-work, with verdigris for the several leaves, or valves.

Almost every house has folding Venetians to each window, or outward door; these are sustained by very strong hinges, which allow each fold, or shutter, to open outwards, and to lie back flat upon the exterior wall: in that position the Venetians are kept from blowing about, by means of hooks; in the same manner as we see practised in England, where this kind of shutter is in use. Sash-windows are never made upon the European construction, but move invariably in two folds, one to the right, the other to the left; each opening inwardly, and lying within the thickness of the wall, or nearly so.

In no part of the world is more attention paid to the foundation of a house than in India; and that not without necessity, the rains being so very heavy as to sap all weak buildings exposed to their action, either above, below, or laterally. When houses are built with what is termed cutcha, that is, with sun-dried bricks cemented with mud, and either plastered with the same, or with mortar, the least crack in the roof, or the smallest hollow near the foundation, will teem with danger. The rain which, often for a whole day, descends in streams, soon gets into the walls, where it does incalculable mischief: many of these houses, whose substance and general appearance should indicate a better fate, may annually be seen in ruins after a continued fall of heavy, or of drizzling, but oblique, rain: the latter is peculiarly unfavorable to such buildings as are insecurely coated; it drifts in under the plaster, damps the mud cement, and brings down the heavy roofs with a most sonorous crash. Few of these cutcha houses are now to be seen with tarras roofs; such as are so built for the sake of cheapness, being, almost without exception, intended for thatches, and thus becoming what we term bungalows. The natives build sometimes on that kind of half and half plan, which commonly, in the end, cheats the contriver. Thus, I have seen some, of a small description, built with cutcha (or sun-dried) bricks for the interior, while the exterior of the wall was made of pucka (or burnt) bricks; from whose interstices the mortar was carefully picked out, as though about to be pointed; for the purpose of causing the exterior plastering to get into the joints, and thus to retain its position firmly. Admitting, and even admiring, the ingenuity of such a system, when properly conducted, I lament, that, in almost every case which came within my knowledge, the whole system was disgraced, by the house either falling in toto, or by shedding its coat of mail.

There certainly did formerly exist some mode of mixing the ingredients, or some particular recipe giving better proportions, or better materials, which, after a time, formed a very capital cement: of this, many very well known edifices furnish ample proof. The old fort, situate within the town of Calcutta, may be an apt quotation. The impressions made by shots, of 24 and 32lb. fired by Admiral Watson against its western face, when his fleet lay within three hundred yards of it, in the year 1755, were absolutely insignificant; the brave admiral might have battered for a century, without bringing down the wall. In the year 1779, when the Company’s cloth godown took fire, the third regiment of European infantry, then in garrison at Fort-William, marched out with engines, &c. to aid towards its extinction; yet were they utterly unable to get the iron bars loose from the masonry; though provided with tackles, crows, axes, &c. This godown, which occupied a large part of the northerly face of the old fort, was afterwards converted into offices; but with incredible labor! The masonry was as hard as rock! When this occurrence took place, the old fort had been built about forty years; whereas, we find that all the Company’s, or any other, buildings which now claim that age, are of a very different complexion! The greater part of them, though not in a state of absolute ruin, are kept up at an inordinate expence; while such of them as have given up the ghost, display a crude mass of loose, friable, and mouldering rubbish.

Nor are the ancient terraces less obdurate than the old walls: many of these may be seen among the ruins of cities, and towns, of which we have scarcely any information, absolutely retaining their places, although the beams on which they formerly rested have been, God only knows how many years, removed. If these roofs had possessed any convexity, or been constructed according to the Syrian principle, we should have had less cause to admire their solidity, and toughness; but, such has never been the case with any I have seen; and which, though certainly of no considerable dimensions, appeared firm enough to sustain cannon of small calibre. I have often been one of a party to walk on such. It may, perhaps, be in place here to describe the manner in which roofs are constructed in India: I mean such as are now under consideration. The beams are rarely more than two feet apart; and, speaking generally, may have a scantling of ten or eleven inches depth, by five, or six, in width; sometimes, though but rarely, and then only when under the eye of science, cambered to the extent of three or four inches; according to the length of the timber. These joists are laid upon the bare wall, having their ends previously well charred; and, in some cases, smeared with petroleum; called by the natives, ‘earth-oil.’ This is done to deter the white-ants from making an attack upon the wood; which, in time, they would certainly do, but for the above precaution. The ends of the timbers are cased in with masonry, so as to leave about four inches all the way round, and at their bases: in order that the timber may be removed, in case of decay, without damaging the wall; the interval is, however, filled up afterwards with cutcha work; which, not being liable to adhere firmly to the pucka wall, may be easily removed when the joist is to be changed. When plastered over, the whole appears uniform.

In some parts of the country, but especially in the upper provinces, the natives cover in their houses with flat roofs, made of clay, beat very firm, and about a foot in thickness. This mode of construction requires some care, but is found to be extremely efficient. The walls ought to be substantial, as should also the joists; and the surface of the clay should be rather convex, so as to direct the water falling on it into proper gutters, or drains, and to prevent the building from being damped.

Without this precaution, the heavy falls of rain, which may be constantly expected during three months in the year, would speedily dissolve such tenements, with nearly as much facility as though they were made of lump-sugar. But when due care is taken, both to prevent, and to stop, leaks, clay roofs are rather eligible, than objectionable; especially in the vicinity of bazars, (or markets,) and lines, in which fires are frequent. Many gentlemen have adopted the plan, some wholly, others partially, in their bungalows, and find little or no cause to regret their having done so.

It is, however, expedient to send up a man now and then, to lute any cracks that may appear in consequence of excessive heats; but, after a season or two, the clay becomes extremely firm, nearly equal to mortar-tarras, resisting the various changes of temperature, and appearing to be consolidated into a very firm mass. The greatest inconvenience it produces, is the harbor afforded to that inconceivably obnoxious insect, the white-ant.

This little depredator rarely fails to take advantage of whatever opportunity is offered for the exhibition of its powers. Assembling by the ten thousand, in a few hours they will eat out the bottom of a deal box, perhaps an inch in thickness, or render it a mere honeycomb. Of fir, they are remarkably fond, as also of mango-wood.

It seems rather peculiar that they should be so partial to woods abounding so highly, as these both do, in turpentine; while the presence of a few drops of petroleum, which is imported from Pegu, Ava, and the Arvean coast, under the name of mutty ke tale, (earth-oil,) seems to be a perfect preventive. Few things come amiss to these obnoxious visitants, which every where abound, and destroy wood, leather, cottons, woollens, &c. Nay, a story is current, that, some years back, they were absolutely accused of having devoured some thousands of dollars! Fortunately, on deeper research, it was discovered, that they had only ate away the bottom of the treasure-chest; and, like misers, had buried the hard cash some feet under ground.

As ceilings are not in use in India, each joist is neatly finished, having its lower edges rounded off with a beading-plane. At right angles with the joists, smaller battens, called burgahs, are laid; three or four inches wide, by about two or three deep, or vice versâ; these are nailed down upon the joists at such parallel distances, in general about seven or eight inches, as may allow a large kind of tile to be laid on them. Over the tiles they lay rubbish, rather dry, about four or five inches deep, patting it down gently, by the continual operation of some dozens of men, women, and children, who, squatting, like monkies, on their haunches, and having batons of about a cubit in length, something of a trowel shape, though not so obtuse, continually beat the materials until they become perfectly compact. The better method, which is in more general adoption, is, instead of such rubbish, to put on a coarser kind of mortar, well worked up, but not very moist; which is beat in the mode above described. After this has been duly compacted, but before it is quite dry, another coating of two or three inches, but of finer materials, is put on, and beat in like manner; then a third, perhaps only an inch deep, of still finer materials; and, ultimately, the whole is coated, for about half an inch in depth, with the finest ingredients, mixed, after being sifted through a coarse cloth, with jaggree, and by some with peas-meal; which the natives consider to be peculiarly valuable in cement. This last coat is laid on with a trowel, very firmly pressed, in order to compact it the more, and to prevent cracking; which will, nevertheless, always take place, more or less, according as more or less pressure and beating have been used; or, as the great body of the tarras may be made of good or bad materials.

All the partition-walls, dividing off the several apartments, are necessarily of masonry; both because the pressure from above is enormous; and, that wood cannot be trusted, where the white-ants could honeycomb its interior, without being much, if at all, noticed on its surface. These partition-walls are carried up about six inches above the tarras roof; whereby the latter appears to be divided into chequers, corresponding with the several apartments. Small channels are cut, to allow the water to pass into the spouts, or drains; from which jars, of about a hogshead in measurement, are filled with water intended for table use. Some spouts are made to extend full a yard from the wall, and, in some instances, have canvas hoses attached, for the purpose of leading the water into the jars; but the more modern practice is to build pipes of pottery within the wall, or to clamp them to it with iron, until their lower ends, which are crooked for the purpose, form a proper debouchure. The latter mode, however, in very heavy rains, subjects the walls to be damped, in consequence of the fall of water being greater than the pipes can instantly carry off. This may give some idea of those deluges which at times take place, almost instantaneously.

The tops of houses are invariably enclosed with breast-parapets, or with balustrades; which give a very finished appearance to these superb buildings. With the exception of those ridges formed by the continuation of the partition-walls, the roofs afford a pleasant promenade at certain seasons: some of them command most interesting views. During the very hot weather, probably from the end of April to the setting in of the rains in the first or second week of June, many gentlemen have their cots, (as the bed, with all its apparatus, is usually called,) carried to the tops of their houses, and sleep there during the night. This may appear a very hazardous proceeding; but, when it is considered, that no dew, worthy of notice, falls at that season, and, that the cots have generally curtains, which would receive, and absorb, what little might fall, we may, on the whole, pronounce it to be less dangerous than should at first be supposed. If, indeed, this were to be done more to the southward, near the mouth of the Hoogly river, where the immense marshes, the ouze left by the returning tides, and the jungles, which every where abound, produce the most deleterious exhalations, we should then be correct in exclaiming against the practice: but few, very few, instances could be adduced of any serious indisposition having attended it; while, on the other hand, it is confessed by all who have adopted it, that the greatest refreshment ever resulted; enabling them to rise early, divested of that most distressing lassitude attendant upon sleeping in an apartment absolutely communicating a febrile sensation, and peculiarly oppressive to the lungs.

I believe all those fatal, or injurious effects, which have been so often adduced, by way of caution to persons impatient of heat, have been produced not by sleeping in an open exposure, but in a current of air. This I cannot recommend; on the contrary, I must vehemently censure such a custom, as being highly dangerous: I could quote several most melancholy cases, arising entirely from this most injudicious conduct! Mr. Johnson, who appears to have been about two years in India, during which time he was surgeon of a frigate, has published a volume, in which there are occasionally to be found interesting details, and sensible observations. I shall offer to my readers some remarks he has made, at page 269, that bear closely on the subject under discussion. He says; ‘Europeans, in general, on their first arrival in India, are prepossessed with the idea, that sleeping at night in the open air must be a very dangerous practice; but, in the course of a short residence on shore, they get rid of this prejudice, by observing most of the natives, and many of the Europeans, sleeping on open terraces, and in verandas, not only with impunity, but as a preservative against the debilitating effects of a hot climate. But on board-ships, where they have not an opportunity of seeing, or of reflecting on, these circumstances, they frequently adhere, for a considerable time after their arrival on the station, to the established regulations, of making every man sleep in his proper berth: and suffering none to lie about upon the decks; a system, in my opinion, very prejudicial to the health of ships’ companies in India. At sea, indeed, it is not of so much consequence, where the watch on deck always gives sufficient room to those below; but it is in harbours, and road-steds, where the air is much hotter than at sea, the impolicy of the measure becomes manifest.’—And again, page 270, ‘We will suppose, that every man, when he turns into his hammock, falls fast asleep in a few minutes; which, by the by, is not always the case. About eleven o’clock, however, I will venture to say, he wakes in a deluge of perspiration, panting with the heat and rarefied air; upon which he turns out, and goes upon deck, for the purpose, as he terms it, of getting a mouthful of fresh air; anathematizing, as he ascends, the infernal heat of the climate! Under pretence of going to the head, he gets upon the forecastle; when the cool breeze from the shore immediately chills him, and gives a sudden check to his perspiration.’ All this I have personally experienced, both on board-ship and on shore; and I make no scruple of saying, that, in lieu of being injured by sleeping out on a chabootah, in a well-covered cot, my whole frame has been braced, my rest has been sound and refreshing, and I have avoided all the miseries inseparably attendant upon seeking repose in a close, muggy atmosphere; where thirst and irritation create perpetual restlessness, banish sleep, and cause that relaxation and debility which render each subsequent day burthensome as its preceding night has been distressing!

In a former page, I observed, that boarded floors were almost unknown in India: various reasons have, doubtless, combined to explode them; firstly, the depredations of the white-ant; secondly, the perpetual danger of their warping; and, thirdly, the difficulty of rendering the sounds of foot-steps less audible. This last may appear trivial; but, where so many menials, &c., are ever moving about in various parts of a house, and that, too, with little ceremony, though, it is true, they are all bare-footed, it would prove extremely inconvenient at those times when the family might retire to rest during the heat of the day. About twenty-five or thirty years back, all the stairs were of masonry; but, of late years, wooden ones have been introduced. These, being made to rest on strong beams, obvious in every part, save where they enter the walls, may be considered as tolerably safe from the white-ants; certainly they are much neater, and more easily kept in order. All the joists, in every house, are either painted, or tarred; the latter has a very unpleasant, indeed, a mean appearance; and is not often practised: for the most part, white, with a very slight cast of blue, to preserve it from fading, is adopted.

Some paint the beaded, or moulded, edges of the door pannels, also the rounded corners of the joists, with some delicate color; such as a very light sky-blue, a very light verdigris-green, or a lilac; and, by way of conformity, ornament the mouldings of the wall pannels with similar tints. In the upper provinces, it is a very prevalent fashion to color the pannels with some native ochres, of beautiful hues, leaving the mouldings, cornices, &c. white. These mouldings, &c. are all done by means of trowels shaped for the purpose, and not by moulds, or stamps; of course, what with want of device, and want of activity, such ornaments may be reckoned among that variety of tedious labors of which Blacky is extremely enamoured. Yet, in the execution of such matters, he will display great ingenuity, consummate patience, and, often, great delicacy: but, with respect to design, taste, composition, perspective, consistency, and harmony; in all these, whether in drawing, sculpture, or in any mode of representation, he will prove himself to be completely ignoramus. Let the former apology be pleaded; namely, that, in every branch, the Indian mechanic is called upon, after, perhaps, only a few days of observation, or, at least, with so little practice as would, among us, be considered rather an objection than a qualification, to perform that which we judge to be unattainable, except by the application of several years, closely attached to one individual intention. Therefore, in lieu of condemning their operations, we should rather regard them with admiration; for, I will venture to assert, that we should not fail to wonder at one of our own countrymen, who, perhaps at rather an advanced age, without previous education, without the possibility of reference to books, or to public institutions, should undertake to do that with a hatchet, or any other gross implement, which persons regularly brought up in the respective profession should assert to be impracticable, unless duly provided with benches, vices, and tools, of exquisite formation, out of number. The Asiatic has the bare soil for his bench, his toes are his vice, and his implements usually amount to no more than a small adze, a saw, with, perhaps, a chisel, and a pair of uncouth pincers!

The same operations which I have described to be necessary for the construction of a tarras roof, are equally so for the floors in every part of the house; but, unless the basement stands very high, so as to allow of water houses, &c. underneath the ground-floor, it is usual to have the latter flued, by means of narrow channels, or air-conduits, of about four inches deep, and as many wide; so as to be covered with bricks of an ordinary size: these flues are made in parallel lines, at, perhaps, a foot or more asunder, and pass entirely under the house, in both directions, having their several apertures covered by small iron grates, for the purpose of keeping out rats, snakes, &c.; which would else find admirable asylums within these intersecting channels. The lower tarrases are thus kept thoroughly dry by the flues, which, of course, give ventilation to every part under the floor. Where bricks are scarce, which is often the case, on account of their never being made for general sale, except at public stations and great cities, and then of a very small size, it is common to build the ground tarras upon inverted pots; each being capable of containing about three pecks, or a bushel. These pots may be had, in any quantity, all over the country; generally at the low rate of a farthing, or, at the utmost, a halfpenny, each.

The pots are ranged upon the ground, within the area formed by the walls, side by side, but not quite in contact, each resting on its mouth, which consists generally of a rim, projecting about three or four inches from the body of the vessel, which is nearly spherical. The loosest sand that can be had, or, in its absence, any dry rubbish, is then thrown in, so as to fill up all the intervals, and to cover the pots, about four inches in depth. This surface being levelled, another stratum of pots is added, if judged necessary; the whole process of filling up is similar in both, and the tarras is laid in the usual manner on the levelled surface.

By far the greater portion of the subsoil throughout Bengal, at least, in that wide expanse reaching from Gogra to Dacca, on the north-east, and from the Soane, along the plains at the foot of the hills, to the debouchure of the Hoogly, (which, together, form the limits of our richest, and most populous, purgunnahs, or districts,) is a loose, gritty sand, very like what farmers term a lush; which, in a few places, receives a strong red tint from the ferruginous mountains, every where to be seen along either boundary. This extreme looseness of the subsoil creates a most peremptory necessity for securing the foundations of weighty buildings, by every possible means; and, in the sinking of wells, is often found to present the most formidable obstacles.

Under such circumstances, it must appear self-evident, that those large mansions forming the bulk of Calcutta, by which I mean that portion raised, and inhabited, by Europeans; together with the several garden-houses, and the numerous edifices on a large scale erected by the natives, especially their places of worship, which are most ponderously constructed; all these necessarily require to be very firmly founded: nor can too much attention be paid to carrying off the water, which pours down from the tops of the houses; lest the bases should be sapped, and very serious injury be entailed.

With this intention, almost every compound, or enclosed area, is either laid with pan-tiles, or is well coated with soorky, in the same manner as the roads; while, in many instances, the junction of the wall with the level of the area is concealed, and secured, by a talus, blending with the building, at about a foot or more above that level.

With respect to bungalows, or any other buildings coming under the designation of ‘temporary,’ their foundations are usually very shallow. These are, for the most part, raised a foot or two from the surrounding level; and, as their inner walls, that often run from sixteen to twenty feet in height, are well secured by the verandas, which likewise preserve the precinct, for full twelve or fourteen feet, from being softened by the rains, very shallow foundations are deemed sufficient. The surrounding parapet which limits, while it raises, the veranda, is usually of burnt-brick, cemented with good mortar, and plastered over with the same; but the whole of the residue of bricklayers’ work is such as has been already explained. The verandas of bungalows are sustained either by strong wooden posts, or by pillars of masonry; their intervals are filled up with jaumps, before described, which may be raised at pleasure, to any angle, including about 10°, or 15°, above the horizontal; or they may be suffered to hang perpendicularly against the exterior faces of the pillars. In tempestuous weather, and especially during those violent squalls called ‘north-westers,’ in consequence of their usually either commencing on, or veering round to, that quarter, it will be found necessary to place the bamboo props, whereby the jaumps are usually elevated, against their exterior sides; by which means the jaump is pressed to the pillar, and becomes greatly exempted from the danger of being blown away; which, nevertheless, frequently is its fate, although its weight may be full a cwt. and a half, or even two cwt.

The force of these north-westers is next to incredible! I recollect one in particular, which, in November 1787, tore up an immense tree, called the ‘Barrackpore Beacon,’ on account of its being situated at a point where it could be seen from Duckansore, along a beautiful reach of the Hoogly river. This fine piece of timber measured nearly twenty feet in girth, and branched out in the most luxuriant manner, reaching to full seventy or eighty feet in height: it was torn up by its roots, though some of the ramifications were much thicker than my own body, leaving an excavation of not less than 15,000 cubic feet.

When stationed at Hazary-Bang, in the Ramghur district, my bungalow was, I firmly believe, saved from falling by mere accident. It had become fashionable to construct fire places in our halls, running up the chimnies, so as to pierce the thatches immediately below the summit of that wall in which the fire-place was made, and which served as the front face of the chimney. Cutting through the wall, to make a proper opening wherein to set the grate, I found that, in lieu of being firm, as it should have been, the whole cut like so much butter. In consequence of this discovery, I hastened the finishing of the stove, which, in a short time, aired the room, and completely dried the walls; but, not before they began to display very unequivocal tokens of what would have taken place, but for my very fortunate adoption of the whim then in vogue.

It is remarkable, that the bungalow stood on a gentle declivity, from which the superficial water was well drained; but, the soil was proverbially spongy, and retained every shower, much the same as chalk, but without its good qualities: thus, notwithstanding the floors, (or tarrases,) were full two feet above the surrounding level, my habitation would, I am well convinced, have subsided; burying every inhabitant under its ruins! Probably, that fatal moment would have accorded with the height of some north-wester; to whose fury the catastrophe would, though erroneously, have been imputed.

The verandas of bungalows are generally allotted to the accommodation of servants of all descriptions; and, except where, as in Calcutta, a separate lodging-room is provided, serve for the home of whatever cahars, or bearers, may be employed. These have each their mat, on which they sleep, forming a pillow of any g’hettry, or bundle of cloaths, and covering themselves with their quilts, &c.: blankets being but very little in use among domestics of any description. When a gentleman has company, the side-board is usually set out in the veranda, where also the several guests’ hookahs are prepared; and, in rainy weather, their water cooled. All servants come upon being called only; there being no bells hung in any part of the country, and very, very few even of hand-bells to be seen. The common call, Qui hi? (meaning ‘who is there?’) often rouzes a dozen of the slumbering crew, though it is occasionally repeated, with some vociferation too, before one will stir. Although to many bungalows there are abundance of out-offices, some of which may have been built for the reception of palanquins, and especially of a gig, (there called a buggy,) few persons allow either their mahanahs, or their boçhahs, to be kept in such places, as they would be subject to various unpleasant purposes, whereby their interior especially would often be soiled: this objection acts likewise in some measure towards the common practice of retaining the gig, as well as the palanquin, within the veranda; the latter is easily lifted in and out by the bearers, but the former requires that a ramp, or slope, should be made, up and down which the syce (or groom) draws it with facility. All conveyances, when housed, are covered with a double cloth, usually made of karwah.

Throughout Calcutta the doors are pannelled, and have, generally, handsome brass mountings, with mortice locks; the windows are well glazed; and, in many instances, the rooms are laid with superb carpets, either of European, Persian, or Mirzapore manufacture: the two latter are generally made of silk; exhibiting not only rich patterns, but the most brilliant colors, at least equal to any made at our manufactories. The floors, or, more properly speaking, the tarrases, are almost invariably covered with a matting made of a species of rush, which possesses considerable firmness and pliancy. This, after being duly cleansed from fibres, &c. is made up into bundles, about a cubit in length, and nearly the same in girth, in which state it is well soaked: from these bundles the mat-makers, who are usually of the Cunjoor tribe, weave the mats upon a kind of woof made of twine, but perfectly concealed by the rushes. Some of these mats are made plain; while others are in various stripes, or in chequers. With this manufacture a room of any size may be fitted; the work being either done on the spot, or at the houses of the persons employed; the color is generally that of faded straw; though, sometimes, red or black rushes, dyed for the purpose, are introduced. For the accommodation of persons residing in parts where they cannot have floors fitted with entire mats, long strips, of about a yard wide, and four or five yards long, are sold in almost every great bazar (or market). These require to be sewed side by side, the same as our Scotch carpeting; but, exclusive of that disadvantage, are not so eligible; both because they are less carefully made, and that, in almost every instance, they are manufactured from refuse materials.

In the upper provinces, where the kudjoor (or date-tree) abounds, a very passable kind of matting is made of its leaves; it is true, this is not so durable, nor so handsome, nor so even, as that sort just described; owing to the coarseness of the materials, it is rather subject to catch the feet of chairs; add to this, the danger of fire from hookahs, &c.: all these circumstances limit the use of the kudjoor mats to very ordinary purposes; or, at the least, to laying down in such rooms as are to be wholly or partially carpeted.

Mats are likewise made, in every part of the country, from green bamboos; which, being split into very thin laths, of about half an inch, or less, in width, answer the same purpose as the foregoing; these are, however, very uncomfortable, and harbour centipedes by the hundred: the kudjoor mats partake of that objection, but not to the same extent. Mats, if we may so call them, are likewise made by laying down rattans, and stringing them together with strips of their own bark, the same as is done in making the seerky used in thatching; but this species is very rare: indeed, I believe only a few were ever seen in Calcutta, and they were said to have been brought by the Dutch from Malacca, whence great numbers of rattans are yearly imported. The price of the best rush-mats may be taken at about a rupee per square yard; that of the mats in strips at from four annas (8½ d.) to eight annas (17d.); but the kudjoor, and bamboo kinds, can only be computed by the demand for materials, and the prices of labor, locally: probably, taking all things into consideration, we may estimate a square yard of either at two annas, or about 4¼d. A very beautiful species of mat is made in some parts of the country, but especially in the south-eastern districts, about Dacca and Luckypore, from a kind of reedy grass, of which the rind, being pared off very thin, and trimmed to about the eighth of an inch in width, is wove into mats, rarely exceeding seven or eight feet in length, by about four feet in width. These are peculiarly slippery, whence they are designated ‘seekul-putty,’ (i.e. polished sheets); their color resembles that of common horn, and their prices are generally from two to six rupees per piece; according to their fineness, and to the state of the markets. The principal uses of the seekul-putty, are, to be laid under the lower sheet of a bed, thereby to keep the body cool; which is certainly effected to a great degree by this device, by its remarkably slippery surface: some few pillows for couches are likewise covered therewith, and I have seen it employed in making covers for mahogany tables; to which it is well adapted, on account of its repelling dust: in such case, it ought to have all the joinings well taped, and to be lined with blanket, or with karwah, &c. properly quilted.

Exclusive of the carpets before mentioned, and which are very high priced, a manufacture of satrinjes is carried on at Mirzapore, and in many other parts. These serve all the purposes of carpets, but have no plush; being in that particular very similar to our Scotch carpeting, but, at the same time, very dissimilar in respect to pattern. The satrinje is nothing more than a very large colored sheet, in which, except for about a cubit’s breadth all around, the whole is divided into bars, or stripes, usually from two to six inches wide, proportioned to the extent of the fabric. The principal colors in these carpets are crimson for a ground, with bars of deep, or light red; or blue grounds, with white, yellow, or tawny bars; or green grounds, with deeper, or lighter green, or crimson, or orange bars; or any of these, vice versâ. The common price of a woollen satrinje, may be from twelve annas (i.e. 3/4 of a rupee) to three rupees per square yard; according to fineness, substance, color, demand, &c.

Of cotton satrinjes, the price rarely exceeds a rupee, or a rupee and a quarter, for the same extent; these, however, wash admirably. It is no uncommon thing to see a satrinje of full twenty by thirty feet; and this, too, made upon nothing more than a bamboo roller, round which the work gradually collects, as the threads are crossed, by passing the warp-lines, alternately over and under the woof-lines, in regular changes!

Cheeks, or screens, to keep out the glare, are made in a similar manner. These simple, yet most comfortable, addenda to our Indian habitations, are formed of bamboo wires, (if I may use the term,) from four to six feet in length, and about the thickness of a very large knitting-needle, or, perhaps, of a crow-quill. A thin, clean-worked lath, of the same material, is put at the top and bottom.

Many cheeks are made of bamboo wires, previously painted either green, or reddish brown, but generally the former. These require no particular care, further than keeping them separate, as they dry; which is usually effected by laying them upon two rows of bricks, or against a wall, or upon scattered straw, when the weather is calm. When cheeks are intended to represent any pattern, such as birds on branches, or Indian deities, &c., the whole of the wires are laid with their respective ends on two boards, over which two others are placed perfectly parallel, and even, so as to press the ends of the wires, and to prevent their being easily displaced. A pattern, being cut out on paper of the required size, is fastened down upon the wires, and its outline every where distinctly marked upon them; after which it is worked in on the former ground, say a green, with brown for branches, a deeper green for the leaves, and red, yellow, &c., for the birds: the whole is then left to dry. When ready for use, the cheek-wallah (or maker) fixes his apparatus close to the top, and, taking each wire in succession, fastens it down in its proper place, being guided by two lateral lines, as they are handed to him by an urchin, perhaps not more than three or four years of age! In this way the representation is preserved.

The neatest patterned cheeks come from China; but the Bengallee artist is getting fast forward, and bids fair to put a stop to the importation: it is usual to have the whole cheek bound, all around, either with a light cotton tape, of about three or four inches broad, or with red, or blue, karwah. At the top of each cheek, generally, a piece of circular leather is attached, two being sewed together, though on different sides of the wires; to these the cotton cords, usually white, or red and white, or blue and white, about an inch in circumference, and each a full yard in length, are sewed: their use is, to tie up the cheek, when rolled towards the door-plate, at such times as it is not wanted. Each end of the top lath has similar pieces of leather sewed on, for the cords by which the cheek is to be suspended.

It is understood, that white cheeks are preferable; both because they keep out the glare much better, and as they render the interior less distinguishable to any spectator from without: consequently, they contribute most to coolness, and to privacy.

I believe it would be impossible to find any house inhabited by an European of respectability, in any part of Calcutta, which should prove to be destitute of proper doors, of pannelled wood, or of windows, at least, furnished with Venetians, if not with glass sashes. Whether for appearance, convenience, or real utility, certainly there cannot be any thing equal to glass, the use of which is now become so general, that almost every bungalow in the upper provinces, unless merely built as a shelter for a few months, is provided with glass; some, perhaps, only partially, but a great majority throughout. Were it not that this most agreeable improvement were attainable on what may be called very moderate terms, the great number of serious drawbacks it has to encounter, would assuredly cause its exportation to the East to be very limitted. The principal objections to its use, are, 1stly, the difficulty of getting glass cut to fit the sashes; 2dly, the aptness of even the best seasoned wood to warp, so as to cause the panes to fly; 3dly, the difficulty which frequently exists of getting glass at all; especially of the larger sizes.

As a balance to this, we find, that this brittle commodity, after undergoing all the risques attendant upon shipping, and landing, together with all the dangers of the seas, and much occasional rough usage after being consigned to the up-country trader, can usually be sold at Futty-Ghur, or Lucknow, which are each distant about a thousand miles, by water, from Calcutta, at the following prices: panes of 8 by 11 inches, at about twenty rupees per coorge, (or score,); 10 by 14, at about twenty-six rupees; of 12 by 16, at about thirty-two; of 15 by 20, at about forty; of 18 by 26, at about fifty; and of 20 by 30, at about sixty rupees. These prices give little more than cent. per cent. upon the wholesale prices of London. What with the necessity for making those panes and sashes, which are exposed to the sun, very firm, as well as from a due attention to economy in so expensive an article, we generally see, in the upper provinces, the panes laid transversely, instead of upright; and only one row of such panes in each frame; the wood-work being made very broad, so as to occupy a large space. The light thus admitted, is found fully adequate to every common purpose; the atmosphere being, for full eight months out of the twelve, perfectly clear; and there being rarely any buildings to debar the full enjoyment of that blessing: besides, that great exposure to an unclouded sky, which may in England be deemed highly advantageous, would, in India, prove objectionable; by admitting so forcible a glare as must give more uneasiness than pleasure.

When glass either cannot be had; or, that, owing to some speculator having monopolized, the price is considered too high, it is not uncommon to see windows furnished with plates of talc; which may be obtained, in almost any quantity, at the several cities, especially towards the frontiers; very extensive dealings being carried on in this article, by persons resident chiefly at Lucknow, Benares, and Patna, who import it from Thibet, and the countries on the north of the Punjab, or Seik territory, in masses, often as large as a quartern loaf. The principal intention of such traffic is for the supply of that fine powder, used in the Hindu holiday, called hooly, which may generally be viewed as the carnival of that sect.

The masses of talc commonly sell for about a rupee and a half, or even up to two rupees per seer (of about two pounds avoirdupoise): when good, it is of a pure pearl color, but it has, ordinarily, either a yellowish, or a faint blue cast: by means of proper tools, this mineral may be split into very thin leaves, which often present smooth surfaces, but are apt to have little scaly blisters, that greatly deteriorate their value. However, a seer of talc, that splits well, will sometimes yield a dozen or more panes, of about 12 inches by 9, or of 10 by 10; and thus, according to the form of the lump; which can only be split in the direction of its laminæ. These panes are so far diaphanous as to allow ordinary objects to be seen at about twenty or thirty yards tolerably distinct; and, of course, present an excellent substitute for glass.

I am surprized that the very simple process whereby talc may be vitrified, has not encouraged some ingenious person to establish a manufactory for that purpose. When combined with alkaline salt, (every where attainable in India,) it is fusible in a strong heat, and forms a transparent, handsome, greenish-yellow glass. If equal portions of talc and of chalk be melted together, with one-fourth part of borax, (the soohaugah, or tincal, so abundant throughout the East,) the mixture will produce a fine pellucid, greenish glass, of considerable lustre and hardness; gypsous earths, (which, though not brought into use, are supposed to abound in some parts of Bahar, and of the upper provinces,) may be advantageously substituted for chalk, whence the result will be a rich, pellucid, yellow glass, of equal brightness and durability.

Speaking of chalk, I must remark, that very large quantities are occasionally sent to India, notwithstanding some of the hills at the back of Raje Mahal abound therewith. I understood, many years ago, from an old friend, who was quarter-master of a regiment stationed at Monghyr, distant about forty miles from the former place, that, in consequence of a scarcity of musquet flints, he had sent people to the Chalk Hills of Raje Mahal, whence he had obtained a boat-load that answered admirably. In reply to my questions regarding the chalk, he informed me it was very coarse. But he forgot, that, by dissolving it in a large quantity of water, and allowing the rubbish to sink, the finer particles would be for a while suspended; and, on being poured off, would, after repeated washings in this manner, yield the purest whiting. It really appears surprizing, that those chalk hills should remain unnoticed; and, that even the lime-burners should neglect to take advantage of their being so advantageously situated among wildernesses of fuel, and within a mile of the great channel of the Ganges! That the Company should ever send out whiting, or put themselves to the expence of millions upon millions of gun and pistol flints, when they possess such a quarry, (of which the extent is not known,) appears highly inconsistent with that economy so much and so properly studied. If it be argued, that some impolicy might exist in shewing the natives how to provide themselves with flints; the answer is very easy; for the gun-smiths of Monghyr are fully apprized of the whole process. But, surely the chalk cannot be accused of the same dangerous tendency! To say the least, government might, with great advantage, cause all the lime required for their own works to be made from it; imposing a price upon all that might be dug by merchants, or others; as they do at their stone quarries, near Chunar-Ghur, &c. My readers will, at all events, discover that a very useful glass might be made in India, the duty on which would produce a much larger sum than the whole amount of profits accruing to our exporters. It is, indeed, a well-known fact, that the captains of Indiamen take out window glass more with the view to making up a general assortment, than from any great advantage arising from its sale to the European shop-keepers, &c. In time of peace they are invariably undersold by foreign traders; who carry out glass of an inferior quality, which sells to a certain extent; and is often rather sought, than rejected, on account of its greenish hue, which is found to soften the light considerably; especially in exposed situations.

The natives do, occasionally, make a weak, greenish, and blistered glass into caraboys, or great bottles for rose-water, and into lesser ones, such as the gundies, or itinerant perfumers, use; but this is on a very small scale, and chiefly supplied from broken tumblers, shades, &c., of European manufacture. There are persons at Patna, who have men constantly employed in purchasing broken glass, of every description, from the servants of Europeans, and in collecting such fragments as may be thrown out among the ordinary rubbish.

It must occasionally happen, that neither glass, nor talc, can be readily obtained; in which case, the best mode is to make light frames, and to pannel, or fill them up with wax-cloth, neatly nailed on. This is an admirable substitute, not only keeping out wind, rain, and dust, but, in the cold season, preserving the warmth of rooms, yet admitting sufficient light for ordinary purposes: I have very frequently resorted to this expedient, and even to frames of oiled paper; all I had to regret was, that they debarred my seeing what passed abroad. To a person just arrived from Europe, such would appear a most distressing privation; but, after experiencing a few seasons behind tatties, without being able to enjoy the light during the whole day, and that for months together, such recluseness would scarcely be considered worthy of notice: so true it is, that we gradually become habituated to the loss of ordinary enjoyments, of faculties, and even of civil and religious liberty!!!

Although bungalows have not any ceilings of plaster, they are rendered inconceivably neat within, by means of a double sheet, made of very coarse cotton cloth, called guzzy; of which tents are usually constructed. These sheets are fitted to the several apartments respectively, are bound with strong tape around, and have, besides, various tapes forming an union cross of eight limbs, or rays, all meeting in the centre. As the cornices commonly project near a foot, abundance of space is left for lacing the sheet (called the chandny,) to battens, nailed to pegs built in the wall: these battens being firmly secured all the way round, about an inch above the cornice, admit the sheet to be strained very tight, so as to bag very little, if at all, in the centre. Some white-wash their chandnies, and take so much pains in establishing a firm appearance, as to render them very similar to well made ceilings. Without this last mode of preparation, music has no effect in a bungalow; indeed, at the best, the most powerful instrument is heard under very great disadvantages, owing to the number of apertures, the satringes, mats, couch and table covers, &c., all which deaden the tones considerably.

Those who are very particular in whatever relates to their furniture, &c., have their verandas lined in the same manner as their apartments, giving them a finished appearance; but, in such exposed situations the cloths are apt to collect considerable quantities of dust, which is perpetually set in motion by the shaking of the cloths when acted upon by the wind: on this account seerky appears to me far preferable as a lining for verandas.

The usual expedient, when doors of any description are not made, is to provide purdahs, made of karwah, (or guzzy,) or both mixed in perpendicular stripes of eight or ten inches wide each: some, especially those who are stationary, make their purdahs of shalloon, perpet, or very coarse broad-cloth, in the following manner. The cloth is made into two sheets of equal dimensions, say nine feet by six, and having strong tapes, perhaps five or seven in number, inserted cross-wise between them: these tapes are double. The whole circumference of the purdah is then sewed very neatly, and bound with tape, corresponding with the color of the cloth, and the ends of the tapes are also bound by means of leather, covered with the same materials. Between every pair of tapes, a bamboo, of a small kind, but very tough, is introduced; or, perhaps, a stout lath made from a bamboo of the large sort. These sticks, or laths, serve to keep the cloth stretched out, and when the purdah is suspended, much in the same manner as has been explained for the mounting of a cheek, lie horizontally; thus preventing the wind from blowing in the purdah.

It is observed as a general rule, always to make a purdah full a foot wider on each side than the door way it is to conceal; also to carry it a foot above the door plate, and to have a portion, about a foot in depth, without any lath, at the bottom, so as to trail a little on the ground. Those purdahs which are made of karwah, or other cotton stuff, are generally quilted with cotton, or are composed of many folds, or have coarse blankets inlaid between their outer coatings. The last is by far the most effectual, most neat, and most durable mode of construction; but, at the best, purdahs are a very indifferent make-shift; and, though often, from necessity, applied to windows, are by no means answerable to their intention. Their best use is certainly to deaden sounds; hence, they are advantageously suspended outside the doors of sleeping, or other retired apartments; when, by closing the doors, privacy and quiet may usually be effected. The presence of a purdah usually indicates the exclusion of males; and that the apartments, within that entrance, are devoted to the accommodation of ladies; except when rolled up, and tied, as has been explained in regard to cheeks.

The best timber for building, in whatever branch, is the sygwam, or teak; but its dearness prevents its general use, especially since naval architecture has been so much an object of speculation at Calcutta. However, it can generally be purchased at about a rupee, or a rupee and a quarter, per foot: making its utmost price about three shillings and three-pence. Those who build houses of the first class, rarely fail to lay all their tarrases upon teak joists; both because they possess superior strength, and that they are far less likely to be attacked by the white-ants. This has been attributed to the quantity of tannin contained in teak-wood, which some have asserted to be a perfect preventive, or antidote; but, after having seen those noxious insects devouring shoes and boots by wholesale, I can never bring myself to accord with such an opinion. There is, in teak-wood, evidently some property, hitherto occult, that repels the white-ant, at least for some years, but which is doubtless diminished by exposure to the air; as we find that very old teak-timbers become rather more subject to depredation, than new ones. The greater part of the teak used in Bengal, and at Madras, is imported from the Pegu coast, in immense beams, and in spars, planks, &c., of all sizes. It is by no means unusual to see the squared timbers measuring from forty, to fifty, feet in length, and averaging from fifteen to twenty inches in diameter. Here is food for our dock-yards!

It would certainly be attended with considerable benefit to the public, if that occult principle, or matter, which apparently exists in the teak-wood, enabling it to resist both the white-ant, and the river-worm, could be ascertained; it might be possible to impregnate, or to saturate, other timber in a similar manner. This is the more essential, because we have abundant proofs that mere hardness does not deter those voracious insects, which are found at times even upon the lignum vitæ! But the principal object, so far as relates to naval purposes, is, that the teak-wood certainly is, in a great measure, devoid of the gallic, or any other, acid; or, if such is present, it assuredly must be in a very limitted portion; since the nails driven into teak-wood are never corroded so as to decay the surrounding wood, and to liberate it from confinement. To this decay, called ‘iron-sickness,’ are attributed many losses of ships, supposed to have foundered at sea, in consequence of planks starting; which must often happen when the wood embracing a nail is destroyed by the acid, or by the action of salt water upon the iron. In repairing ships built of oak, many nails are found perfectly insulated, by the wood having been rotted, and fallen away; which has never been the case with vessels built of teak.

The generality of apartments being large, the halls measuring perhaps from thirty to forty feet in length, and from sixteen to twenty-four in width, and other rooms in proportion, it is evident that very substantial, as well as long, timbers must be requisite to support their flat roofs; for, with a few exceptions, truss-roofs are not in use. The mode introduced by Mr. Lyon, the Company’s architect, at Berhampore, certainly contributed greatly to reduce the quantity of timber in a roof, but it rendered it absolutely necessary that every timber should be perfectly sound. That gentleman, whose professional skill, and excellent social qualities, demand an ample tribute, exploded burgahs, (or smaller battens,) from the roofs he constructed; and, in their stead, threw arches from the centre of one to the centre of the other timber; so that the intervals between the timbers were to appearance grooved, or fluted, longitudinally. This, however, was barely distinguishable, the arches being very elliptic; rarely, indeed, including more than an angle of six degrees, on a circle having full ten feet of radius.

Hence, it will be seen, that the joists were tolerably close, but their diameters admitted of considerable reduction, on account of the continuity of such a series of arches, which gave great solidity; and, by their mutual pressure, admitted that a joist should be freely removed, without in the least affecting the roof.

The houses built and inhabited by the natives, invariably have flat roofs. In these the apartments are, for the most part, extremely narrow, and dark. The verandas, where any are made, consist of arcaded fronts, invariably indented gothic; and have pillars, either of an hexagonal, or of an octagonal, form, resting on short pedestals, while the arch may be seen to break off rather too suddenly from the shaft, which continues up to baisez-mur, (or bassimere, as our architects vulgarly call it,) and divides the upper part into various compartments, all of which are ornamented with a profusion of carved work. In almost every Hindostanee building, of this description, there will be seen an odd number of arches, to which others in the main part of the edifice generally correspond. The chambers, if so we may call them, are taken off from the ends of the halls, by similar arcades; each of which, as well as those of the exterior, is furnished with a purdah. These narrow slips have no windows, or, at the best, only small loop holes. The intention of such oven-like recesses would perplex an European unacquainted with Asiatic customs, but he would soon find that, in the cold season, such are peculiarly warm, and that, during those months in which the glare is obnoxious, they remain cooler than such as admit more light. Almost every house is furnished with some means of ascending to the chut, (or flat tarras-roof,) whereon the natives often pass the evening, causing the heat to be first abated, by means of several pots of water, which throw up a steam fully indicating the temperature at which the tarras had arrived. The natives are not partial to upper-roomed houses in general; though they affect to pride themselves greatly in the possession of doomaulahs, that is, of houses having a second floor: it seems that ostentation is the reason of this predilection in favor of ground floors, whereon all their attendants, &c., may be seen from the level of their compounds (or enclosed areas). The stairs, where any exist, (for sometimes a very mean boarded ladder is made to answer that intention,) are narrow, steep, and unsafe: these are almost always built of solid masonry, as far up as the first turn, (or landing place,) after which they commonly consist of small bricks laid edgeways in lime mortar, supported by stout timbers, placed at a proper angle, and resting on the proximate joist of the upper floor. In every Hindostanee house, the doors are very low, and often are made to open into a long arcaded veranda, running the whole length of the interior, much the same as in our inns; while, in the front, or towards the road, a hanging balcony is sometimes made, supported on continuations of the joists, of which the extremities are carved into grotesque forms; such as the heads of alligators, or of tigers, or of serpents, and not infrequently of little human figures, whose size and squat position strongly put us in mind of a fœtus in utero.

Saul-wood is used to an immense extent, both in buildings, and in the construction of ships, but is not to be compared, either for toughness, strength, resistance against insects, or durability, with teak. Its price is much in favor of general service, to which its great size, and admirable straightness, are considerable, and valuable recommendations; but it is extremely apt to crack, though not to snap; especially when exposed to the weather. There is something very peculiar in saul-wood; since it is seen to warp, even after having been employed in bulk for many years, riving into large fissures longitudinally: the white-ants also devour it with avidity. Mr. Lyon, already noticed, when he was building the General Hospital at Berhampore, caused an immense copper trough to be made, in which he boiled the beams intended for that edifice: some were boiled in pure water, others with tannin, and some with arsenic; under the hope both of seasoning the timber, and of giving it a repellant, or preservative quality. This ingenious, and highly praise-worthy experiment, was by no means successful; for, although, in the first instance, the timbers seemed to defy the white-ant, especially those boiled in the solution of arsenic, still they were not completely secured from depredation; while, on the other hand, nine in ten rived so dangerously as to demand immediate props, and ultimate removal.

Many authors have recommended the boiling of timber, planks, &c., with a view to extract the sap, and thus to season them out of hand; but they have invariably neglected to furnish us with the results. Now, I have ever held it necessary, that medical practitioners should keep a register of the obituary, as well as of the convalescent department, in order that we may know how to avoid certain systems; which, doubtless, for want of such a guide, or caution, have been repeatedly resorted to by various medical characters, who, insensible of those fatal effects that had attended former experiments, thus consign many patients to their graves! So should all experiments, such as that above recorded, be fully laid before the public, and their results be candidly detailed. It is evident, that where we see only the suggestion, without the proofs of its failure, we must frequently be induced to adopt hints of a most pernicious tendency.

Saul timber, when used in buildings, ought always to have its ends completely open to inspection; both to prevent the white-ant from preying upon it under cover, and to insure its being duly aerated; without which, however charred and tarred it may be, rottenness will speedily take place. This arises from being bedded in masonry, which, during the rainy season, even under the best roofs, will absord a large portion of moisture, that will, infallibly, in time, penetrate into the timber. It must be recollected, that not one in hundreds of the houses in Calcutta, or that are built on their plan, contains a fire-place: hence, during some months in the year, the walls will exhibit various indications of moisture, even to their very cornices; though this will often depend upon the proper selection of sand for mixing in the plaster. It is now well known, though not long since discovered, that all sand, taken up within the flowing of the tides, is strongly impregnated with salt, which will keep the mortar wherein it is mixed eternally subject to damps; notwithstanding the tarrases may be flued, or be founded upon pots. I have known several, otherwise highly eligible, houses rendered untenable, merely by this incautious use of river sand; which occasioned whatever mats, or carpets, were laid down, to be speedily rotted. The fault was at first imputed to the vicinity of the river, whence it was suspected the damps were received; but it was ascertained, that such tarrases, and mortar, as were compounded of pit-sand, remained dry, and free from so obnoxious a defect. Nevertheless, the greater part of the buildings, in and about Calcutta, receive a certain portion of river-sand, taken up within the reach of brackish water: while this practice is allowed, the walls and tarrases will remain subject to occasional moisture; and, as we daily see in that city, the plastering will blister, or, indeed, become mottled, and obviously unsound.

Saul-timbers are found in all the forests, ranging under the hills, branching our possessions from Assam up to Hurdwar; they are more abundant in some parts than in others, but no where scarce. Many of these forests present thousands upon thousands of acres, whereon the saul, sissoo, and other useful timbers grow spontaneously; offering to us an inexhaustible depôt! The only consideration is, that water-carriage should be at hand. The Indian wood-feller, who pays not more than sixpence, or a shilling, for each tree he may choose, and which may, perhaps, contain from sixty to a hundred feet of timber, considers it a bad speculation, if some river be not within a stone’s throw of the selected wood: his object is to lop and bark as fast as he can, and then to launch the tree into the river, there to be fastened to others, intended to form a raft, or float, which, being secured to a boat, may glide down with the current to some established market. His expences are very trifling; for, with the exception of some duties, most injudiciously imposed, his adventure will not cost more than two-pence per foot, when arrived at the place of destination; where it may commonly be sold, without risk or delay, for full three times that sum. Few saul-timbers measuring a ton, or even a load, (i.e. forty, or fifty, cubic feet,) stand the owner in more than three rupees when landed at Patna; where such always meet with a very ready sale, in whole rafts, at nine, ten, and sometimes up to fifteen, rupees per stick, (or timber;) and this, notwithstanding the number of competitors in the trade. Those competitors rarely prove injurious to each other, while they render great service to the public, by preventing the whole trade from falling into a few hands. Thus, the prices of saul-timber are not only kept down, but, in general, owing to occasional gluts, seasoned timbers may be, to any amount, purchased at the several ghauts, or wharfs.

The mode of floating timber being so very different from that in use with us, I offer a description of it, under the hope of its affording at least some variety, if not some useful information. A common pulwar, (or paunchway,) of perhaps thirty feet in length, and six or seven in width, is equipped with two sticks of saul, say forty feet long, and two feet in girth: these are placed across her gunwales, at right angles with her length, and about six feet from her centre, and very firmly lashed down. The boat, being in about three feet water, has a tree brought up to each of her sides, where they are respectively lashed to the cross timbers, and thus, in succession, until she is judged incapable of receiving more burthen. In the centre of the boat, a small cabin is generally made, either of thatch, or of arched bamboo laths, covered with durmah mats: in this the crew are sheltered at night. It is highly expedient to avoid launching such rafts when the river is at the fullest, or the current any way prone to deviate from the deepest channels, as it must do in great floods, on account of the waters finding, for a while, passages along hollows among the inland parts; that is, beyond their limits in ordinary seasons. When a float of timber once gets over the river’s bank, it must be the result of great good fortune, if the channel is ever regained. Hence, when the waters are falling, it is common to see very large pinnaces, budjrows, and boats of burthen, left upon some sand, on which they had struck, but which the rapid ebbing of the floods prevented them from quitting! In such cases, some are allowed to remain until the ensuing year, when the floods lift them; others are unladen, and, by means of the joint efforts of hundreds of villagers, are pushed along the sands to the deep water; while those which appear unequal to such a severe operation, are generally broken up, and sold for various purposes.

When a float of timber becomes thus situated, the best way is to cut the ropes of at least half the exterior sticks on each side, and so to lighten the boat, that she may be carried into a depth suited to receiving them again: but this operation, which, on paper, appears very simple, requires great exertion, and no less despatch; as the strength of the current, which often runs six or seven miles within the hour, renders it extremely difficult to manage such immense logs; especially as they are very apt to sink into the sands. We commonly see several floats in company, proceeding, when the reaches are straight, and the waters deep, with great regularity; the boatmen, in such situations, having little to do, sit smoking their nereauls, with great composure: sometimes a sail is hoisted, but, for the most part, it is deemed expedient to check, rather than to accelerate, the progress. Almost every float, or, at least, every company of floats, has a canoe attached to it; which, in doubtful waters, precedes, and directs the men in charge of the respective vessels, who, by means of luggies, (or bamboo-poles, from twenty even to fifty feet in length,) fend off the floats from banks, or guide them along the deep water: without such pilotage, they would be in perpetual danger of grounding, the inconveniences of which are, as above shewn, by no means inconsiderable.

Floats of timber cannot well come to an anchor, except in very still water; hence, they are usually brought-to under steep banks, where there is great depth; and where, in case the river should fall during the night, they would not be left high and dry.

The greatest danger to which a timber float can be exposed, is that of running upon a sunken tree, which, having been washed away, by the bank whereon it stood being undermined by the strong currents, is hurled away into deep water, where it probably lies exposed to view for the first year. During the hot season, when the waters are low, the boughs are often cut away by persons in want of fuel; or, perhaps, they are torn off by the succeeding rains, so far as to cause their being concealed a foot or two under the surface. When thus situated, they throw up a deal of water, so that their locality may be ascertained at some distance; but, owing to heavy mists, and especially to clouds of sand, they frequently are not discovered by the boatmen, until it becomes impossible to avoid them.

If the pulwar, i.e. the supporting boat, strikes upon one of the branches, her bottom will infallibly be staved in; and, in all probability, the immense body of water bearing upon the timbers, will either tear them away from the pulwar, or carry off her upper works, leaving her bottom entangled. In either case, the situation of the boatmen becomes highly critical; but, as they generally are expert swimmers, (though, strange to say, some dandies, have, like Falstaff, ‘a wonderful alacrity at sinking,’) few are drowned on such occasions. The timbers, however, rarely fail to find the bottom, so soon as their buoyant companion is wrecked.

The great number of trees thus immersed, some of which equal our largest oaks, render it extremely dangerous to go down with the stream during the night: in some strong waters, such impediments are numerous, and render the navigation very hazardous, even during the day time; especially should a goon, or track rope, give way just after getting a boat above them; when this misfortune happens, the chances of escape are comparatively small indeed.

When boats, heavily laden, strike upon a tree, they sometimes go to pieces, in consequence of the water’s rapidity; but, when so entangled as to be pierced in several parts, they very generally remain entire, presenting, as the waters subside, the very curious spectacle of a vessel, perhaps carrying twelve or fifteen hundred maunds, sitting, as it were, among the boughs, often ten or twelve feet above the surface of the stream. It is by no means unusual, in the course of a week’s travelling, to see one, or more, of these disastrous elevations; more especially about the month of October. The misfortune is, that, though the cargo may, perhaps, be saved, if not of a perishable nature, such as sugar, salt-petre, &c.; yet, that the vessel, however expeditiously emptied, can never be got off; consequently, she must be broken up.

With respect to the prices of saul timbers, we generally find them to be nearly the same, year after year, at the same places; provided a sufficient number, but not a great glut, should arrive within the proper season. On an average, near Patna, the cubic foot will cost about sixpence, at Moorshadabad, about a shilling, and, at Calcutta, about two shillings, or even half-a-crown. An extra price is, of course, put on timbers of superior dimensions, while the smaller kinds, called bautties, which rarely contain more than eight or ten feet, are, in an opposite degree, depreciated. The saul is a very solid wood, at least equally so as elm, but has not its pliancy, nor is it quite so apt to split: its grain usually runs tolerably even; it is likewise heavy, yet by no means so ponderous as teak: both, like many of our firmer woods, sink in fresh water.

In the upper provinces, some very fine oak timbers are occasionally to be seen: these are chiefly of a peculiar kind, nearly approaching to chocolate color, extremely difficult to cut up, and, consequently, very heavy: this last characteristic gives them the name of seesah, or, lead-wood. The prices of these trees, which generally measure about the same as the saul, from the same forests, (namely, from the neighbourhood of Peelabeet,) rather exceed those of the latter description; and would probably be greatly enhanced, if the natives stood in need of such very substantial wood for any of their buildings, or manufactures. The fact is, that the carpenters generally endeavor to dissuade their employers from purchasing oak, by representing it as subject to many defects; though the true reason is, that its hardness infallibly causes more grinding of, than working with, their tools; which are almost always either too much, or too little tempered. At Futty-Ghur, saul timbers commonly sell for full eighteen-pence the foot, and oaks for about two shillings. I recollect buying some of the former, that measured thirty feet in length, with an average squaring of fourteen inches, for twenty-eight rupees each; and oaks of the same dimensions, or nearly so, at thirty-five: but wood was then extremely scarce, and at full twenty per cent. above the ordinary rates.

The great aptness of saul-wood to warp, we should suppose, might have favored the importation of oak, notwithstanding the outcry against its flinty hardness: and such would doubtless have been the case, had not another kind of wood, possessing a very fine grain, and rather handsomely veined, been abundant. This, which is called the sissoo, grows in most of the great forests, intermixed with the saul; but, in lieu of towering up with a straight stem, seems partial to crooked forms, such as suit it admirably for the knees of ships, and for such parts as require the grain to follow some particular curve. This wood is extremely hard, and heavy, of a dark brown, inclining to a purple tint when polished; after being properly seasoned, it rarely cracks, or warps; nor is it so subject as saul to be destroyed by either white-ants, or river-worms. The domestic uses of sissoo are chiefly confined to the construction of furniture, especially chairs, tables, tepoys, (or tripods,) bureaus, book-cases, ecritoires, &c. &c. for all which purposes it is peculiarly appropriate, with the exception of its being very ponderous. This objection is, however, counter-balanced by its great durability, and by the extraordinary toughness of the tenons, dovetails, &c. necessarily made by the cabinet-maker, or joiner. Sissoo is, of late, more employed than formerly for the frame, ribs, knees, &c. of ships, especially those of great burthen: for such, it is found to be fully as tough and as durable as the best oak. When timbers can be had of this wood long enough for the purpose, it is often applied for bends, and, indeed, for a portion of the planking, or casing; but it is very rarely that a plank of ten feet can be had free from curve. Though admirably suited for stern and head-work, it is neither long enough for keels in general, nor sufficiently uniform in its diameter for the supply of stern-posts. Some sissoo-trees grow to a great weight; but, unluckily, the devious directions of their boughs render it necessary to lop them away for minor purposes: if, instead of dividing into several large branches, at perhaps only ten or twelve feet from the ground, one large stem were to rise, however crooked, to double that height, there would be a great encrease of substance; as it is, however, we may account it an excellent timber indeed that measures a ton (i.e. forty cubic feet).

This inconvenience is greatly augmented by the slovenly manner in which trees are felled throughout India. There, it is common to see the axe (for no saws are used on such occasions) laid to the stem often at a yard or more from the soil; while, at the same time, full a cubit in depth is destroyed in widening the orifice, so as to penetrate into the heart: this creates considerable loss, which is frequently rendered still greater by the irregular manner in which the butt rends when in the act of quitting the root, or stool. If this wood were more scarce, probably greater pains would be taken to make the most of its length; as it is, we see, that, even those ship-builders who occasionally send their agents into the Morungs, or great forests to the north of Bahar and Purneah, allow the same loss to take place; thus disqualifying the timbers from more general, as well as more important, adaptation. The price of sissoo, for the most part, runs about twenty-five, or even to forty per cent. above that of saul; but, in many places, up the country especially, where naval architecture is not in view, their values are generally about equal. In such situations, it is less an object of import; since its utility is greatly circumscribed, and, in a great variety of instances, superseded, by the baubool, (a species of mimosa, generally growing wild,) whose crooked billets are deservedly in great estimation, and whose bark is considered to be, if any thing, superior to that of oak for the tanners’ use.

I should have remarked, that, in some parts of the country, especially along the western frontier, a small kind of saul grows wild: this rarely exceeds six inches in diameter, and is commonly used entire, in lieu of bamboos, for enclosures, rafters of bungalows, &c. It is very peculiar that this wood cannot be trusted for any length of time, even under a thatch; it being subject to the depredations of a very small insect, called the g’hoon, which perforates it in a thousand places, depositing its eggs, which are very numerous, and absolutely rendering the rafter a mere honey-comb. During the day, these mischievous little devils are commonly quiet, but, after night-fall, when all else is still, may be heard in every quarter! A person unaccustomed to the sounds, would suppose that a very heavy shower of hail were falling on the thatch. In the course of two or three seasons, sometimes in much less, the rafters will be found to give way; on examination, they appear as though pierced with large awls; and, when struck forcibly with a hammer, yield a cloud of yellowish powder, resulting no doubt from the labors of the multitude of inhabitants. The g’hoon, which rarely exceeds the sixth of an inch in length, is of a chocolate color, very hard about the head, has firm exterior coats over its wings, and terminates abruptly behind, giving the exact appearance of its rump having been burnt off. Those timbers which are used immediately after being felled, as usually happens, are certainly the first to be attacked by the g’hoon; but, so far as my own observations went, and according to the experience of two years, in a quarter where we used scarcely any other kind of wood for rafters, even a year’s seasoning did not afford security against, though it obviously retarded, their attacks. Possibly, if all of this description of saul trees intended for rafters, were to be immersed in some of the very numerous puddles every where abounding in their vicinity, and of which a great majority are strongly impregnated with minerals, particularly iron, copper, and sulphur, the g’hoons might be altogether repelled: the immersion should continue for a year or two; the trees being previously allowed to season standing, by cutting away a circle of bark, about six inches wide, near the ground, that the flow of sap might be discontinued. We find no mode to answer so well as this for our climate; in India, the advantages would be still more extensive, in consequence of the regularity, and particular effects of the three great seasons, into which the year is there naturally divided. It is curious, but true, that the g’hoon acts less upon such timbers as have been squared, than on such as have only been deprived of their bark; and, that in the large species of saul, that is, such as is used in most parts of the country for great buildings, &c., it either is unable, or not disposed, to burrow.

Intermixed with the smaller species of saul, though by no means abundant, we find another tree, bearing, in common with the oak, the designation of seesah; and that, too, owing to the great specific gravity of its wood: this, however, does not grow to any size, but appears admirably suited to many of those purposes for which lignum vitæ, and ebony, are now used.

In the same jungles with the foregoing, a most remarkable tree is sometimes found, of which the interior is of a very dark color, nearly approaching to black: hence, the natives call it the ‘cowah’ (or ‘crow-tree’); but, from the hardness of its wood, it certainly might, with propriety, be termed the ‘iron-tree.’ The carpenters seem to view it much in the same light with the black-oak of Peelabeet; and, doubtless, tremble for their tools, whenever the cowah is to become subject to their labors.

Although such bungalows as are built with a view to duration, are sometimes built of the best materials, and have every part of their roofs sustained by rafters of the best saul, by far the majority of such buildings, and nearly all at the military stations, are constructed on a much cheaper scale, having only mango-wood rafters, door-plates, &c. The great abundance of mango trees, added to their being easily worked, and their growing in general with stems sufficiently straight to furnish beams, of perhaps two feet square, and from fifteen to thirty feet long, give them a decided preference over every other kind of wood brought from any distance. Formerly, a gentleman could send out his servant, with wood-cutters, sawyers, &c., to fell whatever trees might be found suitable to his intentions, without any questions being asked; but of late, and especially since the introduction of the Mocurrery settlement, (which will be hereafter explained,) the zemindars, (or land-holders,) and the raiuts, (or peasants,) have set a value upon every twig that grows, and invariably demand from one to four rupees, for such mango trees as may be felled for the use of any European; especially in the military. As to a Company’s civil servant, either the hope of his favor, or the fear of his resentment, generally is found to seal the mouth of the pretended proprietor of the soil; who even is assiduous in furnishing workmen and conveyance on most occasions of this description. I must caution my readers against entertaining any sentiment unfavorable to the gentlemen alluded to: the adulation in question results entirely from that servile, abject, and crafty disposition, for which the zemindars are notorious where their interests are any way implicated. They judge of our collectors, magistrates, &c., as they would of their own; at least, so far as to suppose that courtesy will secure their good-will; but, they are, at the same time, thoroughly sensible, that in all public, as well as in all private, intercourse, the Company’s servants act with the most conscientious propriety, and with the most undeviating attention to justice. It matters not that this character may be repugnant to some proofs existing of former rapacity, and extortion; which may now be deemed obsolete, or, at the utmost, only existing to such extent as must be expected under every form of government, and among every race of people, in spite of the utmost vigilance.

The wood of the mango is much like that of the plane-tree, but rather more tough, and its fibres rather coarser: nevertheless, it is in very general use for rafters, door and wall-plates, frames for windows and doors, especially of out-offices, pannelled and plain doors, floorings of factories, and drying-rooms; likewise for wine chests, indigo boxes, roofs of budjrows, and a thousand other purposes, both of individual convenience, and of mercantile service. It is, however, particularly subject to the white-ant; and, unless carefully preserved from damp, will speedily decay: its being very light, and easy to work, are points much in its favor. Though we consider a mango-plank to be at least at par, when it measures twenty inches, or two feet, in width, yet great numbers may be had, by research, of double that breadth. My carpenters once felled a tree, which proved too large for any saw I could obtain in that quarter.

Sometimes we see very old tables made of mango-wood, which exhibit some beautiful veins, and acquire a substantial polish; but, such can only attend a very careful choice of planks, which must likewise be seasoned, and be worked to great advantage: otherwise, a mango-wood table will appear singularly coarse and mean.

As to the tree itself, much may be said in its favor, though, owing to the stiffness of the leaves, it cannot be termed graceful: its deep green, contrasted with the white spindling blossoms, (much resembling those of the horse-chesnut,) and its abundant foliage, give it a richness, and render it peculiarly gratifying to the eye; especially as it is in its greatest beauty during the early part of the hot season, when the grass begins to parch, and the surface of the soil changes from that agreeable verdure produced by the rains, and, in some degree, cherished by the succeeding cold months, to a very sombre russet! The fruit does not run much risque after the blossoms have once fairly set; though, sometimes, severe blights occur, which render the whole abortive; when about the size of a very large gooseberry, the young mangoes make excellent pies; not unlike those containing apples, but with a certain terebinthinic flavor, which does not always please in the first instance, but soon becomes palatable. When about half grown, that is, beyond the size of a large walnut, they are in good order for pickling. This fruit is also preserved in common mosaul-oil; in this instance, they are allowed to remain about a month in the vinegar pickle, before they are immersed in the oil. Many persons are very partial to the pickle thus made; but, in my humble opinion, nothing can be more rank; especially when the rinds are not pared off. Mangoes likewise make a very rich preserve, provided they are prepared before the stones are suffered to harden; else they will be very fibrous, and cut with peculiar harshness. With respect to the ripe fruit, it is impossible to describe the flavor; since, even on the same tree, various kinds will often be found. A stranger would conclude, on seeing mangoes of different colors, different scents, and different shapes, ripening on the same tree, that they had been grafted; but such is not the fact: there seems to be some very peculiar property, that causes it to shoot out with such different bearings, which remain on distinct boughs; as though the tree were composed of various twigs, all proceeding from the same stem. What can be said of a fruit varying in flavor, from the finest apricot, down to a very bad carrot? Such, however, is known to be common: it is true, that, for the most part, the whole crop of a tree will be pretty similar, both in shape, and flavor; but such is not always the case. As for the produce of trees resulting from the kernels of the same kind of mango, that is quite a lottery; for, like potatoes raised from seed, there will generally be found a great variety.

The Chinese have produced considerable amelioration in mangoes, by a very simple process. They select some healthy branches on a good tree, and, having pricked the bark through with a sharp awl, surround the part with a lump of wet clay, or loam; which they secure by means of a piece of canvas, bound lightly with hempen bands. Above each part thus treated, a large pot of water is suspended, having in its bottom a small hole; which, being partially stopped with a piece of rag, allows the water to drip, whereby the clay is kept constantly moist. In about three months, small fibres shoot out through the punctured bark; which, on the branch being cut off, and the canvas being removed, strike into the soil, and become roots. It is highly curious, that the fruit produced by branches thus treated, becomes more fleshy, while the stone diminishes considerably; it being more flat, and rarely so firm as that of the common mango. By persevering in the operation, that is, by repeating it on the branches of a tree thus cultivated, for some generations, the kernel becomes so reduced as scarcely to be noticeable, while the skin also loses much of that highly acrid quality, arising from the abundance of turpentine it contains.

Mangoes are peculiarly stimulant, rarely failing to cause those who eat of them freely to break out with boils of considerable size, and often very tedious in their cure. It is absolutely necessary to treat these as critical abscesses; for, were any repellent to be applied, serious consequences would inevitably follow. Persons lately arrived in the country, often devour this luscious fruit, until checked either by a dozen or two of these most distressing companions, or, perhaps, in consequence of that kind of bowel-complaint prevalent in all hot climates, and which, though generally not very difficult to remedy when properly treated in its first stage, soon turns to dysentery, carrying off a large portion of those whose constitutions are not remarkably sound. When eaten in moderation, mangoes are gently aperient; but if, notwithstanding its acrid taste and effects, the rind should be incautiously swallowed, the stomach will be considerably disordered. The gland, or kernel, which in shape is something like a very large, flat, Windsor-bean, is unpleasant to the palate, its flavor being very similar to that of the acorn. Swine, especially of the wild tribes, which often take shelter, during the season, in topes, or forests, of wild mangoes, eat the entire fruit, as it falls from the trees, with great avidity, and thrive amazingly.

The generality of mango-topes owe their origin to religious institutions, or to bequests, or to charitable donations. To plant one, it is necessary that the land should be purchased in fee-simple; when, the trees being set out, perhaps thirty feet, or more, asunder, in rows, so as to form regular square intervals, the whole are fenced by means of a deep ditch; from which the excavated soil is thrown inwards, and either planted with baubool, (mimosa,) or sown with that tall kind of grass which bears a very large tassel, and is known by the name of surput: of this grass notice has already been taken in describing the seerky used in thatching bungalows. Some topes are endowed with small sums for the purpose of maintaining a priest, for whom a comfortable residence, and a substantial durgaw, (or temple,) are erected. The sale of the fruit, (which generally proves a full crop in four or five years, the trees being then as large as a well-grown walnut-tree,) furnishes the means of sinking a well, cased with masonry. But it is more common for the person who causes the tope to be planted, to sink the well also; and to celebrate the marriage of the former with the latter, in a manner suitable to his rank or property. On such occasions, the well, being supposed to possess the fecundatory powers, is considered the husband; the tope being typified as feminine, by the fruit it produces. However much we may be disposed to smile at a custom generally attended with much ceremony, and expence, we cannot but admire its effects; which, in a tropical climate, are highly beneficial, both to the weary traveller, and to the thirsty soil. Hence, the sight of a mango-tope is generally attended with the most pleasing anticipations!

Although mango-topes abound in every part of the lower provinces, their wood, except in bungalows, is rarely employed in European architecture; nor do the natives make much use of it as a timber: large quantities are every year cut up for planks, intended chiefly for very ordinary purposes, where great strength and durability are not essentials. The immense quantities of fine bamboos, which ordinarily grow very straight to the height of sixty feet, or more, though rarely measuring more than five inches diameter near the root, and gradually tapering off as they ascend, supply the contented native with rafters, joists, posts, pillars, laths, and a great variety of et ceteras, all tending either to his shelter, or to his convenience. The ordinary price of these invaluable reeds (for they are of the arundo tribe) may be from three-pence to five-pence each; that is, generally from seven to twelve for a rupee, according to size and demand. Millions of them are annually brought to Calcutta, both by water, and on hackeries; in the former instance, they, being remarkably buoyant, are floated in clumps, or, perhaps, are made into rafts, on which boossah, (or chaff,) and even corn, are laden; or they are tied to the sides of very large boats, which also carry from five hundred, to as many thousands, as a cargo. The buoyancy of the bamboo is occasioned as much by its various cells, as by the lightness of its wood. These cells, in a common sized bamboo, may be about three quarters of an inch in diameter in those joints that are near the roots; where the wood is far more solid and compact than in the upper parts, towards which the cells become gradually wider, and the joints longer; thus reducing the substance of the bamboo very considerably, as we find to be the case with reeds in general. This variety in the several parts affords considerable convenience, their allotment being made according as the work may require more or less substance; and, as the whole bamboo may be split, like whale-bone, from top to bottom, without much exertion, scope is afforded for applying it, with great promptness, to an infinite variety of purposes.

In their whole state, bamboos are used, not only for rafters in the construction of bungalows, but as yards for the sails of the common country craft; sometimes those of extraordinary size are selected for top-gallant studding-sail booms, in vessels not exceeding four or five hundred tons: their immense strength qualifying them admirably for that situation. The smaller open boats, throughout the East, are generally fitted with bamboo masts, selected from the lower part of the reed, the upper being more suited, by its lightness, to be employed as yards: thus, for three-pence, a boat of about four or five tons may be furnished, from the same bamboo, with both mast and yard. In vessels of greater burthen, two or more, even up to a dozen, of bamboos, are lashed together around a stout piece of wood, which, passing through the thatch, fits into a step on the vessel’s bottom, and is well secured by chocks and lashings in various places. This stick, which serves as the base of the mast, may be about fifteen feet long, and nine or ten inches diameter: it is commonly left in a very rough state, that the bamboos which are to surround it may be more firmly held in their places. In this manner the mast is run up, probably to the height of forty or fifty feet, according to the vessel’s burthen, and at every two or three feet is bound by cords made of white hemp. The position of this awkward-looking pile is maintained by stays innumerable; many of which, being allowed to point forward, before the line of the mast’s perpendicular, obstruct the bracing of the yard very considerably. The strength of that yard must be proportioned to the sail; sometimes one well-selected bamboo may suffice, but in vessels of great bulk, say from sixty to ninety tons, two, or even three, stout bamboos are found requisite.

The sail is usually made of a very coarse kind of canvas, constructed of a very indifferent kind of hemp, generally used for rice bags, &c., and known by the name of gunny: each piece may measure six or seven feet by thirty inches; consequently, the innumerable joinings made in a large sail, offer a very ready means for the wind’s escape. Blacky is not very particular in this respect; with him, a sail is a sail, so long as a bit remains adequate to giving the vessel way through still waters.

It will naturally be asked, ‘Why is such miserable tackling in use?’ The reasons are, firstly, because the native owner of a vessel will not go to one farthing expence beyond what may be indispensably necessary, however clumsy, or subject to mishap, to set his vessel afloat, and to have her, as he thinks, ready for departure. Secondly, the materials are probably of his own growth, or he deals in them, or, which is often the sole motive, he finds them, in the first instance, by far cheaper than more substantial materials; and, thirdly, even if other materials of a better quality, and in every instance more appropriate, were to be had for the same money, he would not very readily deviate from the customs of his ancestors. Were a vessel fitted up on European principles to be wrecked, the whole family would impute the accident to the sin engendered by such adoption of the customs of a race held in abomination by even the lowest casts, (or sects,) throughout the country. Nevertheless, we sometimes see the manjy and dandies grievously put out of their way, by some shrewd native, who resolutely breaks through the general prejudice, and imitates that which his faculties convince him is founded upon science. Not that he will understand the how, and the wherefore: no; he sees the practice is good, and he adopts it: whereas, if any regulation were to be framed to enforce his compliance with our system, in that, or in any other particular, we should assuredly witness his receding, if possible, from every idea of improvement; or, if under the necessity of conforming, that his whole deportment would betray the reluctance, and antipathy, he felt on the occasion.

May not this trait in the character of Asiatics in general, serve as a hint to those who talk of coercing them to the adoption of Christianity? May it not shew that much may be done by suaviter in modo, provided we temper the fortiter in re?—Certainly!

Exclusive of the bamboo, the natives have an ample resource for rafters, as well as for posts and pillars, in the cocoa-nut tree, which grows, it may be said wild, throughout those parts within reach either of the sea-water, or of the sea-air. Not that it is absolutely confined to such situations; but, in proportion as those are removed, so does the natural growth of this tree gradually diminish; giving way to the taul, (or fan-leafed palm,) which, though less umbrageous, and, in many instances, less useful, attains a great height, and furnishes a much larger quantity of wood. In general, few Bengallees will cut down a nereaul, (or cocoa-nut tree,) which supplies them with so many requisites. Thus, the outer coating, which often weighs from one to two pounds, when stripped off longitudinally, furnishes those fibres called coir, whereof both small rigging and cables are made. This kind of rope is particularly elastic, and buoyant; floating on the surface of the sea, to any extent; therefore, when, owing to the strength of the current, a boat misses a ship, it is usual to veer out a quantity of coir; having previously fastened an oar, or a small cask, &c. to its end: by this device, the boat may be easily enabled to haul up to the ship’s stern.

I should think, that, were a coir hawser kept on board every ship in the British marine, a great number of lives would be saved. It is, however, peculiar, that fresh water rots coir in a very short time; corroding it in a most unaccountable manner; whereas salt water absolutely invigorates; seeming to afford additional elasticity. This shews that coir is by no means fit to be used in running rigging, nor as shroud-hawsers, &c., especially for vessels subject to approach low latitudes; it being easily snapped in frosty weather.

Nothing can equal the ease with which a ship rides at anchor when her cables are of coir: as the surges approach the bows, the vessel gradually recedes, in consequence of the cable yielding to their force; but, so soon as they have passed, it contracts again, drawing the vessel gently back to her first position. The lightness of the material doubtless adds to this pleasing effect; for the cable would float, were not the anchor sufficiently heavy to keep it perfectly down. It is to be remarked, that a hempen-cable always makes a curve downwards, between the vessel and the anchor, but a coir cable makes a curve upwards: therefore, if a right line were drawn from the hawse-hole, to the ring of the anchor, it would be something like the axis of a parabolic spindle; of which the cables would form the two elliptic segments, or nearly so.

A very considerable trade is carried on, from all parts of India, with the Maldivies, and Sechelles, (very numerous clusters of islands near the west coast of the peninsula,) for coir and cowries; the latter being used for inferior currency, while the former is greatly appreciated, on account of the fibres being much larger, and firmer, than those grown upon the continent. Not only the islands above named, but all within the Indian seas, abound with the cocoa-nut tree; which, in many of them, stand absolutely in the water. These owe their origin to the growth of such nuts as, having been blown down, or dropped, when ripe, are buried in the sands; above which their acrospires soon appear, when the tree shoots up with greater vigor than its inland competitors. It is said, that, about a hundred and fifty years back, the Sechelles and Maldivies were known only as concealed sands, highly dangerous to the navigator; and that, after they had, by the action of the sea, accumulated so as to become superficial, a vessel laden with cocoa-nuts was wrecked upon one of these banks, which speedily threw up whole forests of that tree, in consequence of the seed thus furnished: others attribute the first supply to the adventitious floating of nuts from the Malabar coast. Nothing appears to discredit either of the accounts; but the former appears by far the most probable. Be it one way or the other, we now find that the islands in question not only produce immense forests of cocoas, but, that they are inhabited by a people, governed much in the same way as the other Arabian islands, (for such we may call these, as well as Johanna, Comora, Succotra, &c.;) and whose commercial relations may be said to consist of coir and cowries, bartered with their neighbours of the peninsula, and the Arabs of Museat, &c., for cotton-cloths, rice, sugar, &c. To whatever chance it may have been owing, the navigator now feels less anxiety when near these isles; for, notwithstanding they are so little elevated as to remain nearly in their former state of immersion, yet their cocoa forests, which generally tower to the height of thirty or forty feet, being visible at the distance of many miles, enable him to ascertain his locality with correctness, and to avoid the numerous shoals, by a due attention to the bearings and soundings. The natives are said to be extremely well acquainted with their archipelago, and to pilot vessels of great burthen with perfect security and precision.

The next consideration with the native, respecting the cocoa-nut, is its water, by us called cocoa-nut milk. This pleasant beverage is contained within the shell, and, in general, may amount to three quarters of a pint. It is purest when the nut is so young and tender as to allow the husk and shell to be cut with about as much facility as a stringy turnip; at which time, very little coagulum adheres to the interior of the shell, and that little is soft, like milk barely turned by rennet. Gradually, the water becomes rather turbid, and acquires a stronger taste; while the coagulum encreases to about the third, or even the half, of an inch in thickness; hardening, and becoming tough, but easily snapped into pieces. When arrived at this state, it abounds in oil, which, at first is remarkably sweet, though of a peculiar flavor, and is much used by the native Portugueze, in lieu of ghee, in their culinary operations.

The mode of extracting the oil is very simple: a piece of wood, say two feet in length, six inches broad, and two or three thick, bears at one of its extremities a stem of iron, driven in by means of a spike: this stem must be stout, and should measure about ten inches; but, towards its summit, spreading into the form of an inverted crescent, somewhat concave, and deeply jagged at its circumference. Sitting, as usual, on the ground, the operator keeps the baton from tilting, by placing one of his feet firmly upon it: in that position he takes the nuts, commonly broken into two or more pieces, by a forcible stroke of some heavy implement, or by dashing them on the floor, and, by rasping the interior of each piece against the jagged edges of the iron, causes the coagulum to fall, in form of a coarse powder, into a vessel placed below to receive it. To effect this with more facility, the stem slants obliquely from the baton; allowing room for the receiver to be put immediately under the crescent. The raspings are now put into hot water, in which they are well stirred and pressed with a large wooden spoon; by this means the oil is separated; it is drawn off by opening a little hole near its surface, as it floats upon the water. It is inconceivable how much oil is thus obtained in a few minutes; but, both from its own nature, and the mode of extraction, it soon becomes offensively rancid; a state in which it is by no means objectionable to the swarthy Signors, who, as well as the Hindus in general, are partial to it as an unguent for the hair. To a fresh European, the scent of this powerful finish to the charms of an Indian Venus is highly objectionable: of all the stinks of which India can boast, it certainly is the worst. But, as before observed, if used immediately after extraction, nothing can be sweeter: it also burns remarkably well; therefore is in general use for lamps among all the European inhabitants. The residuum, after separating the oil, fattens poultry better than grain: the pork of swine fed upon cocoa-nuts is delicious; as must be confessed by all who have visited the Andamans and Nicobars. Considering the coagulum as a food for mankind, I should by no means feel disposed to recommend it; though it is certain that the natives eat of it freely: experience satisfies me, that it is extremely difficult of digestion; and that, when ate as a meal, much inconvenience, if not indisposition, will generally follow. Nor can I recommend the water of the young nut to persons whose bowels are not of the strongest; it being aperient, and, when used beyond a certain quantity, extremely apt to induce dysentery: the amount of a nut-ful may, perhaps, be drank with perfect safety. During very hot weather, if the nuts are fresh gathered, or suffered to remain for a while in cold water, it is not very easy to withstand the temptation.

The shell of the cocoa-nut is always most valuable when suffered to ripen upon the tree; it then acquires great hardness, and a fine dark chocolate color, interveined by fine lines of a rich dun, or clay, or perhaps striated with those tints: they then take a good polish, and may, when tastefully mounted, be considered as ornamental to the sideboard. But, it is to be observed, that they are rather a brittle ware, compared with their solid appearance; and, that it requires a great length of time to divest them wholly of a certain strong scent, reminding those who have been accustomed to the oil, of that peculiar and powerful rancidity it invariably acquires by long keeping, and especially by exposure to the air.

Previous to the introduction of lamps in the halls, passages, &c., in the houses of Europeans, cocoa-nut oil was to be had for about three-pence, or four-pence, per seer (i.e. the measurement of a seer, which comes very nearly to the English quart; in some places exceeding it, but in others falling short). Since that practice has obtained, in consequence of candles having been doubled in price, the oil has likewise been enhanced; so that it now sells at about three and a half, or four seers per rupee; which accords with seven-pence halfpenny of our currency per quart. No kind of animal oil is in use among the natives of India, either as food, or in manufactories; if, indeed, we except that most curious production, the meemii-ke-tale, or oil extracted from the bodies of malefactors; who, being well fed for a month, or more, previous to execution, for the purpose of encreasing their fat, have large fires lighted under them while on the gibbet, and metal vessels placed to receive the drippings. That this practice has heretofore obtained, under the government of the native princes, does not, I believe, admit of a doubt; but, that it is now obsolete, is equally certain. Still meemii-ke-tale (i.e. human oil) may be had at many places; though not genuine, but composed of whatever materials may form a mass resembling that originally in use. I have seen several of these masses, which were of a dark, opaque brown, appearing something like coagulated blood mixed with dirty jelly, and become hard by exposure to the sun, or by inspissation: its smell was intolerably offensive. On the whole, this celebrated extract, which is supposed to cure all contractions, and stiffness of the joints, is a subject of astonishment, when we consider it to be in use among a people so very peculiar in their tenets, and professing so much humanity, not only towards their brethren, but towards all animated nature. Had Shakespeare been acquainted with the existence of the meemii, he certainly would have given it a place in Hecate’s stir-about!

If the natives were intent upon obtaining animal oils, the greatest abundance could be commanded; porpoises, turtles, alligators, dog-fishes, and sharks, all of which contain large quantities, exist in every part where the water is brackish; some of them, indeed, become even more numerous as their distance from the sea encreases. Whales, likewise, are occasionally seen in the Indian Sea, and in the Mozambique Channel are extremely common. But, to persons habituated from their infancy to the use of high-savored viands, any sweet oil would be insipid: such people want a haut-goût in their sauces; yet it must be confessed, they certainly manage to render even their strongest preparations extremely palatable; but, to relish them properly, the culinary operations must not always be witnessed. Babachees, or cooks, in the employ of Europeans, are sometimes extremely filthy; far more so than when dressing their own victuals. Few of the natives are sparing in the use of water on such occasions, even though it should be brought from some distance; yet, it is equally true, that whole villages are sometimes content to use water from a pool, comparable only with that into which Ariel ushered the surly Caliban.

The trunk of the cocoa-nut tree not only answers, when the central pith is scooped out, for canoes, but, when split, as it may easily be into slips of any width, forms excellent rafters: if applied to that purpose, all the soft part is taken entirely away, leaving only the exterior case, which is very hard, tough, and elastic, about three inches in thickness. A trunk of about a foot in diameter will commonly rive into five staves, each about seven inches wide: such should be placed edgeways on the walls, that their scantlings may be in a proper direction. Rafters thus made, provided they be not more than twenty feet, or thereabouts, in length, and not too heavily laden, will stand for generations, without shewing the smallest symptom of decay. In saying this, I am to be understood as alluding to their being under cover; otherwise, they will not exhibit such durability, although they may fully claim to be on a par with most of the indigenous timbers.

The reader is to understand, that, excepting where merely temporary, that is to say, intended for a few weeks, or months, bungalows are always built with pavilion thatches; by which construction they resist the weather far better, while the quantity of brick-work is considerably less than where gables are run up. The proximity of the thatches in the veranda parts, renders them far less cool, in the hot months, than the interior, in which the thatch is so much further removed: the latter would be rendered much cooler were flues, or ventilators, to be made for the purpose of carrying off the rarefied air, as already suggested. Cocoa-nuts are often sawed into two equal parts, for the purpose of being made into ladles: to effect this, a hole is made on each side, about half an inch from the edge, and a stick is passed through, serving as a handle; much the same as we see in the jets used by brewers for taking liquor out of their vats. When sawed into two equal parts, across the grain of the coir coating, cocoa-nuts make excellent table brushes, causing the planks to assume a very high polish from their friction. As this operation requires some strength, it is proper to be careful that the edges of the shell, if left in, (as is sometimes, though improperly, done,) should be perfectly smooth; being once rendered so, they will never scratch, however forcibly the brush may be applied. A very good mode is, to strip off the coir, and, after soaking it well in water, to beat it with a heavy wooden mall until the pieces become a little pliant, when they should be firmly bound together with an iron ring: their ends being then levelled, the implement is fit for use. A little bees’-wax rubbed occasionally upon them, adds greatly to the lustre of the furniture, without being clammy.

The stem of the toddy-tree is very similar to that of the cocoa, but grows to a much greater height, and is put to the same purposes. On first seeing a grove of toddy-palms, one would suppose that a strong wind must inevitably tear up the whole by their roots; which consist of innumerable small fibres, that penetrate but a very little way, comparatively, into the soil. When one of these trees is laid prostrate by the wind, a very small cavity is made, rarely so much as a cubic yard. The leaves differ very widely from those of the cocoa: the former being rather spear-shaped, about a foot, or more, in length, by perhaps two inches at their broadest part, and attached to each side of the rib, which may be from ten to fourteen feet in length, and hang gracefully on every side of the trunk; covering the nuts, which grow on very short, stiff stems, close under the place where the leaves start from it in all directions; a tuft of similar, but smaller, branches, grow with rather a vertical tendency.

The toddy-palm has, on the contrary, about ten or a dozen large leaves, radiated from their stems, arranged in folds very similar to a lady’s fan half spread; but the outer edges are indented considerably: the leaves form each about three-fourths of a circle, but not very regularly so; some more, some less. These are made into punkahs, or fans, of various sizes; or, when torn into strips of about two inches wide, which may be about the medium breadth of each fold, serve the natives in lieu of paper. The greater part of the accounts kept by Bengallees are written on these leaves, by means of any sharp-pointed instrument, which, marking through the glossy rind, or coating, on either side of the leaf, remains, ever after, perfectly distinct and legible. Those who wish to have the letters still more so, rub the leaves, after filled with writings, with kaujool, or lamp-black; which sinks into the porous parts laid open by the instrument, but easily wipes off from that portion of the surface which has not been pierced. Some hundreds of these leaves may be seen, secured together at one end by a twine passed through each, like waste paper in a grocer’s shop; thus forming a voluminous collection. The fruit of the taul consists of two, or sometimes three, lobes, or pods, somewhat similar to those in a horse-chesnut, and, like them, concealed in a pithy, spherical coating, but with a smooth exterior. Each lobe is hollow, and contains a small quantity of very clear liquor, partaking, in a very slight degree, of the flavor of rose-water; the lobes themselves are about the size of a Chelsea-bun, are rather of a crisp, but gelatinous substance, and pleasant to the palate: their exterior is covered with a very thin, brown rind, like that of an almond; rather astringent, but by no means acrid.

The liquor, called toddy, is obtained by making an incision under the head of the tree, when, a thin wedge being introduced, the toddy will gradually exude into a vessel suspended to receive it. This liquor is very pleasing when fresh drawn, but, in a few hours, acquires a harsh flavor, ferments, and becomes highly intoxicating. It answers admirably as leaven, making very light dough; but if kept, as is too commonly done, until rather sub-acid, it communicates a most unpleasant tartness to the bread. Groves of toddy-trees, in some parts of the country, yield a very handsome revenue, and great profit to the renters. Like the cocoa-nut tree, they have within their summits a substance very like a cabbage in flavor: this occasions mariners sometimes to fell them, with the view of carrying that part to sea; where it will, if left within its rind, keep for many months. I have tasted of this vegetable, but did not feel much gratified, though it assuredly was not disagreeable: it seemed to require much boiling.

The stem of the toddy-palm is annulated, but not very deeply: of this the toddy-men take advantage, ascending to the summit, and descending again to the plain, with wondrous agility. This is effected by a piece of strong twine, about a yard or more in length, but doubled into a loop of half that extent. The great toes are respectively put into the ends of the loop, so as to keep it perfectly extended. The man first embraces the tree, as high as he can reach, for the purpose of raising himself from the ground; his feet being instantly carried, on opposite sides of the trunk, as far asunder as the loop may admit. Then, sustaining himself by means of the loop, he slides his arms upwards to take a second spring; following, in due time, by the removal of his feet, as much higher as he has been able to reach. In this manner, successively stretching up his arms, and swarming with his feet, he reaches the summit; where, while he either suspends the pot, or releases it, his weight generally rests on the loop. The great art, both in ascending, and descending, is to keep the loop always stretched: should it be allowed to slacken, in all probability it would fall off. Few persons, following this profession, require more than half a minute to mount the highest palmira; by which name the toddy-palm is most generally known to Europeans. The natives designate it the taul (or taul-gautch).

I believe very few kinds of wood, except those I have mentioned, ever come within the ordinary course of domestic architecture; though, in some few situations, the soondry and jarrool are employed for the minor purposes; but, with some reserve on the part of the natives, who hold them to be more applicable to the construction of small craft, and to the formation of carriages of various descriptions. The soondry is a remarkably tough, heavy, and elastic wood; while the jarrool, though rather harder, more resembles the beech, than any other of our indigenous timber trees: as a material in boat-building, it ranks next to the teak, hence, many of the donies, (or coasting vessels,) measuring from fifty, to a hundred and fifty, tons, are principally built therewith. When teak is scarce, we occasionally see the ship-wrights apply jarrool in their repairs of the upper works of large vessels.

Having said thus much of the manner in which houses, and bungalows, are constructed, I have only to observe, that, of late years, the European architects have been rather prone to sacrifice comfort to appearance. Those old houses built at a time when punkahs, tatties, glass-sashes, &c., were not in use, certainly evince that attention was paid to coolness, but without disregarding convenience. Now, although building is full fifty per cent. cheaper than it was thirty years ago, we see the walls much less substantial, and, on the whole, a want of local fitness in the arrangement of the several apartments. I must caution the reader, that what would appear an admirable plan for a residence in our climate, would be found totally inconsistent with the temperatures attendant upon the changes of season in India, and with the several practices, and operations, peremptorily necessary towards meeting those changes. It must never be forgotten, that, at some seasons, and at some hours in all seasons, every door and window is usually thrown open; likewise, that, during the continuance of the hot winds, such apartments as cannot be kept moderately cool, by tatties applied to some apertures on that floor, whence the current of refrigerated air may find admission, will be scarcely habitable, and, at night in particular, will glow like ovens.

The hot-wind commonly rises with the sun, blowing at first very gently, but encreasing gradually, until about one or two o’clock; after which, it subsides into a perfect calm. This is its ordinary course, but some days remain calm throughout, while, at other times, the wind blows a hurricane the whole night through. I have, indeed, known it to continue, with very little change of temperature, or variation of force, for full ten days; during which period, the nights were, if any thing, hotter than the days; so that extra b’heesties were retained to water the tatties during the night. That was, to be sure, a very singular season, carrying with it a prodigious mortality; great numbers dying suddenly. It was peculiar that the fit, which resembled apoplexy, attacked all ages alike, and paid no deference to the abstemious and temperate, any more than to the licentious and gormandizing classes.

In describing the habitations of the lower orders of natives, I explained, that their chief attention was paid to privacy, and to the exclusion of the glare. The superior ranks are not less intent upon the same objects; though many of their state apartments do not indicate, that either the one or the other were of the smallest consideration. Some of the Durbars are uncommonly exposed; and, in consequence of the crowd, the fastidious ceremony observed, and the constant succession of entrances and exits, form a most uncomfortable tout ensemble. Yet, it appears that the natives have made little or no variation in their system, not only within the time we have been acquainted with them, but, if we examine their ancient structures, not for centuries before a British foot was placed upon their soil. We ordinarily find nearly the same aspect given to all their buildings, especially to their places of worship: nimauzes, (or open temples,) where the Mussulmans are in the habit of offering up their prayers, invariably are made to front the west; under the idea of their facing the shrine of Mahomed. This error may be considered on a par with the placing of altars in our churches always at the east end, with the view to their standing towards the place of our Saviour’s nativity: we also inter our dead with their heads to the west, on the same account.

Having detailed what relates to the domestic habits, and to the architecture of the country, I shall now proceed to describe the manner of living among Europeans in India; observing, that there are two very distinct classes, though perfectly on a footing; namely, the residents of Calcutta, and those among the civil and military, who are subject to be detached from the Presidency. Formerly, only such gentlemen as held offices of considerable emolument, or those who were married, supported a regular table: such might be said to keep open-house; at least, far the greater number usually laid several spare covers, especially at supper-time, under the hope of seeing their friends drop in to partake of whatever might be in preparation. The dinner hour being known, (for almost every family then dined between two and three o’clock,) it was rarely needful to make enquiries respecting the proper moment for repairing to the hospitable board. Little or no ceremony was required; the host being as much pleased with the compliment paid by the visit of a young friend, as the latter was to find a welcome among the most opulent and respectable portion of the European community.

Nor did the benefit accruing to the latter, confine itself within the limits of economical saving: it was generally found, that such as became habitually inmates of this description, were recommended to the notice of Government, or to such situations, (if not in the Company’s service,) as afforded the immediate means of maintenance, or eventually led to lucrative speculations. A variety of instances could be adduced, of young gentlemen having, from the foregoing admission within the domestic circle of visitants, been rescued from that most unpleasant situation, namely, a want of respectable friends; these, as Shakespeare properly remarks, ‘had greatness thrust upon them.’ Such was the state of society when I first arrived in India, [1778] and such was the fair expectation, with which not only young gentlemen, but many ‘far advanced upon time’s list,’ landed on the shores of the Ganges. In fact, it required that some very substantial objection should personally exist, to deprive any individual of an implied right to the most friendly reception. Still, however, it must be acknowledged, that a certain distinction, rather too fastidious, was prevalent in favor of those who came with appointments to the Company’s service; especially in the civil line. To a certain extent, such might have been considered reasonable, when we reflect that future association in the same duties was to be expected; but, the matter was doubtless carried too far; it being distinguished by that kind of deference which stamps a superior value upon its object, the whole amount of which is deducted from the supposed inferior; thus, causing the former to preponderate in society in a multiplied ratio, in the same manner as taking from one scale to put into the other, occasions the difference to encrease in the proportion of three to one.

The gradual encrease of commercial transactions, and of intercourse, with several parts of that extensive territory, which ultimately has come under the influence, if not the control, of the British government, served as invitations to many adventurers, who quitted Europe under assurances of employ in the East. Their expectations were generally confirmed by permanent establishments in various parts of the country; whereby a complete change took place, as to the estimation in which free-merchants, as they are generally termed, were held.

Among this class, there have, within a few years, appeared numbers, whose industry, and extensive concerns, rendered them conspicuous; and it would not, perhaps, be too bold to predict, that, in the course of a few years, the success of their efforts may prove a stimulus to such an encrease of private traders, as cannot fail to give birth to events of great national importance.

It would not be in place to notice such probable results in this work, but it may be permitted, without trespassing the bounds I have marked out to myself, to anticipate, that the commercial society of India will, in time, grow out of the knowledge of such as surveyed its state some thirty years ago. We have, at the same time, to lament, that, owing to such an augmentation of all ranks, it has been found necessary to drop many customs suited only to a limitted society, and to adopt a certain reserve, which may not be exactly conformable to those very sanguine ideas entertained by persons who may have read of the ancient regime of Oriental hospitality; the declination of which has unavoidably kept pace with the additional imports consequent to extended commerce. There will, however, even at this day, be found much to approve; and the mind endued with sensibility will have to acknowledge many a civility, very nearly akin to kindness, and sufficiently poignant to give an ample scope for many a grateful acknowledgment.

Morning visits are not, generally speaking, so uncommon as they were: formerly, few went to pay visits of ceremony during the forenoon; for, the dinner-hour being early, there was little time for such unsocial compliments; whereas, now, that it is generally delayed until about sun-set, that is to say, to perhaps five, or six, or even to seven o’clock, the forenoon is more applicable to the reception of visitors; who, if on any terms of intimacy, do not hesitate to join the family at a little avant-diner commonly called a tiffing, and known among us by the name of lunch. This kind of refreshment (for it is not considered a repast) usually takes place between one and two o’clock, and consists of grilled fowls, mutton chops, cold meats, and sometimes of curry and rice. Being conducted without ceremony, and in a very desultory style, the dropping in of friends never occasions the slightest discontinuance, any more than the accidental arrival among an English party here, of an intimate, while partaking of a slice of cake and a glass of wine. The various formalities are, however, now transferred from P. M. to A. M. and it is usual to see the town of Calcutta thronged with palanquins during the whole of what is called the forenoon; but which commonly is made to extend to three o’clock; about which time, especially during nine months in the year, most persons are at home, divested of their usual dresses, and reclining, in some cool apartment, on a bed, or a couch, for the purpose of repose, and to prepare for that change of linen, and for those ablutions, not forgetting the bath, which are both comfortable, and essential, in so very sultry a climate.

Gentlemen who purpose visiting the ladies, commonly repair to their houses between eight and nine o’clock in the evening; ordinarily under the expectation of being invited to stay and sup: an invitation that is rarely declined.

Among ladies who are intimately acquainted, morning visits are common, but all who wish to preserve etiquette, or merely return the compliment by way of keeping up a distant acquaintance, confine them to the evening; when, attended by one or more gentlemen, they proceed, in their palanquins, on a tour devoted entirely to this cold exchange of what is called civility.

Among the several justly-exploded ceremonies, we may reckon that, which existed until within the last twenty years, of ‘SITTING UP,’ as it was called: we must, at the same time, do the ci-devant inhabitants of Calcutta the justice to remark, that the practice was evidently founded on good-will and hospitality; although it bore so strong a resemblance to the exhibition of a cargo of slaves, as to occasion many a caricature, and many a satirical expenditure of ink. This ‘SITTING UP,’ as it was termed, generally took place at the house of some lady of rank, or fortune, who, for three successive nights, threw open her mansion towards the evening, for the purpose of receiving all, both ladies and gentlemen, who chose to pay their respects to such ladies as might have recently arrived in the country. The fair damsels were thus at once introduced to the whole settlement, and not unfrequently obtained a variety of offers from men of the first consequence. Many matches have, indeed, been concluded even before the third night of exhibition. If we consider the fatigue attendant upon the return of these numerous visits, (for the slightest omission would have been an unpardonable offence,) and that the novelty of riding in a boçhah, (or chair-palanquin,) would not be agreeable to all, we may form some idea of what many a delicate female, melting with the heat, tight-laced, and tormented with musquito-bites, must have undergone during the performance of this ceremony. To the gentlemen of the settlement, it might have been abundantly pleasing; they had nothing to do but to post about in their palanquins from one sitting up to another, and there either to admire, or to quiz, the fair sufferers, according as their taste, or caprice, might dictate. The throng has, in some lovely instances, been so very great, that even a fourth night has been required for the benefit of bachelors from the interior!

The great encrease, not only of inhabitants, but of houses, some of which are situated at an inconvenient distance, has rendered the custom of ‘sitting up’ nearly obsolete. The modern instances of its continuance, are, indeed, so very few, and those few so modified, as barely to leave room for saying that it is at all in use. In these days, a lady is received on landing by her friends, who, generally, after a few days of repose, and of preparation, invite their acquaintances, to be introduced to their fair companion, who, in the course of a week, usually returns their visits. This is merely a partial shew, compared with what formerly took place, and is no more than would be practised in England on a similar occasion: it is true, that, where superlative attractions exist, many, who probably are not in the habit of visiting the family, will often avail themselves of the opportunity to chaperon some acquaintance, merely with the intention of gaining a peep at the goddess.

The company rarely sit long at table after dinner, unless among those convivial souls who deem the presence of a petticoat a perfect nuisance. Such were formerly very numerous, but of late, the society of the sex has been more duly appreciated, and we see the gentlemen quitting the bottle to retire to the chabootah, (or terrace,) there to enjoy the cool air of the evening, and to take a cup of tea, or to smoke their hookahs; after which, those who have business to attend, proceed to their offices, &c., while the larger portion separate to partake of a family supper with some of their female acquaintances. Very little ceremony is used on such occasions; the gentlemen leaving their hats in their palanquins, and ordering their servants to proceed, as a matter of course, to the houses whither their palanquins are to be conveyed. In many instances, these evening visits are paid in a very airy manner: coats being often dispensed with; the gentlemen wearing only an upper and an under waistcoat, both of white linen, and the former having sleeves. Such would appear an extraordinary freedom, were it not established by custom; though, it generally happens, that gentlemen newly arrived from Europe, especially the officers of his Majesty’s regiments, wear their coats, and prefer undergoing a kind of warm bath of the most distressing description, both to themselves, and to their neighbours; but, in the course of time, they fall in with the local usages, and, though they may enter the room in that cumbrous habit, rarely fail to divest themselves of it, so soon as the first ceremonies are over, in favor of an upper waistcoat, which a servant has in readiness.

Supper, though enumerated among the ordinary meals of a family residing at the Presidency, seems rather to be the means of concentrating the party, than partaken of with that keenness we often witness in our colder climate. Few do more than take a glass or two of wine, generally Claret, with, perhaps, a crust, and a morsel of cheese: the appetite at this hour, say ten, being by no means keen. After supper, the hookah is again produced, and, after sitting awhile in conversation, the lady of the house retires: few remain long after that has taken place. On the whole, it may be said, that at least four in five are in bed before twelve; or, perhaps, before eleven o’clock. From this, I exempt all concerned in card-parties, especially if the stakes run high: for such, no measure, or calculation, exists; the whole night being occasionally passed at tradrille, which is the favorite game, or at whist, &c. Such exceptions fortunately are not very numerous; it would certainly be difficult to find any city, wherein celibacy among the males is so prevalent, as at Calcutta, that can boast of so few excesses of any description. The European inhabitants of respectability certainly live well; that is, they keep as good tables as the seasons may enable them to furnish; and they drink none but the best of wines: Claret, Madeira, and Port, are in general use.

Of the former, there are two kinds; one called ‘English Claret,’ which is the best wine that France produces, manufactured after its arrival in England, with an addition of Brandy, &c., to enable its standing the hot climate of India, and with other liquids, to give it a richer body. Such wine generally sells at Calcutta for about thirty rupees per dozen, equal to six shillings and threepence per bottle.

The other kind of Claret, which is the purest that can be obtained from the most valuable vineyards near Bourdeaux, the Coté-Roti, Chateau Margeau, &c., can rarely be obtained, except in times of peace, when sixteen rupees per dozen, equal to about three shillings and four-pence per bottle, may be considered a fair price. This wine, however well packed, and carefully treated, will not keep long: at the end of six or seven months after arrival, it will be found rather sharp, and then becomes extremely pernicious to the bowels. When fresh, it is remarkably fine, and delicate, and being far lighter than the ‘English Claret,’ is certainly best adapted to the climate. Occasionally, a few chests of Claret are imported at Serampore, a Danish settlement, about sixteen miles above Calcutta, but experience has proved, that, in regard to wholesomeness, as well as to flavor, it is far inferior to either of the former: the severe bowel-complaints its free use often occasions, are attributed to the litharge with which it is said to be fined; hence, what is called ‘Danish Claret’ is rarely found at any gentleman’s table.

About thirty years back, a large quantity of Madeira used to be imported at Calcutta, by the Company, in pipes of extra-measurement, for the use of their servants. Sometimes nearly a thousand pipes arrived during the course of the season; being of prime quality, and laid in by the Company’s agents at Fonchall, it always sold well at the annual auctions: six hundred rupees was a common average. For some time past, the Company have, generally speaking, declined this trade, which was of extensive convenience to the residents at Bengal, and must be supposed to have paid them amply for their outward tonnage, while the returning tonnage was always at liberty to receive investments for the Europe market. The cause of this relinquishment has been attributed to various circumstances; but, I believe, is to be found in that immense supply which, at the close of the war in 1782, glutted the markets for some seasons. Until that date, the Company had nearly monopolized the trade, there being no competitors of consequence, though the speculation was open to all; but its excellence, which seemed to offer full seventy pounds for every pipe, that cost perhaps only twenty-five, or thirty, on the Island of Madeira, induced the French, Portugueze, and some English speculators, to embark on vessels under Imperial colors, and to become rivals in a trade which could not bear extension beyond certain narrow limits. All could not be supplied at Fonchall; therefore Teneriffe, and other inferior wines, were substituted; whereby the depreciation even of the best genuine Madeira was enhanced, and it fell, in consequence, full fifty per cent. Of late years, very little of the latter has found its way to India; the produce of the island being almost wholly required for the Europe market; but the merchants in that quarter have found out the way to doctor the inferior wines of the neighbouring isles, so as to sell them at a good price, under the captivating titles of ‘London Particular,’ ‘London Choice Particular Particular,’ &c. &c.

The low price to which Madeira fell, (for, in 1781-2 it had been so high as two thousand rupees per pipe,) made a great change in the affairs of some adventurers, who had anticipated the golden harvest with which they were to return to Europe. The general effects were highly beneficial, as the greater portion of persons settled in Calcutta, &c., were enabled to purchase large quantities; which, being kept in godowns, (warehouses and cellars,) gradually improved in that hot climate, and, after a few years, became highly valuable. Many gentlemen availed themselves of the low state of the markets to supply themselves abundantly; some purchased from forty to sixty pipes, and thus secured to themselves a supply of capital wine, for many years consumption, at a certain price.

It is no uncommon thing to see Madeira, which has been in a gentleman’s godown ten years in the wood: many have much older wine in their possession; a few can, indeed, boast of some, which, though inconceivably mild, and rich in flavor, is extremely potent. None will attempt to produce, at their tables, Madeira that has not been two or three years in the country; for the new wine is neither pleasant nor wholesome, and may be readily distinguished from the old, notwithstanding some venders are well skilled in the art of adding, in the course of a few hours, many years of age to the liquor. Among the military, it is found best to purchase wine that is known to be of good quality, and of a certain age; which is easily done, through the several agency-houses; all of which have generally large quantities, of every description, either on commission, or at command. This mode is far preferable to the otherwise general practice of buying several pipes, with a view to filling up the ullage, (say of four, from a fifth,) as the contents decrease. By such management, any person settled at Calcutta, or elsewhere, may, in the course of five or six years, become possessed of a stock of excellent Madeira; observing, however, that, in that time, every fifth pipe will have been drawn off, to fill up its neighbours: therefore, in computing the value of such remaining pipes, that of the pipe thus expended must be included.

Nothing can injure a cargo of Madeira more than the presence of a cask of coal-tar: it communicates to the wine a most nauseous flavor, and scent; rendering it totally unfit for use. I recollect, about seventeen years ago, dining with a General Officer, who had inadvertently allowed his Madeira pipes to be smeared with coal-tar, for the purpose of preserving them. Whether it had that effect on the wood I never took the trouble to enquire, but it certainly preserved the wine; which, I doubt not, may be in existence to this day; for it was really too potent, even for parasitical stomachs!

The price of good Madeira wine that has been three or four years in the country, may be generally stated at about four hundred rupees, equal to £50. The pipes are not so large as formerly, but will commonly run about forty dozens; which brings the price per dozen nearly to twenty-five shillings, or little more than two shillings per bottle. Wine of the first quality may be about fifty, or even sixty, per cent. dearer.

The Port-wine used in India is generally of a light kind, not unlike what we term ‘Southampton Port:’ about ten years ago, when Claret began to be scarce, a large quantity was sent out, and was bought up with readiness; but, on account of its astringent, and, consequently, heating, quality, it fell into disrepute. It is, nevertheless, highly esteemed as a restorative, especially in a convalescent state after obstinate bowel-complaints, and in cases of debility not proceeding from obstructions.

Such exceptions are, indeed, rare; for, I believe, very few of the local diseases are exempted from such connections with obstruction: in fact, almost every ague, which is a very common complaint in many parts of the country, and is generally designated the ‘Hill,’ or ‘the Jungle-fever,’ according to the situation in which it is engendered, either originates from, or resolves into, confirmed hepatitis.

Porter, pale-ale, and table-beer of great strength, are often drank after meals: all these are found in the utmost perfection, for indifferent malt-liquors do not stand the voyage; and, even should they arrive in a sound state, would meet no sale. A temporary beverage, suited to the very hot weather, and called ‘country-beer,’ is in rather general use, though water, artificially cooled, is commonly drank during the repasts: in truth, nothing can be more gratifying at such a time, but especially after eating curry. Country-beer is made of about one-fifth part porter, or beer, with a wine glass full of toddy, (or palm-wine, which is the general substitute for yeast,) a small quantity of brown sugar, and a little grated ginger, or the dried peel of Seville oranges, or of limes; which are a small kind of lemon, abounding in citric acid, and to be had very cheap.

The great cheapness and abundance of the materials, added to the frequent and great thirst to which Europeans are subject while resident in India, should appear to be strong inducements toward the free use of punch, lemonade, sangaree, negus, &c. The reverse is the case; for, I believe, with the exception of the lowest classes, all such beverages are totally discarded: they are deleterious; rarely failing, in the first instance, to injure, and ultimately disgracing all who yield to the temptation. Fortunately, that temptation is not very strong; as liquors of a superior quality are found to be more wholesome, more pleasant, and, in the long run, not much dearer. Besides, there is a certain odium attaches in that quarter to all who are in the habit of drinking spirits, whether raw or diluted. In a climate so ungenial to European constitutions, and where, as above said, thirst is often very distressing, the frequent recourse to ‘brandy shrob pauny’ (brandy and water) never fails to produce that sottishness at all times despicable, but peculiarly unsuited to Oriental society, in which at least the better half are men of very liberal education, and all are gentlemen.

In saying thus much, I barely do justice to the persons of whom mention is made; for it may be said, without fear of refutation, that fewer deviations from propriety are to be found in our Indian settlements, than in one-tenth the number of inhabitants of the same classes in any other country, whose manners and properties, either personal observation, or respectable authors, have enabled me to estimate.

This results, not simply from the advantage almost every individual in the Company’s service, and in the mercantile branches, possesses, of having been brought up in the most respectable seminaries, &c., and of being early initiated in the walks of decorum and integrity among their respective friends in Europe; it proceeds partially from the nature of the climate, and from that mode of association which the duties attendant upon each profession, as well as certain localities, seem, imperiously indeed, to inculcate.

I have before shewn that taverns, punch-houses, &c., are by no means places of resort, as in Europe: there is no such thing as a coffee-room, merely as such; unless we so consider the few mansions of certain French and English traiteurs and restaurateurs, who occasionally have to accommodate committees of shipping, or town meetings, &c., and who send out dinners to any part of the town, or its vicinity, on terms advantageous to both parties. Therefore, under such exceptions, which are rare, and setting apart the civic operations of the beef-steak clubs, &c., it may properly be said, that coffee-house association is unknown in Calcutta, at least among the respectable members of the community. Neither does any corps in the Company’s service keep a mess: all the officers dine either at home, or in small parties, according as their several fancies, or occasion, may lead them. It is common to hear one or two of a party, before they retire from table, which is always done without the least ceremony, enquire, who will dine with them the next day? Thus, it is extremely easy to avoid any obnoxious person, be the objection to him what it may; and as the omission of any individual, from the ordinary course of invitations of such a description, soon produces explanation, it is impossible that a person of unpleasant manners, or of an indifferent character, can, for any length of time, stand his ground; the whole circle, by degrees, drop his acquaintance, while, in lieu of that friendly and familiar salutation which denotes approbation, the shunned offender experiences the most distant, and most forbidding reserve. Being once condemned, something more than ordinary must appear to produce his re-admission: for the most part, especially if habitual inebriation be in question, the unhappy man pursues his career, either until the grave may receive his dropsical remains, or the Invalid Establishment affords him an asylum against the mortifying neglect of his late associates.

This kind of retirement, of course, can only apply to military characters, and certainly does infinite credit to the humanity of those who tolerate the measure. It may, probably, be urged, that such an institution should not be open to persons retiring merely in consequence of indulgence in depravity; or because they are no longer acceptable among their former associates: it may be asserted, that the admission of such men within so honorable a pale, must be injurious both to the character of the corps, and to the feeling of those meritorious individuals who are compelled by wounds, &c., to accept the benefits of that establishment. This is undeniable; but when we consider, that, perhaps, after long service in an oppressive climate, the best of us may be brought to that kind of conduct which disqualifies from military service, it may not be too much to assert, that the concession and indulgence thus granted, are at least charitable, and often incontrovertibly merited.

Among the gentlemen of the civil service, the society is far less diversified than with us in Europe; therefore, much facility is afforded towards the evasion of intercourse with persons in any way unacceptable. It must at the same time be remarked, that, in this instance, the most liberal consideration is very generally exhibited; and, that so long as any hope of reform may remain, there will rarely be found a disposition to exile a man from that converse with his countrymen, without which he can neither preserve the appearance of respectability among the natives, nor, in all probability, receive the approbation of Government. Hence, what we commonly call a ‘black-sheep,’ is a most marked, and equally forlorn character, throughout the East; and, consequently, is very scarce.

Many years ago, when it was customary for the Governor-General, and some of the leading gentlemen, such as the Members of Council, &c., to have public breakfasts weekly, persons of all characters mixed promiscuously at table; good and bad were to be seen around the same tea-pot. This occasioned a native of some consequence to remark, that, ‘among Europeans, all who wore a hat and breeches were gentlemen.’ The sarcasm was not, however, quite applicable; for, the breakfast being considered merely the preface to a levee, it was to be expected that, on such occasions, persons of every description would be seen, who, having public business to transact at the levee, naturally availed themselves of the opportunity, without reference to the opinions of others regarding their private conduct. After the arrival of Marquis Cornwallis, these public breakfasts were discontinued, and open levees substituted. This was certainly pleasanter for both the Governor and the governed. However, there are, to this day, I believe, some remains of the former ceremony preserved, among a few of the principal gentry; who, on certain days, expect to see their friends, and such others as may wish to consult them. Some have two levees, if we may so designate them, weekly; one for Europeans, and one for natives; but such cannot be considered official.

A breakfast in India bears a strong resemblance to the same meal in Scotland, with the exception of whiskey; the introduction of which, (if to be had,) or of any other spirits, would be considered both nauseous and vulgar. The general bill of fare, at this time, consists of tea, coffee, toast, bread, butter, eggs, rice, salt-fish, kitchery, (a kind of olio,) various sweetmeats prepared in the country, especially preserved ginger, and orange marmalade, honey, &c.; and, after hunting or shooting, occasionally cold meat, with proper accompaniments.

During a great portion of the year, breakfast may be considered rather a substantial meal. The generality of European gentlemen rise about day-break, and either proceed to the parade, to their field diversions, or to ride on horseback, or on elephants; thus enjoying the cool air of the morning. From the middle of March to the middle of October, the sun is very powerful, even when the atmosphere is overcast with clouds of great density. This induces all who ride for health, or for pleasure, to avoid violent exercise; they proceeding, generally in small parties, each gentleman being attended by his syce, who carries a whisk made of horse-hair, fastened to a short lacquered stick, for the purpose of driving away the flies, which are generally very troublesome both to the horses and to their riders. It is not uncommon to see the backs of the latter covered with these noxious parasites, which, by their buzzing, and their attempts to alight on the face, produce extreme irritation. During some part of the year, when scarce a leaf is in motion, and the clouds hang very low, exercise, even so early in the morning, is often found more injurious than refreshing: at such seasons, nothing but the abundant perspiration which then relaxes the whole frame, and absolutely oozes through the light cloathing in common use, could prevent the occurrence of diseases highly inflammatory. Many feel so uneasy, in consequence of this unpleasant exudation, as to be induced to change their linen three or four times within the day; but, however refreshing such a change may prove, it is by no means to be commended; experience proving that considerable prostration of strength is the inseparable consequence of so ill-judged an indulgence. The best plan is, to have night apparel, and to ride out in the linen worn during the preceding evening; changing for a clean suit on returning, so as to sit down to breakfast in comfort.

Those who are subject to bile cannot be too cautious in regard to their diet; which should be rather sparing, and confined to viands dressed in a simple manner. Many gentlemen of the faculty, in England, entertain an opinion, that eggs, moderately boiled, are rather beneficial, than otherwise, in bilious cases: the idea they entertain is, that the yolk assimilates with the bile, and carries it off. But practice is better than theory; and it is to be wished, that such as maintain the above hypothesis could view the number of patients who may be said to owe their pains and sorrows merely to the practice of eating eggs for breakfast. In this climate, to a person possessing a robust constitution, and whose stomach might vie with that of an ostrich, eggs may be innocent; but, in the East, where relaxation weakens the powers of digestion, they are by no means a proper article of diet. If, as physicians assert, assimilation takes place, it assuredly is on the wrong side of the question; for I believe all oriental practitioners will allow, that the bile is considerably augmented, but not carried off, by eggs.

However grateful many of the other items, such as salt-fish, &c., may be, they certainly cannot tend much to the preservation of health; therefore, should be discarded from the breakfast table. I speak feelingly; for, although I did not possess sufficient resolution to withstand what then appeared a very alluring temptation, I have now the candor to confess, that thirst, heat, and uneasiness were generally attendant upon my imprudence, and no doubt occasioned me to swallow many a nauseous dose, which might have been avoided by a moderate share of discretion. Therefore, let me strongly recommend to those of my juvenile readers who may be about to proceed to India, not to indulge in breakfasts such as I have described.

The tea used in India is generally what we call green, or hyson; very little bohea being drank. It is very rarely that either kind can be obtained good; indeed, the climate speedily renders tea unfit for use, if at all exposed to the air: on this account, leaden catties of various sizes, but generally containing from four to ten pounds, are employed for preserving it. These catties fit in pairs, or, if large, singly, into neat boxes provided with locks. But little tea being sold retail, it is usual for a few friends, perhaps three or four, to club, and buy a chest; which may be had for about 150, or even so high as 200 rupees (£25). This, however, is not the price of the best teas, which occasionally sell for nearly double the latter sum, unless there may be a very large supply at market; when, as it is a very perishable commodity, the prices sometimes fall even below prime cost. To say the truth, it rarely matters much whether the tea be good, or bad; for it is always made at a side-table by some menial who knows nothing of the matter, and who never tastes it himself: hence, a cup of good tea is really a rarity; which must appear extraordinary, when it is recollected that many vessels import at Calcutta in five or six weeks only from China.

The Arabs now convey immense quantities of fine coffee from Mocha to every part of India; but they sell it at a high price, generally from forty to sixty rupees, or even more, per maund of 82lb.; which brings it, at the latter rate, to 3s. 9d. per lb. in its raw state. Bourbon and the Mauritius raise coffee, but of an inferior quality; and, within these few years, considerable plantations have been formed at Chittagong; but the produce, though abundant, cannot compare with even the French coffee.

I have often had coffee that tasted very salt, and rather bitter, the cause of which was then unknown to me; but a gentleman, who was ‘up to the trick,’ assured me it was occasioned by the frazils (or baskets) being immersed in seawater, in order to give the berries that greenish, horny appearance, which is supposed to be the indication of a superior quality.

Sugar-candy is always used for making tea, coffee, and, indeed, for all such purposes: it is to be had of various degrees of purity, and either of indigenous manufacture, or imported from China. The former kind is sold by the maund, and may be estimated at from twenty to forty rupees; the latter in tubs made of thin deal, and other light wood, in which the candy is packed among dried bamboo-leaves. The price of a tub is usually about twenty rupees, (more or less, as the markets may stand,) for which about sixty pounds weight are obtained.

Although the sugar-cane is, by many, supposed to be indigenous in India, yet it has only been within the last fifty years that it has been cultivated to any great extent: since the failure which took place some twenty years back in the West Indies, it has become a most important article of commerce. Strange to say, the only sugar-candy used until that time was received from China; latterly, however, many gentlemen have speculated deeply in the manufacture, and, by serving themselves richly, have rescued the country from a very impolitic branch of imposition. We now see sugar-candy, of the first quality, manufactured in various parts of Bengal, and, I believe it is at length admitted, that the raw sugars from that quarter are pre-eminently good. I have lately had occasion to purchase some of a very superior fineness, called Soonamooky, from a place of that name in the Burdwan district, which was as high as eleven-pence per pound.

About thirty-two years ago, the common raw sugar, known by the name of g’hoor, was to be had at three rupees per maund of 96lb. in the upper provinces: this was about three farthings per pound; for a Sonaut or Tersooly rupee then was exchanged at about two shillings, or even so low as one shilling and ten-pence. In consequence of the great demand for the article, it rose gradually, but in comparatively a very short time, to eight rupees the maund of 72lb.; and it has been so high as twelve rupees, but not, I believe, for any length of time: partial instances could be quoted, of even fourteen rupees being given.

The superior kind, which may often be had nearly white, at least of a dove color, perfectly dry, and sharp grained, under the name of cheeny, was formerly about seven, or eight, rupees per maund (of 96lb.); of late, it has risen to full fifteen; and has been up to twenty.

The sugar-candy made in India, where it is known by the name of miscery, bears a price suited to its quality: some may be had at twenty, and some up as high as forty, rupees per maund (82lb). It is usually made in small conical pots, whence it concretes into masses, weighing from three to six pounds each.

For further information, I must refer my readers to Mr. Colebrooke’s excellent Essay on the Husbandry of Bengal.

Bread is not made of flour, but of the heart of the wheat, which is very fine, ground into what is called soojy; a kind of meal, so far from being pulverized, as to bear a strong resemblance to rather coarse sand. Soojy is kneaded the same as is done with flour, but there being no yeast in the country, (I mean such as we know by that name,) it is leavened by means of toddy; which is the juice obtained by making incisions into the taul, (or palm-tree,) already described. In many parts of India, taul trees are very scarce, and are carefully preserved for the sake of the toddy, which is sold to the nonbaies, (or bakers,) at a high price. In Bahar these trees are peculiarly abundant: there we often see groves, of hundreds upon hundreds, let out to the kulwars, or distillers, to great advantage. These venders of misery have the art of rendering the toddy peculiarly potent, by causing it to work upon the kernels of the datura, that grows wild in every part of India, and possesses in every part, whether the stem, root, leaf, or nut, a most deleterious property. Toddy, that has been strongly impregnated with datura, (which is the name it bears in the East,) acts very rapidly on the brain; producing mania, and, not unfrequently, apoplexy, when drank to excess.

The bread is usually made into small loaves, weighing about a pound each; these are called ‘single-loaves’ and may generally sell from fifteen, to twenty, for a rupee; which brings the bread to about three half-pence, to two-pence, per pound. ‘Double loaves’ include double the weight, and sell in proportion. A large portion, of both sizes, is baked in tin moulds, of a brick form; these are generally preferred, on account of their rarely scorching, and not requiring to be rasped, as all the other bread, baked in the form of heavy cakes, generally does.

Soojy, (the basis of the bread,) is frequently boiled into ‘stir-about’ for breakfast; and eaten with milk, salt, and butter; though some of the more zealous may be seen to moisten with porter; a curious medley, by no means to my taste! Nor is much to be said of its qualities; as few stomachs are suited to its reception.

The camp-oven in common use, consists merely of a very large naud, or pot, capable of containing from thirty to fifty gallons, and of rather a conical form. This vessel is prepared for the purpose, by having a hole punched through its bottom, large enough to admit a man’s arm; it is then placed, mouth downwards, over a corresponding cavity, dug out of the soil, so as to fit close every way; but, in order to allow a proper draught of air, two, or more, sloping apertures are left, passing under the circumference of the naud. The vessel is next well covered with turf, &c., and thus rendered capable of retaining considerable heat, long enough to bake small bread. The interior being filled with chips of wood, charcoal, gutties, (i.e. dried cow-dung,) or any other kind of fuel that may be at hand, a strong fire is kept up in it, until the naud appears to be nearly at a red heat. The hole, which served for a chimney, is then closed; and, the embers being withdrawn, the bread is introduced upon pieces of iron plate, or of tin, or boards, or leaves, &c., &c.

I should here remark, that the natives invariably eat unleavened bread, generally made of wheaten, or of barley-meal; which, being made into a good dough, is flattened into cakes, called chow-patties, between the hands, with very great dexterity. Such cakes are then either put at the edges of the heated choolah, or fire-place, or they are baked upon a convex plate of iron, circular, and about ten inches, or a foot, in diameter. This plate, called a towah, is precisely the same as the girdle made in Scotland for baking their oaten bread, and is used in the same manner.

Milk is to be had in abundance throughout India, especially among the Hindus, who venerate the cow, and follow all occupations relating to the dairy; but, owing to the general custom of smoking the insides of whatever vessels are allotted to its reception, will not be obtainable in such a state as suits the palate of an European, unless a clean pitcher, &c., be sent to the gwallah, or cow-keeper, that the cow may be milked into it.

That fuliginous taste, to us so obnoxious, is perfectly palatable, and perhaps agreeable, to the natives; who assign, as the reason for smoking their vessels, that it prevents the milk from turning. It, however, becomes a question, whether or not the operation of scalding, always performed when practicable, while the milk is warm, be not the true preventive against acidulation. Certain it is, that sour milk is very rarely found in India, although, for full half the year, the thermometer is generally up between 75°, and 95°, in the shade; and, in a Bengallee hut, frequently rising to 110°, or more!

The milk obtained from buffaloes is certainly much richer than that from cows; yet, the butter produced from the former is very inferior, generally white, and brittle: it, however, possesses qualities suiting it admirably to the climate, and occasioning the natives to give it the preference. After being warmed to a certain degree, so as to become rather liquified, it is kept nearly stationary in that state for a long time; whereby it loses its aqueous particles, and is rendered fit for keeping. When thus treated, it is called ghee. Others deviate from this tedious process, and, by exposing it to a greater heat, keeping it simmering for some time, effect the purpose more speedily, but not without danger of burning, or, at least, of giving it a certain empyreumatic flavor. Few of the natives will touch cow-butter, to which they attribute many bad effects, though they will drink ghee by the quart, and pride themselves not a little in being able to afford so luscious an enjoyment. The uncontrolled expenditure of this article, among those whose purses will bear them out in the indulgence, though it may tend to that obesity of which they are inordinately vain, cannot but contribute greatly to the generation of those bilious diseases which so often attack the more opulent natives. Ghee and idleness may be said to give birth to half their ailings. As an article of commerce, ghee possesses some claim to importance; many thousands of maunds being sent every season from some of the grazing districts, such as Purneah, and Sircar-sarun, to the more cultivated parts, and especially to the western provinces. The ghee is generally conveyed in dubbahs, or bottles made of green hide, which, being freed from the hair, and worked up while in a pliant state, into the form of a caraboy, such as we use for spirits of turpentine, &c., will keep sweet for a long time, provided the mouth of the vessel be well closed. In this manner it is conveyed by water in dubbahs, often measuring nearly a hogshead; but a smaller kind, containing, perhaps, from fifteen to twenty gallons each, are made for the purpose of being slung across the backs of bullocks, by which it is carried to places situated at a distance from navigable streams. The price of ghee varies according to the demand, and to its quality: generally, from six to eight seers of 2lb. each may be had for a rupee in favorable situations; otherwise, it will be from thirty to fifty per cent. dearer. It may be supposed that buffaloes’ milk must possess a very considerable portion of cream, when it is stated, that milk is considered very cheap at 30 seers (or quarts) for a rupee, and that five seers of ghee, equal to one-sixth of the mass of milk, may be had for the same sum, in almost any part of the country. According to this proportion, we find that one-sixth part of the milk turns to butter; whereas, in this country, a cow, yielding twenty gallons of milk within the week, will rarely produce ten pounds of butter; which is equal to only one-eighth part of the mass of milk: it must, indeed, be a good cow that will produce that quantity.

The d’hoob grass, which grows wild in almost every part of the country, is peculiarly nutritious; but the food of cattle, of all descriptions, throughout India, is more dry and solid than is offered to cows in England. Hence, though the quantity of milk yielded by a buffalo, may not be equal to that of an English cow of equal weight, the produce in butter, from an equal quantity of milk, will be in favor of the former.

I have already stated the difficulty of getting milk devoid of the taste of smoke; this arises from the cause already described, and is encreased by the very small proportion of milk yielded by the cows in India, which are, with few exceptions, white, and rarely grow larger than the generality of yearlings, or steers, bred in England. In some grazing districts they thrive well, attaining to full thirteen hands in height, and weighing, when fit for the butcher, from four to five hundred weight: but such are merely local, and not very numerous. Butter produced from cows’ milk is very indifferent, unless carefully made from such as are well fed. The number of gentlemen keeping dairies is extremely confined, perhaps less than ten for all India: they certainly obtain excellent butter, but that sold by the muckun-wallahs, (i.e. the butter-men,) would appear, to a stranger, not to be made from the same species of animals. Considering the price of a cow, which may be averaged at from four rupees to eight, (i.e. from ten to twenty shillings,) it is remarkably dear, as is usually the case with articles of inferior quality: thus, we consider three pounds for a rupee to be a fair rate, though sometimes four may be had; but such can only happen where cattle are very abundant; for, as I have already said, buffaloes, and not cows, are almost invariably kept by the natives for their milk, on account of their greater produce, and because the ghee made from their butter is more appreciated. We may, therefore, estimate the pound of cow-butter at nine-pence; whereas, ghee rarely sells for more than three-pence: a strange disproportion; to be attributed, in some measure, to the demand for the former being confined to the Europeans.

In speaking of the berriarah, or shepherd, I have already noticed, that, for the supply of their tea-tables, gentlemen usually keep a few goats, which afford milk of a remarkably fine quality, and are herded in company with those store sheep intended to supply vacancies among the fatting stock. The kids produced, generally twice in the year, by each milch-goat, (mostly twins, and not unfrequently trins, or even four, at a birth,) serve to keep up the number of the flock, besides yielding occasionally a most delicate viand for the table. I know not of any meat more sweet, or wholesome, than that of a kid allowed to suck the mother at pleasure: it is as white, and, in proportion, as fat as any veal. Being in general request, and admirably suited to making rich curries, as also roasting remarkably well, kid-meat may be had of any butcher; the usual price being a rupee for a whole kid, and in proportion for halves and quarters. When of a good size, and duly fatted, an entire one may weigh about six pounds; which brings the meat to five-pence per pound.

By the word butcher, we are not to understand the individual to be a shop-keeper, exposing the several joints of various animals for sale, in that pleasing mode of exhibition so common in our markets. On the contrary, a fat kussee (i.e. cut-goat,) or two, and two or three kids, daily, with, now and then, a half-fatted ox during the cold months, may be said to comprize the whole business of one of this profession in full trade; indeed, a first-rate knight of the cleaver! The greater part of the profit arising to this class, is derived from slaughtering oxen, calves, pigs, sheep, and kids, for families; for which labor they ordinarily receive a few annas, (or two-pences,) according to the size of the animal: in most instances they take the skin, pluck, and, of some, the head, as a perquisite.

It is impossible to produce finer mutton than is served upon table in India; nor can there be finer beef than is to be seen in most cantonments, and among fixed residents. At some of the principal military and civil stations, those gentlemen who keep a regular table, usually fatten several bullocks for winter slaughtering. Some of these are fed full two years, with that intent, on gram; and, exclusive of being burthened with fat on the kidneys, &c., have their flesh absolutely marbled by the admixture of fat among the fleshy parts. Sometimes, the officers of a regiment club to fatten four or five head, the joints of which are either divided according to mutual concurrence, or drawn for by lot: this supplies fresh beef during the winter season; very few bullocks being killed at any other time, on account of the extreme difficulty of curing the meat. To persons inexperienced as to the hasty strides of putrefaction in hot climates, this forbearance from beef, for so large a portion of the year, might appear unnecessary; but the fact is, that, during the close weather, prevalent throughout the rains, and for a certain part of the hot season, meat, though killed only about midnight, will often become absolutely putrid long before the time at which it ought to be on the spit; and that, too, in spite of every precaution!

The markets at Calcutta are open at daybreak; when very fine meat, of every kind, together with various sorts of choice fish, fruits, vegetables, &c., may be had on very reasonable terms. There, indeed, beef may sometimes be seen in the hottest weather; because, being cut up into small joints, a bullock may be readily sold off among so many customers; but, in general, the prime pieces, together with all the best fish, &c., will have been bought up by sunrise: the refuse joints are generally taken by the Portugueze, (who are the only customers for bazar-pork,) and by Europeans of the lower classes, or by persons who supply the shipping. The whole of the non-commissioned and privates, in the several regiments of Europeans, are served with meat, rice, spirits, and fire-wood, by contract; receiving their several quotas early in the morning, under the inspection of their commissioned officers, who make their reports regarding any deficiencies, either in quantity, or of quality.

Those gentlemen who produce pork at their tables, are extremely particular as to the manner in which their pigs are fed. Many are so extremely fastidious, as not to allow any to be served up unless educated, as it is called, in their own sties; the very circumstance of being born elsewhere, absolutely disqualifying, and rendering of no avail, all that change of bulk, and all that purification, derived from perhaps a whole year of confinement to a clean stye; in which nothing but the best corn (gram) is given to the grunting inhabitant. This, certainly, is carrying daintiness to an extreme; but it must be confessed, that swine are so offensively greedy in the indulgence of their appetites in that part of the world, as to give occasion for many very reasonable scruples regarding the use of bazar-pork; which is indiscriminately killed from the fattest of those wanderers that sometimes absolutely interrupt the operations of the multitude, who resort, generally at dusk, and at day-break, to lay their offerings at the shrine of a certain deity!

This calls to mind a very laughable circumstance which happened at Berhampore, in 1803. An officer, who had been many years at Gibraltar, where a joint of meat, of any kind, was probably snapped up without any questions being asked as to its education, produced at his table a very fine corned leg of pork, of which all his guests ate with great avidity. One of them, when the repast was over, begged leave to enquire how the gentleman kept his pigs; what had been then on table, being of so superior a flavor, that he presumed it was educated in some very particular manner. ‘Oh no,’ answered the host, ‘I never trouble my head about sties; my man bought a whole side of it this morning of Neeloo the butcher, for eight annas’ (15d.) This untimely disclosure operated not only like magic, but like emetic tartar; the whole company were taken with violent sickness, and retired to give vent, both to the pork, and to their feelings, on so dreadful an occasion. However, none died in consequence of having been thus poisoned; but the whole station received the tale with horror, and resolved, to a man, never to accept another invitation from the unfortunate hero of the rock!

Whether it be owing to the foregoing cause, or, that the time necessary for the completion of a pig’s ‘education,’ be too protracted to allow of persons, subject to removal, engaging in that branch of domestic economy, may be difficult to determine, but certain it is, that very few officers have piggeries; they commonly content themselves with hams and cheeks imported to them from England. The grossness of the viand is, however, so very inappropriate to the climate, that, even after the most delicate course of management, pork is by no means considered a choice dish: sucking pigs are more generally approved.

Veal is so very seldom to be obtained in the market, of a quality fit to be brought to table, that it is customary for four or five friends to subscribe for the purpose of rearing calves for their own expenditure; each taking a share of every calf that is slaughtered. The best, and most economical plan, is to agree with some butcher, through whose means alone it can in general be effected, to receive of him a cow and calf, the latter being newly born, and to return him the mother, after the calf may have been killed, together with four rupees (10s.) By this mode, the calf will thrive admirably, provided the cow be well fed; but it is usual, and I have practised it with great success, to give the little one as much scalded milk as it can drink, three times daily; drenching it with either a horn, or a quart-bottle: from three to four quarts, in each of which the yolk of a fresh egg is beat up, will commonly produce the desired effect, rendering the meat very fine by the end of a month; the usual age at which they are slaughtered. What with the keep of the mother, the milk and eggs given to the calf, and the necessary attendance, a gold-mohur, (£2.,) will generally be expended upon each calf, unless several be kept together as a successive supply for the table; in which case, about twelve rupees will be found the average expence. In this, I reckon the out-lay upon a calf that will now and then, perhaps one in five, prove a bad subject; and, notwithstanding every precaution, either scour or pine.

It is a great misfortune that, on account of the extreme antipathy the horned cattle of India always exhibit towards Europeans, no possibility exists for remedying many bad practices, and neglects, to which these animals are subject, when under the care of the native servants. An Indian ox, or cow, when at liberty, is always shunned very carefully, lest it should indulge its savage disposition. On first entering that country, the cattle would be supposed to be wild, instead of domesticated; for not one in a thousand will admit the approach of an European; nor are they always less gentle towards strangers of any description. As to what are called tame buffaloes, they are commonly more fierce than any British bull, and, when they have calves at their sides, make no scruple of attacking man and horse, with unbounded ferocity. Hence, it is extremely proper to be very cautious of approaching herds, or single cattle of either kind, even when tolerably mounted. Sometimes, in riding through the country, and especially where jeels (lakes) are to be forded, or pools to be passed, the unwary traveller may find himself, on a sudden, within a few yards of a whole herd of buffaloes, which, to avoid the heat of mid-day, wallow in the muddy water, so deep as to have, in general, only their noses and eyes above the surface. Being, perhaps, among rushes, &c. even those parts are not discernible, or, if in an open expanse, may be easily mistaken for clods of mud; for the horns lie back towards the false ribs. On a sudden, the whole herd sometimes rise, and at the least frighten the horse, whatever the rider’s heart may be made of: such a surprize, and from animals that, according to the old saying, ‘give but a word and a blow, and the blow comes first,’ is far from pleasant. In such situations, all depends on the conduct of the leading bull; if he snorts, shakes his horns, and advances, the danger is imminent. But it frequently happens, that, whether owing to lassitude, or the absence of any object particularly irritating to buffaloes, of which a red coat may be considered the extreme, the herd content themselves with rising from their reclined postures, and, after those who rouzed them may have passed on, again sink into the friendly pool.

The British settlers in India are extremely indebted to the Dutch for many essential improvements. The small town of Chinsurah, situate about twenty-eight miles north of Calcutta, on the banks of the Hoogly river, has, in this instance, proved serviceable to India at large. The Dutch, to whom that place appertained before the war, were the first to introduce the culture of that invaluable esculent, the potatoe; which was received from their settlement at the Cape of Good Hope: they likewise were the first to exhibit any disposition towards horticulture. From them the British received, annually, the seeds of every kind of vegetable useful at the table, as well as several plants of which there appeared much need, especially various kinds of pot-herbs. They likewise supplied us with vines, from which innumerable cuttings have been dispensed to every part of Bengal and its upper dependencies. The whole of the lower provinces, at least, those parts skirting the ranges of hills that bound them, produce immense quantities of wild vines, which, during the rains, may be seen partially to bear grapes of a red color, and about the size of a pistol-ball. These vines tower over the high saul trees, or creep along the rocky masses, throughout the Ramghur district especially, in all the majesty of wild luxuriance.

Here is a field for speculation! Let us suppose, that the wines which should be raised might not prove of the best quality, still we might derive the most important advantages from the brandy and vinegar to which they might be converted. As to wood for the staves, and iron for the hoops, they are both to be had on the spot; and, in regard to distillation, abundance of men, sufficiently skilled, may be found among the natives. Fuel is every where abundant, indeed, a perfect nuisance. The only impediment I could ever discover, is, that the neighbouring streams are not generally navigable, or, perhaps, only for a few months in the year: they might, however, be easily rendered adequate to every purpose, there being lime-stone in various adjacent hills, while, among the convicts, who are in a state of idleness for the most part, many persons might be selected fully capable of constructing whatever masonry, or timber-work, should be found necessary.

Some years ago, I had the honor of submitting this suggestion to the Court of Directors. The India minister of that day was forcibly struck with the facility obviously afforded of founding an immense national concern: and, had he remained in office, would probably have taken means to ascertain every point contained in my memoir, with the utmost exactitude: the result must have been perfectly satisfactory.

When we consider, that the Company pay two lacs of rupees (£25,000.) yearly for spirits, of a very inferior quality, for the use of the European soldiery; and, that good vinegar cannot be had under two rupees per gallon, (5s.) it should seem an object, even in that limitted view, to cultivate the vine for their own use; but, if we extend the prospect, and shew that any quantity of brandy, if not of wine, might be imported from Bengal, the benefits will be found so great, as to claim every encouragement on the part of the legislature. It appears highly probable, that full a million sterling would be annually saved to the nation, by its adoption of this speculation; which might be began at little or no expence, and be progressively extended, by giving employment to the whole body of convicts, who now are a heavy burthen on the revenue, without doing a thousandth part of the service of which they are physically capable. If my information be correct, there are now sold at Calcutta near four thousand pipes of Madeira, Teneriffe, &c., annually, and about as many chests of Claret, including French and English; the quantity of Brandy imported at that settlement is full 10,000 gallons, besides Hollands, Rum, and other liquors, of which I shall make no account. The licences granted for the retail of spirits are amply abundant; and the number of shops where Toddy, Mowah, Pariah Arrack, &c., are served out, absolutely incalculable.

From the best computation I have been enabled to make, full 10,000,000 gallons of spirits are made and sold in Bengal and its dependant provinces, the average of which may be taken at one rupee per gallon, as it comes from the still; the retail prices will, no doubt, double that sum; making no less than 20,000,000 of rupees, equal to £2,500,000 expended annually by debauchees, and by the regular consumption among the soldiery, &c. If the foregoing items be put together, they must make a tremendous total; while we shall see, that a most ruinous intercourse prevails, throwing money into the pockets of our rivals, and enabling them to carry home investments in exchange for their own produce. We shall further see, that, supposing a duty of only 25 per cent. were imposed on all spirits sold, exclusive of the amount of licences, which are very trivial, no less than £625,000. would annually flow into the treasury. This may appear a very large sum, but, when it is recollected that the manufacture of salt, monopolized by the Company, yields, on the average of several years, the sum of £1,500,000., (after deducting about £525,000. for the expences of boiling, &c.,) we may fairly consider the above computation to be far within the bounds of probability.

Rum is made in Bengal from refuse sugar, the same as in the West Indies; its quality is by no means inferior, though it sells, when new, at the very cheap rate of about a rupee the gallon. It is to be had, of a good age, of the several great distillers and merchants, at a proportionate advance. I have known it, after being six years in the godown, (warehouse,) to be compared with Jamaica Rum, warranted ten years old; when the preference was given decidedly in favor of the former. With respect to arrack, which is in a manner peculiar to the East; the native distillers produce excellent alcohol, which, after being properly rectified, and kept for some years, proves an admirable spirit, supposed to be far more wholesome than rum.

Though, on the whole, the fish brought to the Calcutta markets, cannot be compared with such as we see at Billingsgate, &c., there are, nevertheless, some kinds, which might please the most dainty epicure. The hilsah, (or sable fish,) which seems to be mid-way between a mackarel and a salmon, whether for form, general appearance, or flavor, is, perhaps, the richest fish with which any cook is acquainted. It abounds so with fat, that most persons, after being served with a portion, immerse it in boiling water, brought in a soup-plate; thereby causing a large quantity of grease to float. When baked in vinegar, or preserved in tamarinds, the hilsah is remarkably fine.

Like the salmon, these run up to the very spring-heads, seeming to abound more and more in proportion as they approximate thereto; though certainly they grow to the largest size, immediately within the tide’s reach: getting beyond that, they dart up as far as possible during the season, returning, after spawning, to the sea. They are in perfection towards the latter end of the rains.

The bickty, (or cockup,) very strongly resembles the jack, and grows to an enormous size. I have seen one measuring more than eight feet in length, and various others that weighed full a maund (82lb.) The average size at which they are brought to market, may be from eighteen, to thirty, inches in length; and their weight from two to ten, or twelve, pounds. They flake like cod, to which also their flavor greatly assimilates.

Soles, of a diminutive size, are sometimes to be had at Calcutta: the natives call them kookoor jibbys, (i.e. dogs’ tongues,) in allusion to their shape. These are sometimes caught in the brackish waters, among the bicktys, or cockups, or in the flat sands about Diamond-Harbour, &c. Prawns of a very good size, and very small crayfish, are to be found in most parts of the country, as also a kind of eel, called baum; which, however, bears more resemblance to the gar, or guard-fish, of which millions may be taken in most of the fresh-water jeels, (lakes,) though rarely exceeding a foot in length.

The rooy, or r’hooee, is a species of the carp, as is also the meergah. They are both abundant in the great rivers, and in all the waters connected with them, though the former are most numerous, and thrive greatly in ponds. The latter are of a browner color, and rarely exceed ten pounds in weight, whereas, the former are often found of fifty lb., and sometimes up to a maund.

The cutlah is a species of the perch, though some consider it to be of the bream-kind: it is only found in the great rivers, is generally of a dark color, approaching to black, and commonly weighs from ten to sixty lbs.

The whole of the above, viz. The r’hooee, the meergah, and the cutlah, may be taken by angling; as may also the soly, a species of the jack, and nearly as voracious.

Trouts, about as large as smelts, are sometimes to be seen in those small streams that have their rise among mountains, but they are not so distinctly spotted as we see them in Europe: they are, indeed, very scarce, and generally bear a small red, or gold, or black, spot on each scale: the adipous fin, by which all the salmon tribe are distinguished, is scarcely elevated above the loins.

The fresh-water anchovy, called by the natives çhelwar, is to be found in shoals on every flat sand throughout the great rivers: these are generally scared, so as to precipitate themselves on the beach, by two men, who, wading in the water up to their knees, gradually draw a line of fifty or sixty feet in length, every where laden with small, colored rags, in such manner as to enclose the çhelwahs in a crescent, and ultimately to drive them ashore. Occasionally, mullets, of a small size, are found among the booty: they are remarkably sweet and firm. Nothing can be more common than to see shoals of them struggling against the current, especially in the cold months, with their eyes out of the water. Their motions are very nimble, but it is not uncommon to see several killed by a round of small shot, from a common fowling-piece: they are not to be taken by angling. As to the tingrah, a kind of freshwater gurnet, it is extremely voracious, and grows to a good size; often weighing eight or nine lbs.; though the average may be from two to four. They are very strong, and afford ample amusement when hooked. The skait grows to full twelve or fourteen lbs., and is common in all the great rivers; but, it must be handled with caution, on account of its having a dreadful spine about the centre of its tail. These two last-mentioned fishes are rarely seen at table; nor is the buallee, which is rather flat, and has a continued abdominal fin, the same as eels. This fish is extremely coarse, but desperately rapacious; seizing almost any bait with avidity, but affording little sport when hooked.

The puftah is of the same description, but, in lieu of weighing, as the buallee often does, from ten to fifteen lbs., seldom amounts to so many ounces. Its flesh is remarkably rich and sweet, but, when hooked, it is as little disposed as the former to resist. The most esteemed fish is, that called by the natives tupsey, but by us ‘mango-fish,’ on account of its appearing about the time that mangoes first come into season: it comes up with the tide. In appearance, it is not unlike the smelt, though rather deeper, and with reddish fins. The flesh of this fish is fine, but its roe is deservedly esteemed to be delicious. An immense quantity are cured, by being slightly salted, and sun-dried; after which, they are smoked for a short time over a fire made of chaff, &c.

Turtle, of about a cwt., are to be found in almost every river and creek, as also in some of the large jeels; though they are very rarely seen in standing waters, and then, perhaps, only in a state of migration. The flesh of these is peculiarly unwholesome; and, so far from being, like the sea-turtles, composed of parts resembling fish, flesh, and fowl, may be aptly compared with bacon of the coarsest description, with some tendency to rancidity. The batchwah, or ‘freshwater herring,’ (though it has no scales,) is one of the best fishes the Indian rivers produce; but a general prejudice is entertained, with much justice too, against its selection of food. The most appropriate baits for most fishes are the goorgoory, (or gryllus monstrosus,) and the cockroach (or blatta). It would be endless to recount all the kinds of fishes to be found in the streams and lakes of India; but it may justly be stated, that, in some parts, their numbers are so great as absolutely to corrupt the waters. With respect to the minor species of fish, occasionally served at table, they are very numerous, and, in most places, abundant: every creek and jeel is replete with them, and every village in their vicinity contains persons provided with some kind of apparatus suited to catching an ample supply. On the larger pieces of water, there are usually either canoes or dingies, which, together with their owners, are subservient to the jemmadars, or head-boroughs, and may also be set in motion for a very trivial present, made ostensibly to the laborer, but commonly transferred privately to that proud, imperious, and avaricious officer.

Poultry next come under consideration: of this, great variety is to be found. Fowls, capons, ducks, geese, turkies, and pigeons, are for sale in every city, or great station, at very moderate prices. In general, taking an average of all places, fine chickens, called chujahs, may be had at ten for a rupee (i.e. 3d. each); middle-sized, or meem-kabobbies, (small roasters,) at seven or eight for a rupee (about 4d. each); and good-sized roasters, or kabobbies, at five for a rupee (about 6d. each).

Capons are only to be had in particular parts of the country; generally they are white, and so cheap as to give ten or twelve for a rupee; though I have purchased no less than twenty-nine for that sum, (i.e. 1d. each,) in the Tomar district, where they are produced in immense numbers by the Pahariahs, or Hill people, of that mountainous district. These people are more immediately distinguished by the designation of Dangahs: they are of a small stature, very, very poor, rather squalid, but capable of undergoing great fatigue: they are wonderfully adroit in the exercise of the bow; and, after performing the little labor needful for the cultivation of the vallies, generally repair, at certain seasons, to the military and civil stations in the neighbouring districts of Ramghur, &c., where they serve as bearers; especially on the new-road, which is much frequented by gentlemen travelling dawk, (post,) in palanquins, to or from the upper stations.

Ducks are of various prices, but may be considered at an average of four or five for a rupee (about 7½d. or 6d. each); and geese at a rupee each. These thrive prodigiously throughout India; but it is far otherwise with turkies, which are extremely tender, and cannot endure the great heats of summer, unless allowed to graze upon a plot well watered, and generally sheltered from the sun. It is not uncommon to see them crowding to some little verdant spot under the shade of the lee-side, where a current of air, refrigerated by the tatties, passes out from the bungalow, &c. Without some such restorative, they would, to a certainty, pine away, and speedily disappoint the hopes of their owner. Among the grass on the plots generally preserved near the dwelling, it is common to see immense numbers of ants, of all descriptions, which resort thither both for coolness, and for the collection of the seeds that are perpetually falling. It is very strange, but true, that these little depredators are not easily deterred, by the water being laid on occasionally, from forming their nest in such plots of grass, though they generally prefer some dry, hard walk, or level area, along which they form little paths, by laying the gravel, &c., aside; so that their progress is not obstructed when robbing some store. Many of these paths may be traced for fifty or sixty yards; occasionally, they are double; one being appropriated for the egressors, the other for those returning laden with the booty. When the turkies light upon such a line of march, they fall to with a famous appetite; seeming to rival our pheasants in that particular, and exhibiting the satisfaction they feel on receiving a supply of their favorite food. In thus devouring the ants, they do great service; for, I know not of any more unpleasant companions than the little tormentors in question, whose bite is extremely keen, producing considerable irritation. Some of these ants grow to full three-quarters of an inch in length, and are capable of causing great pain. Many prevent their being destroyed, under the opinion that they feed upon white-ants: this I never could establish, though I believe they are ready enough to march off with the body of a dead white-ant, the same as they would with any other morsel of animal substance.

The difficulty of rearing turkies, renders them extremely scarce; hence, it is not uncommon to pay a gold mohur (£2.) for a well-grown, fat, turkey-cock: few, either cocks or hens, are to be had in any part of the country, for less than half that sum; and then chiefly from Portugueze families, that make a livelihood by rearing them. About Bandel, a Portugueze town, some thirty miles above Calcutta, great numbers are reared; as are also ducks, and geese, in abundance. At all the great stations, both civil and military; some persons of that description generally reside, through whose industry families are supplied. Fowls are reared by the same persons; though less an object to them, as almost every Mahomedan family maintains a few, mostly for its own use, but sometimes for sale. As to the Hindus, nothing could be more criminal than such a speculation: the very touch of a fowl being considered the acmé of pollution. From this we may judge how necessary it is to be guarded in making changes in the dress of our native soldiers; whose zeal and fidelity are unquestionable, but who instantly revolt at any invasion, however slight, of their religious tenets, or of their vulgar prejudices. Those who affect to consider such to be easily overruled, or, who vainly talk of coercing so many millions to adopt our faith, would do well to take a trip to Bengal, and to insist on any Hindu menials, or others, under their authority, wearing a feather in their turban.

As to the numerous species of wild game, such as antelopes, hog-deer, hogs, geese, ducks, teal, snipes, ortolans, quails, partridges, florikens, (or bustards,) pigeons of sorts, wild and tame, hares, &c., they are generally to be had in abundance; those of my readers who wish for a more detailed account, will find it in my ‘Wild Sports of the East,’ published in folio, with colored plates, as also in quarto royal, and imperial octavo, by Mr. Edward Orme, of Bond-street, and by Messrs. Black and Co. Leadenhall-street. In that superb work, the details of every branch of hunting, shooting, &c., will be found.

There are no wild rabbits in India, but great numbers of tame ones are to be had at Calcutta, and at some of the subordinate stations. The prices vary according to demand, age, and condition; but we may take the average at four for a rupee when half grown, and at double that rate when fit for the table. It is, however, extremely difficult to preserve them in safety from their numerous enemies the dogs, jackals, foxes, cats, rats, bats, snakes, hawks, crows, &c.

Having, I believe, generally discussed what relates to the supply of the table, I shall proceed to the description of other matters relating to the convenience and service of gentlemen resident in the East.

The dinner table is invariably laid with two cloths; one of the usual size, the other about large enough to cover the surface only: this last is removed when the meat is taken off; so that the dessert is laid upon the lower one, which has, in the mean while, been preserved by it from stains, grease, crumbs, &c. A napkin is laid with every cover, together with a tumbler or rummer, a long glass for Claret, and an ordinary-sized one for Madeira. Each glass is provided with a cover, which may be lifted off by means of a stud in its centre. In opulent families, these covers are usually made of silver, otherwise of turned wood. It is remarkable, that some of the common indigenous woods have the peculiar property, when used for this purpose, of imparting a most offensive smell, attended with a similar flavor, to water, &c., if left for a few minutes.

The knives and forks are all of European manufacture, though, within these few years, some excellent imitations have appeared. I doubt if Blacky can, as yet, bring his work so low as our artizans, though he certainly has the advantage of them in cheapness of living, and in being generally exempt from the operation of a variety of taxes. This deficiency on the part of the natives, proceeds from their being obliged to perform all those operations by hand, which we both accelerate and perfect by means of machinery. The greater part of the plate, used throughout the country, is made by native smiths, who, in some instances, may be seen to tread very close on the heels of our jewellers, not only in the graceful form of the articles manufactured, but in the patterns, whether carved or embossed. Such specimens of perfection are, however, rare, and are produced chiefly under the superintendence of European masters; though I have seen some pieces, made by sonaars, (goldsmiths,) totally independent of such aid, or instruction, which displayed much skill and some taste. Speaking, however, of the common workmanship of this class, it must be put out of all comparison with British plate, on account of its being indifferently shaped, and rudely ornamented. Hence, such plate as is sent from this country, as well as what is made up by Europeans settled in India, very generally sells for full 25, or even for 50 per cent. more than what is manufactured by the native artizans.

The whole of the glass-ware used in India, is furnished from England, and commonly sells at full two, if not three, hundred per cent. on the prime cost: this is not unreasonable, when we consider how brittle the commodity is, and that the extent of sale is not so considerable as to render it, individually, an object of adventure.

Table cloths and napkins are manufactured in several parts of the country, especially at Patna, Tondah, and most of those cities where piece-goods are made. The beauty of some fabrics of this description is very striking; nor is their durability less conspicuous. I have by me, at this moment, some that have been in constant use for full twelve years, and my stock, at no time, exceeded a dozen and a half of table cloths. The prices of such may be supposed to vary according to quality; but a very superior bird’s eye may be generally had for about two rupees per square yard; observing, that the cost will necessarily be somewhat encreased in proportion to the greater extent of the piece. Others, of a coarser texture, and of a plain diaper, are to be had extremely cheap; perhaps as low as eight annas (15d.) per square yard. Such are, however, extremely flimsy, and never appear creditable. Towels are also manufactured at various prices; some reaching so high as two rupees (5s.) each, while others may be obtained by the dozen for the same money. The best for common use may be rated at about five or six rupees per dozen. A kind, generally of mixed colored borders, wove in, is made at Chittagong: these are rough, like what we call huckaback, and are peculiarly well calculated for drying and cleaning the skin after washing; but they are not so durable as the plain diapers.

Great quantities of furniture are sent from Europe, being first taken to pieces, and packed within a very small space. Of this description, mahogany tables and chairs form by far the greater portion; few other articles being shipped, though now and then we see a few bureaus, secretaires, ecritoires, &c., among a cargo from Europe. All such commodities would bear even a higher price than is now charged for them, were it not that, among the natives, as well as among the European carpenters, and joiners, settled in Calcutta, the British mechanics experience considerable, and very successful, rivalship.

The excellent woods, of different kinds, produced in almost every part of India, and the facility with which they may be brought to market, present the most favorable aids to the Indian artizans; but, owing to the want of capital among the natives, the work done by them is rarely found to answer: it warps dreadfully, and sometimes rives from one, to the other, end. This is entirely owing to the deficiency of seasoning; for we find, that whenever a gentleman is at the pains, and has the opportunity, to saw up his own wood, and to season it properly, it will commonly be found to answer his expectations fully; both in respect to durability, and to the polish it may take. Although there is, in some instances, an obvious cheapness in employing a native carpenter, it may safely be asserted, that, on the long run, what with delay, impositions, imperfections, &c., it is frequently found to be a very round-about way of saving a trifle. I strongly recommend to all persons arriving in India, to visit the several depôts of furniture to be seen at every auction-warehouse, and generally at the godowns (warehouses) of the European shopkeepers. There is, besides, a whole street, called the ‘china-bazar,’ as well as various scattered boutiques, appropriated entirely to the display of European articles, and of china-ware, of every description; all which are sold for ready money only, by a tribe of Hindu speculators, who, from attending at auctions, are enabled to make cheap purchases, and become perfectly acquainted with the qualities of every article; or, at least, with such points as give a preference in the eye of an European. In this bazar, (or market,) almost every thing an European can require, for common purposes, may be obtained: he may, indeed, purchase an ample library, either of new, or of second-hand books; and, generally speaking, may equip himself in such a manner as may enable him to keep house at full thirty per cent. cheaper than among the European shop-keepers.

Though we may find a few trades, such as coach-making, jewellery, cutlery, armoury, &c., perfectly distinct, and unconnected with any other speculation, we are not to suppose that commodities, in general, are separately classed, and exhibited in shops solely allotted to them. On the contrary, what we call an ‘Europe-Shop,’ affords a rich display of that heterogeneous kind of cargo imported in every merchant-ship proceeding to that quarter. Consequently, each shop offers an astonishing variety of wares. Liquors of all kinds, guns, pistols, glass ware, tin and copper ware, crockery, stationary, shoes and boots, hosiery, woollens, linens, ironmongery, hats, cheese, grocery, and an infinity of articles of the most opposite natures, may be found in the spacious rooms, and godowns, allotted to the exhibition of the miscellaneous profusion!

Though it is not common to see European goods, especially those which are not immediately perishable, selling for less than thirty or forty per cent. advance upon the salt-water invoices, it sometimes happens, that an immense importation of some few particular articles may lower them to full fifty per cent. under prime cost. This is easily accounted for: for instance, should hats, shoes, and boots, bear a great price at the time a fleet is about to be despatched for Europe, all the commanders and officers note it down, for the purpose of making those articles bear a large proportion in their next outward-bound cargoes. Thus, each unwittingly becomes the dupe of his own avarice; and, on the return of those ships to India, experiences the lamentable effects of having allowed himself to be guided by former prices. I recollect hearing an officer on board one of the Company’s ships declare, that he made it a rule always to lay in a good stock of those articles which were cheap at the time he quitted India: for, that he was certain the lowness of the prices would influence the others of his class to avoid purchasing them for the India markets, which, by the time of his return, he invariably found to have regained their former level. By holding back a little while, until the Europe shop-keepers found that he was the sole, or, at least, the principal, importer of those goods, he had never failed to make a very profitable bargain.

However much we, in Europe, may admire genuine china-ware, our countrymen in the East seem, for the most part, indifferent to its beauties; they preferring our ornamented Staffordshire ware; which, owing to its bulk, and brittleness, necessarily sells at a very high price in every quarter of India. What is called ‘a long set,’ by which we mean a service equal to a table for at least thirty persons, often sells for 500 sicca rupees, equal to £65.; and ‘short sets’ in proportion. The disadvantage attendant upon the use of this ware, in so remote a situation, is, that, when, owing to the numerous accidents to which all such articles are subject, even under especial vigilance, but particularly under the auspices of native menials, the set may be much reduced, it is utterly impracticable to fill up the vacancies thus occasioned. With china ware, it is very different; for it is not so easy to distinguish between two complex patterns, if tolerably similar; and, as there is always a very large stock on hand, among the retailers in the china-bazar, a very great chance, if not a certainty, exists, of being furnished with any number of plates, dishes, &c., that may be required to restore the set to its complement, or even to augment it, if necessary. It may be a proper precaution, however, not to buy a set of china ware of any very particular pattern; but to select one from those numerous rich patterns every where common, and annually imported. This seems to prove, that, unless under particular orders, the Chinese deviate but little from their established fashions; as may be further seen in their constant manufacture of that kind of crockery we generally term ‘dragon-china,’ which appears to have been in use among them for centuries.

A very expensive article of general consumption is wax-candle. The price of wax, some years back, was about sixteen rupees per maund, (equal to 6d. per lb.,) but, of late years, it has more than trebled, in consequence of the encreased demand. Here we see that want of system which too often tends to annihilate what might, under due regulation, be made a most advantageous concern. It is necessary to be understood, that honey is of little value in India, the natives considering it unwholesome, and the Hindus being particularly averse to destroying so many lives, for the purpose of robbing their combs. These circumstances tend to diminish the collection of wax, which, in some districts, hangs for years neglected upon the briars in the jungles; and, added to the jealousy of the zemindars, (or land-holders,) who rarely omit to exact a very smart duty upon whatever is taken from their soil, deters those who possess a spirit of enterprize from becoming dealers in wax. I have not a doubt but that half a million of maunds might be annually collected, if proper encouragement were held out, and a sale insured to the adventurers, at any particular towns in the several districts where bees are abundant. Within the last twenty years, a few Europeans have established manufactories of wax-candles, which often sell for eighty rupees per maund (82lb). This, though an excessive price, compared with that formerly prevalent, comes to rather less than 2s. 6d. per lb.; and, as the wax is always pure, it should seem, that, as an article of commerce, much profit might be derived from importation. At present, wax-candles are prohibited, although the price of raw bees’-wax is here up to near 4s., and tallow at a very exorbitant height. I am greatly mistaken, if the benefits this branch of business is capable of yielding, both to the nation, and to individuals, are properly understood.

To place this in a proper point of view will require but little detail; for, if we say that wax candles, of the first quality, can be offered for sale at Calcutta for £13. per cwt., and that raw wax sells with us at 3s. 6d. per lb., or £19. 12s. per cwt., it is obvious that the manufactured article might be imported to us at full 50 per cent. cheaper than the raw material can be obtained on our own soil. Let us compute this on the large scale; comparing the manufactured articles, and making allowances for the fair value of the raw materials in either country.

I have not made any allowance for duties; but it will be seen from the above very simple calculation, that a very heavy impost might be laid on either the raw material, or the manufactured article, without reducing the profit so low as to leave no encouragement to the speculator. Let us, however, set it down at £60. per ton, which is an enormous sum, and say, that, in consequence of the great importation, wax should fall one-third in price. This fall would reduce the ton of candles to £380., from which deduct the £60. duty, and there would be left £320.; so that, after paying the £290. of cost and incidental charges, no less than £30. would remain as the net profit on each ton. If we, in like manner, take one third, say £132. from the £392. to result from the sale of the raw material, and £40. more for duties, we reduce the net profits from £222. to £50. In either way the speculation is highly interesting, and requires only to be thoroughly examined to insure attention. I am not, at this moment, prepared to say what may be the amount of duties collected on wax, or of the excise on the manufacture of candles, but apprehend that it must fall very short of what might be realized if wax candles were more generally used in the houses of opulent persons. Some forty years ago, when wax candles sold for three shillings per pound, they were in great request. If, however, we calculate for the importation of 3,000 tons of wax annually, in its raw state, paying a duty of £40. per ton, we should find a result of no less than £120,000.

The foregoing estimate stands entirely on the present high prices of wax in India, but which might, by proper regulations, be reduced to one-third. Thus, if it were stipulated that the rents of certain districts should be payable, to a particular extent, in crude wax, at a fixed valuation, the quantity brought to market might, I am fully confident, be equal to what I have already stated, viz. 500,000 maunds, or 18,750 tons, which, taken at £200. only per ton, when landed, would give a national benefit equal to £3,750,000! and a revenue of £650,000. arising from the duty, at £40. per ton on the raw material!

When it is recollected how dependent we have been on other nations for a supply of tallow; and that, on an average of peace and war, we pay nearly £80. per ton for foreign tallow; also, that one wax candle of equal weight will burn out two of tallow; it should seem evident, that the importation of wax from our settlements abroad, as well as from various Indian islands, in which it is abundantly produced, should become an object of national consideration. The very unpleasant scent attendant upon the use of tallow, and its great aptitude to gutter in so hot a climate, occasion its use to be confined to those Europeans whose circumstances may not permit them to use wax. This occasions all who return from India, after long residence there, to be extremely incommoded by the smell of mould candles; the smoke of which is, to them, peculiarly offensive, and strongly calls to mind the cheraugs, or oil-lamps, in common employ among the natives, and in the zenanahs of Europeans.

The whole of the doors and windows being thrown open, during the evenings especially, it would be impossible to prevent the current of air, passing through every part of the interior, from extinguishing the several lights, were it not that large glass covers, called shades, were applied by way of preventives. Some of these shades are made to stand on pillars, or pedestals, generally of wood, with brass ferules, and having broad plinths, either square or circular, to prevent their being easily overset.

The other kind of table-shade is by no means so convenient as that just described, it being an irregular tube, standing on its base, or broader extremity; and, though spreading in the centre, drawing narrower toward the upper part. This kind requires to be much longer, so as to shelter the flame of a candle standing on a candlestick, which should not, properly, be more than six inches in height. The inconveniences by which this shade is attended are self-evident; as it cannot be carried about, or lifted, in toto, as the pedestal shade may be. Those lights which are affixed to the walls, either on sconces, or brackets, or that are suspended from hooks, are generally on the same principle; with this necessary difference, that oil is chiefly burnt in such, by means of a small glass tumbler half filled with water, on which the oil floats, and supports a very slight tin tube with four tin wings, to each of which a piece of cork is affixed. During the rainy season, when insects of every description are beyond credibility numerous, it is often absolutely necessary to remove all lights from the supper table; otherwise moths, flies, bugs, &c., would be attracted in such numbers as to extinguish them altogether, but, at all events, to prove extremely obnoxious. When the lights are retained on the table, it is customary to place the candlesticks in soup plates, &c., filled with water: by this means, such insects, especially the stinking-bugs, which fly with great force, are often precipitated and drowned: it is not unusual to catch whole platefuls in this manner, which would otherwise continue to torment the company. Nothing can exceed the irritation produced by these bugs when they get into the hair, or between the linen and the body! Nor are they in themselves innocent; for, though they neither bite nor sting, such is the acrimony they possess, that, if bruised in such manner as to leave any moisture on the skin, great heat, and sometimes blisters, followed by excoriations that do not quickly heal, may take place. The same effect is produced by the urine of lizards, which frequent the interior of houses, and may often be seen in great numbers crawling about the walls, or on the ceiling, (if we may so term the roofs already described,) in pursuit of the smaller and more delicate insects, which they snap up with great dexterity and greediness. It is really amusing to observe with what sagacity and care they approach their prey, and with what rapidity they dart forth their long tongues armed with gluten. With respect to frogs, toads, and, occasionally, snakes, patrolling about the skirts of the apartments, even of the best houses in the country, they must be put up with as matters of course; as must also the alighting of cock-roaches on the face while at table, or at cards, &c.: nor, indeed, must the resident in India be very squeamish in regard to bats, which freely indulge in aëriel circuits over the heads of the company, on which, too, they now and then find it convenient to halt awhile, without undergoing the previous ceremony of obtaining permission. These all appear terrible drawbacks, but are scarcely noticed after awhile: so strong is the power of habit. Certainly a very considerable portion of the enjoyments, which might otherwise be indulged in, are, in a manner, proscribed by these nuisances; but, whether it be owing to that ennui generally prevalent, or to that kind of reconciliation which takes place between the pest and its sufferer, may be difficult to determine; we, however, see all the old residents treat insects, frogs, toads, &c., with great indifference; though, to be sure, when a snake, of whatever class, makes his entrée, an astonishing degree of activity, far beyond what the former lethargic symptoms could indicate, suddenly prevails.

I have several times seen large snakes coiled, or rather twined, among the Venetians of bungalow windows, and have observed that the grass-snake, which is of a beautiful green, with a reddish head, is partial to secreting itself under the leaves of tables, and, in situations of that description, where it may be easily dislodged, or touched, by accident. Such a propensity is peculiarly obnoxious in a serpent whose bite is generally fatal. This snake may occasionally be seen twisted round the smaller boughs of trees, whence, if disturbed, it drops with great readiness, and proceeds along the tops of the grass with admirable celerity, and, owing to the similarity of its color, scarcely allowing the dazzled eye to follow its course.

The Cunjoors carry a great variety of serpents about the country, which they are in the habit of exhibiting to families for a mere trifle. Some, such as the adjghur or boa-constrictor, which has been known to reach the immense length of thirty feet, destroy by the extent of their bite, or by compression; while the lesser species seem to be provided with poison to make up for their deficiency of bulk. The skeleton of an adjghur was found near Chittagong, about forty years ago, having in its fauces the skeleton of a full-grown deer; the horns of which, it was supposed, had occasioned the suffocation of its unwieldy devourer. I have seen one of this kind that required eight men to lift him into his basket! An operation to which, either from habit, or fatigue, it submitted with great resignation. The covra capella, is the same as the hooded-snake of America, thus designated from a peculiar spreading of the throat when in a state of irritation, so as to give it much resemblance to a flounder, but with a curious figure extremely similar to a pair of spectacles, which, being under the throat, is fully exhibited as the snake rises, as he is wont to do, nearly half his length, before he darts upon the object of resentment. These snakes are peculiarly venomous, and, though averaging from three to five feet, are seen to attain a larger size. I have shot four in one day, namely, two males, of a black, or deep bottle green; and two females, ordinarily of a clay color; which measured from six to nine feet. A few years ago, I saw one exhibited by the Cunjoors, or Saumpareahs, (i.e. snake-men,) which actually measured about thirteen feet! The daumeen grows to a large size, perhaps eight to twelve feet, but has no venomous teeth, or fangs. He lashes with his tail, coiling into a bow, and awaiting the approach of dogs, men, &c., before he lashes; which he does with such severity as often to cut the integuments very deeply. The natives entertain an opinion that the tail of this snake is venomous; and it might be supposed, from the almost certainly fatal effects produced by its operation, that it were so; but I have always attributed the mischief occasioned thereby, to that laceration produced by a very rough scaly body, such as the tail is, proceeding with great force over parts well known to be peculiarly irritable; occasioning a strong tendency to that most horrible affection the tetanus, or locked-jaw, from which not one in a thousand recovers. The covra manilla rarely grows to more than fifteen or eighteen inches, and is of a mottled appearance, very indicative of its deleterious property: if I err not, its bite is invariably fatal. The double-headed snake receives that name from its body being nearly cylindrical, the tail terminating in a short cone, resembling a second head. This snake is chiefly seen in hilly countries, but is occasionally washed down by the annual floods, to the plains, where it is found in drains and hollows, from which it does not appear to be over-well qualified to escape. Its average length may be from two to three feet, and its thickness, or circumference, from four to six inches.

It may be acceptable to my readers, while upon this subject, to be informed of the antidote; viz. the volatile alkali, or eau de luce. A few drops of this diluted sufficiently in a wine glass full of water, if taken in time, and repeated every two or three hours, or even more frequently, has been known to counteract the venom after its effects had been so fully ascertained as to leave but little chance of recovery. I never went out shooting without a small bottle of this, closed by a ground stopper, in my tin box of apparatus. Fortunately, although I have been repeatedly in imminent danger, and had snakes dancing the hayes all around me, no occasion ever presented itself for having recourse to my precautionary bottle!

The following extracts, from a very interesting communication made by W. Boag, Esq. to the Asiatic Society, will set this matter in a proper form, and qualify any person to judge of the danger, from the several symptoms prevalent, in ordinary cases, when the venom takes effect. It may be proper to premise, that many who have been bitten by snakes of the worst description have not been affected; merely owing to the thickness of their cloathing, by which the noxious fluid has been absorbed.

Mr. Boag informs us, that ‘The symptoms which arise from the bite of a serpent, are, commonly, pain, swelling, and redness in the part bitten; great faintness, with sickness at stomach, and sometimes vomiting, succeed; the breath becomes short and laborious; the pulse low, quick, and interrupted: the wound, which was at first red, becomes livid, black, and gangrenous; the skin of the wounded limb, and sometimes of the whole body, assumes a yellowish hue; cold sweats and convulsions come on, and the patient sinks, sometimes in a few hours, but commonly at the end of two, three, or four days.

‘This is the usual progress when the disease terminates fatally; but, happily, the patient will most commonly recover; a reflection which should moderate the fears of those who happen to be bitten by snakes, and which, at any rate, should, as much as possible, be resisted; as the depressing passion of fear will, in all cases, assist the operation of the poison.

‘The volatile alkali is the remedy mostly employed by physicians, both in India and in Europe; but the belief which formerly prevailed, that it possessed some specific power, which corrected the poison, seems to be now very generally relinquished; and it is now acknowledged to have no other action than that ascribed to it by Mr. Williams, (of Benares,) of stimulating the vascular system to a more vigorous exertion.

‘The calces, or, as they are more properly called, the oxyds of some metals, as arsenic, mercury, and silver, have been made use of; the efficacy of which, as remedies in this disease, merit a more attentive consideration.

‘We are indebted to Fontaua for any knowledge we possess regarding the use of the lunar-caustic; which is a preparation of silver in the nitrous acid; and, considering the length of time that has elapsed since his publication, and the advantages resulting from its use, it is wonderful it has not excited more general attention.

‘He first mixed the venom with the lunar-caustic, applied this mixture to a wound, and found that the venom was rendered entirely innocent, while the corroding power of the caustic was diminished. He next wounded a variety of animals, with venomous teeth, scarified the wounds, and washed them with a solution of lunar-caustic in water: by this means, the lives of the greatest number of the animals were saved, though they were such as he knew to be most easily killed by the poison, and the death of others was retarded. He also tried a weak solution, of the same remedy, internally, with remarkable success, and, upon the whole, he congratulates himself in seeing his labors at length rewarded, by the discovery of a true specific remedy for the bites of serpents.

‘A ligature should, as soon as possible, be made above the part bitten, so as to impede, but not entirely to stop, the circulation of the blood; for the bite of a serpent is, for the most part, superficial, and the poison is carried into circulation by the smaller vessels on the surface; the wound should then be scarified, and washed in a solution (rather weak) of the lunar-caustic in water.’

Mr. Boag recommends a warm bath for the limb bitten, and thinks the addition of a small quantity of nitrous acid would produce excellent effects. He speaks of it only as a suggestion, and, where time may admit, and the means be at hand, there certainly ought to be a fair trial made of so promising a theory: the misfortune is, that, owing to the great heat of the climate, and the dread ever entertained of the result, all the symptoms proceed with rapidity. That gentleman speaks of several hours elapsing between the accident, and the fatal termination; but my own experience satisfies me, that not one in ten of those bitten during the hot months, and especially when at work, or heated with travelling, &c., survive more than one hour: I have, indeed, seen various cases, in which half that time was the utmost; and could adduce some instances of persons dying within the quarter of an hour.

Though snakes certainly, for the most part, endeavor to avoid the human race, they have been known to come very fiercely to the attack. No doubt, when this has happened, some previous irritation has occurred, or they have been pursued by the ichneumon; (i.e. the benjy, bissy, or neoule,) which is to be seen wild in every part of India, and may, at times, be found contending with snakes of great bulk. This active little animal, the natural enemy of all serpents, as well as of the smaller kinds of vermin, worries his opponent by incessant feints, as though he were about to seize its throat, and, in time, so fatigues, as to render it unable to resist with its primary celerity and caution. When the snake is in that state, the ichneumon rushes forward, and, by seizing its throat, or the back of its head, soon lays the envenomed reptile lifeless at its command. It sometimes happens that the ichneumon receives a bite, when he immediately relinquishes his object, and seeks among the neighbouring verdure for some root, of which he eats, and, after rolling himself in the soil, returns to the charge with unabated keenness. Should the snake have retired, the little quadruped speedily scents him out, and rarely fails to revenge himself for his past danger. What it is the animal has recourse to, never has been ascertained; of course, remains among our other important desiderata. The ichneumon is not only domesticated with facility, if obtained at an early age, but becomes extremely affectionate. Neither rats nor snakes will enter a house in which a tame ichneumon is retained, and allowed, as is usual, to range about at pleasure. The Saumpareahs, or snake-men, keep one, or more, for the purpose of exhibiting their feats in the attack of snakes.

It is wonderful how accurately a Saumpareah will ascertain, merely by smelling at a hole in a wall, &c., whether a snake be within. If such should be the case, the reptile’s fate may be considered as decided; for, what with the music of a rude species of oboe, and the allurement of various drugs, in which dunneah, a species of coriander, among which snakes delight to bask, are prevalent, he soon comes forth, and is either taken in a bag, or by an assistant snatching hold of his tail with one hand, and sliding the other with great rapidity up to its throat; which, being constricted by the grasp, occasions the fangs to be exposed: these being extracted, the captive is added to the stock of innocents.

Though diminutive, in regard to corporeal extent, the musquito may be considered a most formidable enemy to the repose of almost every thing possessing animation, but especially to Europeans; whose manner of living generally gives a considerable tendency to general, as well as to local, inflammation. In this I speak relatively; for, when we compare the habits of our countrymen with those of the natives, we shall find that a very great difference prevails, and that, what we might in Europe call moderation, may, in Asia, very properly be construed into excess. This difference is so great, that, in ordinary cases, the physicians’ first care is to lower the temperament of his British patient, thereby to repress the usual tendency towards inflammation; especially in persons of a plethoric habit, or lately arrived from Europe; while, on the contrary, it generally requires some effort to keep the frugal native from sinking under that typhus to which he is most subject.

Musquitoes generally remain inactive during the day, retiring to the borders of some muddy pool, or stinking drain, where they deposit their ova, which, in a few days, produce a noxious million, that may be seen in their several stages, at most times of the year, and especially during the hot season, when such puddles are often both replete with, and covered by, young musquitoes.

These unpleasant companions not only make a very disagreeable humming, but thrust their trunks, the same as the common knat does his proboscis, between the threads of a stocking, &c.; and, while sucking the blood of their victim, cause a very smarting sensation, which does not immediately cease; if scratched, a musquito-bite will usually rise into a small white, hard lump; which, on further provocation, proceeds to suppurate; frequently degenerating into very obstinate sores. Instances have occurred of very serious consequences being entailed, by an unguarded indulgence granted to the nails at the moment of irritation.

Every bed, (commonly called a cot,) is furnished with a set of inner curtains, made of gauze, manufactured for that purpose in several parts of Bengal, and known by the name of koppradool. These curtains, being very thin, and generally of a green color, serve not only to debar access to the musquitoes, but, without much obstruction to the air, offer a pleasant medium between the eye, and any glare which may either enter directly from the exterior, or be reflected by the walls; which, in most houses, are white, as already explained in describing the European architecture of the East.

It is always expedient to have these curtains put up before it is dark; otherwise musquitoes, being then on the wing, will, if possible, find their way to the interior; whence it is not very easy to fan them out. Besides, by this easy precaution, it is not very practicable for snakes, or rats, to get under the pillows, or into the bed; situations in which they have occasionally been found. The rats are often induced to burrow into the pillows, which are usually stuffed with the silky-cotton called seemul, wherein the seeds are left, and, by their oily nature, attract this description of vermin in particular. The females sometimes resort to it when about to bring forth their young: hence, it is not uncommon to find the old lady in possession of a pillow, or bolster, or, eventually, of the mattress; especially if no person has slept on them for a few nights. On board budjrows, rats are often very troublesome, destroying boots, shoes, &c., without mercy: I have frequently felt them, during the night, attacking the powder and pomatum at the back of my head. Of this the cock-roach also is very fond, but the sensation it produces is nothing more than a tickling, as though the fingers of another person were introduced among the hair; whereas, a rat makes a more desperate attack, often giving a strong pull, or, occasionally, knawing at the accumulated grease, which adheres to the head itself. Though I made it a rule always to have my bed-cloaths stripped off, and my pillows turned over, before I got into bed, nothing of the serpent kind was ever discovered, though many rats and mice were at times dislodged. Other persons have not been so fortunate; my own experience has made me acquainted with various instances of snakes being found in beds whereon gentlemen were about to repose. A very curious circumstance happened many years back, of a lady being called by her servant to see a snake that lay very contentedly between two of her infants, which slept on a small cot. It may be readily supposed their perilous situation produced the most dreadful anxiety. With great fortitude, and presence of mind, she directed the menial to go to one side of the bed, and to seize one of the children by a leg and an arm, while she did the same with the other; and thus to snatch them away. This was a bold measure, and possibly saved the little ones from injury; but, had the mother caused a chaffing dish to be brought into the apartment, and set thereon some milk to boil, the smell of it would instantly have caused the snake to creep out, for the purpose of partaking of his favorite food. Though all snakes are peculiarly fond of a certain warm temperature, inclining to summer heat, they will, in general, take to the water very freely, especially when pursued. Many persons pretend to distinguish such as are venomous, by their aversion thereto; but such is very fallacious. I have repeatedly seen covra capellas dart into puddles, and ponds, with seeming eagerness. It is extremely dangerous to proceed along path-ways, leading through grass covers, or jungles, at night; as, at that time, numbers of snakes will quit the heavy grass for the purpose of lying in the current of air, which necessarily proceeds along those paths whose sides are confined, perhaps to the height of several feet, by grass and underwood, and cause them to resemble the vistas cut through coppices, &c.

From what has been said above, many may be led to suppose, that, in India, every step is attended with danger; and, that neither the day, nor the night, offers security. This certainly is not always the case; but I should strongly advise every person to act throughout with caution; and to suppose these dangers I have described to be imminent. This, though it may not be comfortable, will generally insure safety. With regard to scorpions, centipedes, &c., too much circumspection cannot be used. In some parts of the country they are very numerous, capable of inflicting great pain, and of producing very severe local inflammation. Instances have been known of serious indisposition having been induced by the stings of scorpions in particular. The young ones are generally of a yellowish, or dun, or clay color; as they advance in growth, they gradually become darker, until they acquire a bottle color. Though very rare, I have seen a few of these which measured nearly eight inches from the mouth to the point of the sting, which much resembles a large dark-colored thorn from a rose-bush. There are, however, two kinds of scorpions, of which that species above described is certainly the most formidable; fortunately, it is seldom to be seen in places much frequented: the other kind may often be seen by dozens in the folds of a tent, &c., laid by in a dark place among old rubbish; and, not unfrequently, in the cracks of old mud walls. Many a poor servant, in walking about a house at night, or in rummaging among old stores, gets stung by the beeçhu (scorpion). The part affected generally swells, and smarts, or, rather aches, considerably: but the remedy is easy; a rag moistened with vinegar affording speedy relief. The same application is equally proper in case of being bitten by a centipede, called by the natives kaungoojer; from the opinion entertained that it is apt to creep into the ear. That such may have taken place, cannot be denied; but it would, I believe, prove extremely difficult to produce a well-authenticated instance. The centipede is by no means calculated for such an insinuation; he being of some breadth, and growing, rather quickly, to such a size as must preclude the possibility of his getting into the ear: I have seen several measuring nine and ten inches in length; and as broad, though not above a third so thick, as a man’s finger: we may consider half those dimensions to constitute the ordinary bulk.

Wasps and hornets are every where abundant during the whole year: the latter commonly nestle in the ground, or in the hollow of a tree, or perhaps form a small cell in some corner, or under a thatch, and there deposit their larvæ. The former are sometimes seen in such numbers as to occasion considerable uneasiness; they not only make their nests within the walls of bungalows, if, by means of cracks, or of distances between wood-work, they should find the opportunity, but boldly construct their combs within the apartments; sometimes attached to a cornice, but most generally in one of the upper corners of a window frame, so as to have ready means of retiring. The destruction of these intruders is not always practicable, without considerable danger. The best mode is to cover a man well up in a blanket, and to place on his head a pot of embers, on which a lump of sulphur is laid; so that, by standing under the comb, the fumes may stupify, or at least expel, the wasps; after which the comb may be removed without difficulty. The greatest danger is when the wasps take possession of some spot very near to the thatch; for instance, if they attach their dwelling to one of the rafters. When it is considered, that half the thatches are extremely decayed, and take fire like tinder, it must be obvious how delicately the operation should be managed: in such case, a slow match, made to contain a large portion of sulphur, and fastened to the end of a pole, is, perhaps, the most secure device; for, if a single spark were to fly into the thatch, it probably would, like Doctor Slop’s wig, be ‘nearly consumed before it were well kindled!’

Bees are by no means so bold as wasps and hornets, but they frequently take possession of some bush, or even of several parts of a hedge around a garden, especially one well stocked with flowers; rendering it unsafe to approach that quarter. The combs are sometimes large, but may, perhaps, on the average, when full, weigh from four to ten pounds. No bees are domesticated in India; at least I never heard of an apiary of any description; though, from the great abundance of food to be had at all seasons, it might prove very easy to maintain them properly. The truth is, that wild honey is so cheap and abundant as to preclude the necessity for taking any further pains to obtain it, than merely cutting the combs away from their thorny defences.

Bugs, such as infest our beds in Europe, are beyond imagination numerous throughout the East. Every charpoy, (or bedstead,) of whatever size, or description, in use among the natives, swarms with them! Hence, it is next to impossible to prevent their getting among the furniture, and especially into the boxes, drawers, &c., in which cloaths are kept; and the most careful, cleanly person, may sometimes find a stray bug crawling upon his linen, or lying concealed among the plaits. Musquito curtains are, on this account also, very useful; but they should be searched daily, lest any stragglers, &c., be on them. Perhaps the best defence against these nasty tormentors, is that in general use as a preventive against the visits of ants, centipedes, &c.; viz. causing the four posts of a bed to stand each upon a stone, perhaps a foot in diameter, and five or six inches deep, wherein a deep trough is cut, which, being kept full of water, insulates each post. Some use metal pans, which certainly have a neater appearance, and secure the carpet, mat, &c., from being injured by the damp; which sometimes will find its way, more or less, through stone, however hard.

The natives rarely have posts to their bedsteads; though a few, occasionally, affix a kind of tester, by means of a staple, at the head; those who could afford the best furniture, and every convenience, are more pleased when attended by a slave, or menial, who, with a small punkah, (or fan,) gently agitates the air, and keeps off flies and musquitoes. It scarcely need be pointed out how offensive such a practice may occasionally prove, and that when the servant drops asleep while performing his tedious office, the master generally will be awaked. Some, of the natives especially, cannot go to sleep without being lulled thereto, by means of an operation called by Europeans shampoing. This consists in a gentle pressure of the feet and legs, as also of the arms and hand, or, occasionally, of the body also, between the hands of the operator, who passes either slowly, or rather rapidly, according to the fancy of his, or her, master, from one part to another. That considerable relief is obtained from shampoing, cannot be doubted; I have repeatedly been restored surprizingly from severe fatigue, as well as from a certain langor and watchfulness, common in hot climates, and no doubt proceeding from indigestion, or from a nervous affection, merely by having my feet gently pressed in this manner. It is curious, that Captain Cook should have found this custom to be prevalent in the Island of Tongataboo, where it is called ‘toogey-toogey,’ in allusion to the beating of a drum with the fists. Now, the common small drums used in India, which are suspended in front of the body, are called ‘doog-doogies,’ and, in some places, the natives of India, shampo, by beating with the fists, calling the operation, not by the common term debounah, (or pressing,) but doogaunah. It is a question whether the latter term be a corruption, or a derivative from the doog-doogy. A similar practice obtains in Egypt, and, indeed, throughout the Turkish empire; especially at the baths, where shampoing is considered a matter of course. If my memory be correct, Captain Cook was relieved from a severe rheumatic complaint by an operation of this description; with this difference, that, in lieu of soothing pressure, the parts affected were not beat gently, but squeezed forcibly, between the hands. I have somewhere read, that gouty pains were in like manner removed; but should conclude, that such could only be flying pains; for the tenderness of parts locally attacked by the gout, could not, I apprehend, be invaded, without subjecting the party to excruciating torture.

Setting apart the benefits which may occasionally be derived from shampoing, we may consider it as one of those luxuries which, like the hookah, the snuff-box, the brandy-bottle, &c., become so habitual as to plunge us into indescribable uneasiness whenever they may be out of our reach; of course, it is prudent to avoid being shampoed, except when a kind of restlessness, or watchfulness, is induced by excess, of any description. In such case, immediate relief is often of great importance; but it may be proper not to have recourse to the indulgence except on emergency, since its effects are gradually lessened by repetition, and the want of a menial to perform the operation may cause much irritation and disquietude.

The greatest attention is requisite to aërate every apartment in a proper manner daily; without that precaution, all the aids of champoing, of musquito-curtains, water-pots, bathing, &c., will be of little avail, as fevers and obstructions of the liver invariably follow, whenever the atmosphere within a chamber is allowed to become foul: I know not, indeed, any thing more weakening, or more destructive to the constitution, than sleeping in one that is deficient in point of ventilation; and to continue in such, after being, in any degree, indisposed, is little less than absolute insanity! Nothing will be found to contribute more to health than sleeping cool; adverting, at the same time, to the precautions already laid down, not to place the cot so that any forcible current of air should pass over it, lest perspiration be obstructed, and the worst consequences be induced. The winter months will often dictate the use of one, or perhaps two, good thick blankets; while the summer heats will cause the rejection of all bed-cloathing above the body; occasioning the general use of long drawers, which, for the most part, are made of thin silk, or of fine calico: some have them made with feet, thereby effectually preventing musquitoes from biting in that quarter, but, to me, such were always extremely unpleasant.

During the hottest part of the year, many dispense with their shirts, but retain their banians, or under-shirts, the skirts of which are confined by the long drawers, which are usually fastened by a drawing cord of silk. Early rising is particularly to be recommended, for the purpose of taking exercise before breakfast. Among military persons this salutary practice is generally inculcated malgré lui; and, among civilians, ought to be so, by the additional motive of having the forenoon devoted to office attendance, or to whatever duties may demand notice.

The amusements offered to Europeans in India are by no means numerous, nor are they of any continuance; the climate, the localities, and the occupations, of all, rendering it impossible to partake of such variety, or in such comfort, as we enjoy in Europe. Calcutta can boast of a very tolerable theatre, centrically situated, and spacious enough to contain as many spectators as are generally to be found within the town. This was built about fifty years ago, by subscription, in shares of one thousand rupees each; but, owing to the very heavy expences incurred in getting up plays, which formerly depended entirely on the penchant of gentlemen, who performed all the characters, both male and female, the debts became so very heavy, that the concern fell into disrepute, and the shares were sold for half their original value.

It may seem strange, that, while no performers of any description were employed, the house should get into debt; and, that since hirelings have been engaged, it should have been in a more flourishing state. The enigma is, however, easy of solution. Gentlemen of property, fashion, and consequence, were not easily controlled; they would have new dresses for every character, and were to be kept in humour by good suppers after each rehearsal, some tickets for their friends, &c., &c., &c.; so that, when all was reckoned up, the receipts were invariably less than the disbursements. It is true that a gold-mohur (2 guineas) was the price of a box admission, that the pit was half a mohur, and the gallery a quarter of a mohur; but the house was rarely full, and there were rarely more than ten pieces performed during the whole year, and those generally in December, January, and February. The house had cost a lac of rupees (i.e. 100,000, equal to £12,500.) in building, and fitting up; therefore, there was a constant demand for interest, at twelve per cent., equal to £1,500. yearly; that, however, was commuted into silver tickets, which necessarily diminished the receipts; causing the shares to sink from money speculations into mere family conveniences.

The heavy incumbrances brought on by the above inconsiderate measures, occasioned a necessity for letting out the theatre to any person who would conduct the amusements in such manner as might prevent matters from growing worse. This accordingly was done, and a spirit of enterprize was created in the manager thus appointed by a majority of the proprietors, whereby a great encrease took place in the performances, which became chiefly dependant on professional persons engaged at liberal salaries; while, at the same time, few gentlemen in the Company’s service contributed the aid of their talents. This secession was occasioned by the marked displeasure evinced by Marquis Cornwallis towards all who took parts in the dramas: it threatened to close the doors of the theatre. A competition arising about the same time, produced an effect which accidentally sustained the speculation, by causing an interest, indeed, a spirited party, to be formed, in favor of the old house, which, in a very short time, triumphed, and caused the opposition to give up.

With respect to the merits of the gentlemen performers, much may be said: there certainly were among them some who might have appeared before a London audience without any fear of disapprobation. The names of Fleetwood, Messink, Norfor, Golding, Bigger, Call, Keasberry, Robinson, &c., &c., will long be remembered by the lovers of the drama; nor will they be easily effaced from the memory of those in whose hearts their merits, as members of society, were deeply impressed. The scenery was originally furnished from England, under the auspices of Garrick, who sent out Mr. Messink for the purpose of regulating the theatre at its out-set. Since that time, various additions have been made by different artists of acknowledged ability, among whom, Mr. Battle may be noticed as possessing superior talents, both in that important branch, and in the representation of various interesting characters. It is, however, to be expected, that, notwithstanding the great encrease of the European population, by whom it is almost wholly supported, the theatre must be sold off. This, though a severe privation, where every item in the catalogue of public amusements is highly appreciated, will not fall heavy on the proprietors. The facility with which the edifice might be converted into a superb suite of offices, or into a magnificent dwelling, would insure them the re-payment of their money; especially as the quantity of land reserved around it, for the accommodation of palanquins, &c., is extremely valuable: indeed, that alone must be worth full the aggregate amount of the shares at their ordinary value; which has generally been about forty or fifty per cent. under par.

The temporary theatres that have at various times been erected at the several military stations, have always offered considerable gratification to their several audiences. In these cheap ‘epitomes of Roman greatness’ many a good play has been performed in an excellent style, such as put us in mind of the mother-country, and occasioned many a comparison by no means derogatory to the Asiatic boards. Exclusive of the exertions of those officers who indulged themselves in this recreation, many of the noncommissioned and privates of the European regiments contributed richly to the catalogue of histrionic characters. Some, though perhaps not gifted with grace, nor enriched by erudition, nevertheless displayed an accurate discrimination of the authors’ intentions, and commanded the applause of their audiences; among whom, a very large portion were competent judges of dramatic excellence.

The Calcutta race-course is situate about a mile and a half to the southward of the town; it is by no means duly preserved, being occasionally much injured by the carriages of gentlemen who frequent it as a ride. It is true there is a clerk of the course; but he has no power to enforce the observance of the rules laid down by the Jockey-Club; he cannot, in fact, prevent the course from being miserably defaced, and cut up; nor can he, even when the horses are running, keep it clear from obstructions. This evil arises from a want of disposition in the majority of those who frequent the place, to join in the sports, or even to encourage them; hence, a want of courtesy is prevalent, and the horses run under great disadvantages. It may be said, that, as they run only during the cold months, when the turf is tolerably firm, little injury is done by the carriages which travel over it; but, in answer to this, it may be urged, that a rut, or track, made at that time, speedily hardens, and becomes dangerous both to the horses and to their riders. But, where few are interested, few will be considerate.

Many horses that have started at Calcutta would make no contemptible figure even at Newmarket: according to the distance, and the time in which the course has been run over, I have reason to believe, that a few, which could be mentioned, might competite with the best of the second class of British racers. Taking into consideration, that such are entirely the result of chance purchases, and not from any care in breeding, it may be fairly argued that the horses of India, by which I mean those brought from Candahar, Lahore, the Maharrattah states, &c., possess considerable speed. Many, indeed, of that small indigenous breed, which is usually held in contempt, especially on the turf, have displayed very great powers, and distanced horses not only of considerable value, but of high reputation. The race-grounds in other parts of the country are not better preserved than that at the Presidency; however, there is ample room for toleration, both because there are few horses kept for running; the races, in those quarters, being merely desultory, and the course generally marked out, pro tempore, from some uncultivated spot; which, having a tolerable surface, may answer the purpose of amusement for two or three days at Christmas.

Though there are tattoo (i.e. poney) races, at Calcutta, few of that class are brought forward, except after very full proof of their qualifications; in fact, the poney-races are often superior to those run by the best cattle on the clerk’s register. At the out-stations, matches, or sweepstakes, are made solely with the view to merriment, or from whim, frolic, or periodical elevation after a hearty regale. Here we see cause for mirth, and, not unfrequently, find a clumsy-looking beast, with heavy heels, and a head like a yam, taking the lead of ‘trim-built wherries,’ that seem to challenge competition. I recollect a curious instance of this: a very shabby, heavy-looking tattoo, belonging to Captain Cæsar Jones, started in this adventitious manner, and, to the surprize of all, fairly distanced several celebrated steeds. He was sent to Calcutta, where his uncouth appearance caused him to be ridiculed, but there was no standing against his speed and bottom. Hence, he acquired the name of ‘Take-in;’ a designation which the knowing ones feelingly acknowledged to be highly appropriate! The spirit for betting at races does not run very high in India; though there have existed some characters who devoted their whole attention to this species of gambling: but so little encouragement offers for speculations on the turf, that, with the exception of a few fat pigeons, it may be said no money has been made by racing: the wagers rarely exceed a few gold-mohurs. Every horse becoming so thoroughly known to all the sporting community, little opening is left for deception or contrivance. The smallest indication of collusion would, in that quarter, prove instantly fatal to reputation, and cause at least a shyness, if not an absolute estrangement, on the part of society, towards the offending individual. In Europe this would not be so much felt, because a man may change his quarters, and, for a long time, screen himself from public, or general disapprobation; but, in India, when an individual is cut at one station, he will rarely experience common civility at any other; his character generally preceding him by many a day’s journey!

Gambling was formerly one of the most prominent vices to be seen in Calcutta; but of late years has considerably diminished. Those who recollect the institution of Selby’s Club, and who now contemplate the very small portion of time dissipated, even by the younger classes, at cards, &c., by way of ‘profit and loss,’ cannot but approve the salutary reform introduced by Marquis Cornwallis, who, whatever may have been his foibles, his prejudices, and his errors, in other matters, certainly was entitled to the approbation of the Company, as well as to the gratitude of their servants, for having checked so effectually a certain licentious spirit, which had, till his arrival, been totally uncontrolled, indeed, unnoticed, in any shape, by his predecessors.

To expect that any Governor should be able totally to annihilate every bad practice, would be to consider him as vested with supernatural powers; but, it is assuredly within the reach of every person bearing that high office, to chace the abandoned into their secret recesses, and to render them at least timid, if not innocent. By removing such characters from office, and by persevering in resolution not to give employments of emolument to any but the most assiduous, and correct, of the Company’s servants, much may be, much has been, done. Common sense points out the impropriety of allowing a gambler to occupy any office in which either great trust, or particular application, and vigilance, might be requisite; therefore, as the generality of the posts held under the Company are of either one or other of those descriptions, or may perhaps blend both, it stands to reason that a man whose brains are ever casting the dice, and whose carriage rolls upon the four aces, never can with safety be trusted.

Those who are partial to cards, as an amusement, may find abundance of parties during the evenings, where, for the most part, tradrille and whist (the favorite games) are played at such low stakes as not to be productive of regret, or inconvenience. Quadrille is barely known in India, nor are what we term ‘round-games’ much in use: cribbage is played in some families, and, occasionally, loo. In all the above games, the European inhabitants of Calcutta, as well as those dispersed over the country, are generally proficient; far more so than we find persons of the same description among us: a large portion are well acquainted with chess, and back-gammon; and many excellent players at fives, billiards, &c., are to be found in every quarter. Cricket is not much in vogue; being confined principally to a club at Calcutta, and to some occasional Christmas matches at the several army stations. On the whole, though far less violent, as an exercise, than fives, it is less adapted to the climate; the alternate successions of exertion, and of inactivity, rendering the players liable to severe colds, and to consequent obstructions.

Music, it might be thought, would prove a great source of gratification in a country where ennui is so much to be dreaded; but the climate is unfavorable to instruments of every kind, especially to pianos, and offers a most formidable bar to the indulgence of a musical ear. No persons can be more liberal in their purchases of instruments, or of select music, than the ladies of India; they often giving two hundred pounds for a good grand-piano; but the incessant apprehension of warps, and cracks, is a tremendous draw-back on the interest they feel in the possession of even the best of its kind. Repairs, of every sort, whether of violins, pianos, flutes, &c., are exorbitantly dear, and, even at Calcutta, not always practicable; either owing to dissipation, the want of some essential article, or the quantity of work in hand. Nor is it easy to obtain the temporary accommodation of an instrument while one is repairing, unless at such a rate as utterly precludes all of moderate income from availing themselves of such an opportunity, when it may chance to offer.

With respect to what is called ‘preparing an instrument for the climate,’ much may certainly be done, by taking care that only the best seasoned wood is employed, and by clamping the case with metal, both within and without; but all this has little connection with the belly, or sounding-board; which cannot be much strengthened without considerably deteriorating the tone, and causing a piano to be in the first instance condemned, for want of that richness which cannot be given to one whose vibrations are obstructed. The only chance is, to keep a piano well covered with blankets during the heats, as also in very damp weather, and to uncloathe it gradually, when about to be opened for performance. By such precautions, the instrument may remain tolerably in tune, and not sustain much injury from the variations of seasons: after two or three years the danger may be less; but it will be prudent never to relax in point of prevention, lest the instrument should suddenly fail.

With the exception of such little parties as, in a few families, assemble during the afternoons to enjoy the pleasures arising from the musical talents of some lady, Calcutta has little to offer in this captivating branch of amusement. If we cast out of the account some accidental quartetto parties, or the solitary warblings of some flute-player, &c., the whole may be deemed a blank. Now and then a subscription concert, for the benefit of some professor, who lives more by means of eleemosynary bounty, than by the encouragement of his abilities, calls the town together, not to listen to the notes, to the fine melodies, and rich harmonies of Haydn, &c., but to see, and to be seen, and to talk, and be talked to. In brief, India is not the soil to which a man of science, or of taste, should repair, under the hope of being liberally repaid for his trouble and expences; much less of being cherished for his genius and acquirements. One or two insulated exceptions are not to be adduced in refutation of my assertion: I am ready to acknowledge, that, now and then, a professor has been seen pampering under all the influence of high and boundless patronage; but the per contra shews a numerous list of those who have lingered through all the penalties attendant upon humble merit, until the grave has kindly terminated their ill-fated labors.

Assemblies, balls, routs, &c., or under whatever name dissipation, vanity, and luxury, may arrange their concordance, are not very numerous in India. The Governor-General, and the Members of Council, occasionally circulate their invitations during the cold months; and, at times, some spacious public rooms are engaged for the same purpose on speculation; but I never understood that it proved lucrative.

It was not until about twenty years back that the British had any regular church in Bengal, and now they have but one, which was built partly by private aid, and partly by the profits arising—from a lottery!!! The latter was, I understand, very forcibly opposed by one or two gentlemen, who considered it as a very unbecoming mode of raising supplies for so holy a purpose. When we reflect that a Portugueze merchant built one, for the use of the Catholics, from his own purse; and that, though he was accounted a rich man, yet his property could not be compared with what various individuals, of our own nation, resident in India, can boast; it may be fairly quoted, as a singular instance of parsimony against our countrymen. Not that impiety or disrespect to public worship can be urged against the settlement; for no church can be better attended than that in question: the liberality of the inhabitants was partially exemplified by the institution of a free-school, where a number of children, both of Europeans, and of native mothers, are educated in a very sufficient manner; a circumstance of considerable moment where education is so dear.