EARLY TRAVELS
IN
PALESTINE,

COMPRISING THE NARRATIVES OF
ARCULF, WILLIBALD, BERNARD, SÆWULF, SIGURD, BENJAMIN OF TUDELA, SIR JOHN MAUNDEVILLE, DE LA BROCQUIÈRE, AND MAUNDRELL.

EDITED, WITH NOTES,
By THOMAS WRIGHT, Esq., M.A., F.S.A., &c.

LONDON:
HENRY G. BOHN, YORK STREET, COVENT GARDEN.

MDCCCXLVIII.

TO HIS GRACE
THE LORD ARCHBISHOP OF YORK,
THIS VOLUME
IS VERY RESPECTFULLY DEDICATED
BY
THE EDITOR.

CONTENTS.

PLAN OF JERUSALEM

REFERENCES TO PLAN OF JERUSALEM,

REDUCED FROM A LARGE PLAN, CONSTRUCTED BY SCHULTZ, PRUSSIAN CONSUL AT JERUSALEM.

1. Chapel of Scourging.
2. Scala Sancta.
3. Pilate's House.
4. Chapel of Crowning with Thorns.
5. Arch of 'Ecce Homo.'
6. First place where Simon carried the Cross.
7. Second do. do.
8. Gate of Judgment (Porta Judiciaria).
9. House of Urias.
10. Bath of Bathsheba.
11. House of the High Priest Zacharias.
12. " St. Marcus.
13. " St. Thomas.
14. " High Priest Annas.
15. " " Caiphas.
16. Room in which the Last Supper was instituted.
17. House of the Virgin Mary.
18. Place where St. Peter wept.
19. House of Sta. Anna.
20. " the Pharisee Simon.
21. Place where Stephen was stoned.
22. " Jesus sweated blood.
23. " the Disciples slept.
24. " Judas kissed Christ.
25. " Jesus taught the Lord's Prayer.
26. " " wept over Jerusalem.
27. " the Apostles learned the Creed.
28. " Judas hanged himself.
29. Tomb of Jehoshaphat.
30. " Absolom.
31. " Jacob.
32. " Zacharias.

INTRODUCTION.

The attentive reader of history cannot fail to remark how often, in the confusion of the middle ages, the very movements or principles which seem in themselves most barbarous, or are most strongly tinctured with the darkest shades of superstition, have been those which, in the sequel, gave the strongest impulse to the advancing spirit of civilization which has at length changed that dark past into this bright present. It is in the contemplation of this oft-recurring fact, that we trace, more distinctly, perhaps, than in any other, the inscrutable but unerring ways of that higher Providence to whose rule all things are subjected. Few of those duties enjoined by the ancient Romish Church were accompanied with, and seemed to lead to, more abuses and scandals than the pilgrimages to the Holy Land, so natural an attraction to every Christian; few were attended with so much bigotry, and blindness, and uncharitableness, or ended in observances and convictions so grossly superstitious and so degrading to the intelligence of mankind. Yet it was this throwing of people upon the wide and distant scene, on which they were forced into continual intercourse, hostile or friendly, according to the circumstances of the moment, with people of different manners, creed, sentiment, and knowledge, that gradually softened down all prejudices, and paved the way for the entire destruction of that system to which it seemed intended to give support. If the seeds of civilization ever existed in the cloister, they were seeds cast upon the barren rock, and it was not until they were transplanted to another and richer soil, that they began to sprout and give promise of fruit.

Even in this point of view the narrative of those early pilgrimages must possess no ordinary degree of interest, and it gives us no little insight into the history of the march of intellectual improvement to accompany these early travellers in their wanderings, as they have themselves described them to us, and to watch their feelings and hear their opinions. The human mind is one of those important objects of study that we can never look upon from too many standing-places. But there is another point of view in which the narratives of the early pilgrims, of which so many have been preserved, are perhaps still more interesting. That favoured land to which they relate, the scene of so many events of deep import to our happiness in this world and in the future, has never lost its attractions, and more steps, as well as more eyes, are now turned towards it, than in those so-called ages of faith, when every mile on the road was believed to count in heaven for so much towards the redemption of the past crimes and offences, however great, of the traveller. Pilgrims innumerable still visit the holy places, with a purer faith and a less prejudiced understanding, yet with the desire of knowing what others in past ages saw, which is now not to be seen, or which is seen under different circumstances; to know what they thought of objects which still offer themselves to view; and to trace in their successive observations and reflections the gradual development of a thirst for discovery and knowledge which has at length given them the power of being so much wiser than their forefathers. It was the interest created by the objects these pilgrims visited personally, and the curiosity excited by the vague information obtained from intercourse with men who came from parts still more distant, that laid the first foundation of geographical science, and that first gave the impulse to geographical discovery.

A comparison of the numerous narratives to which we allude, places before our eyes the most distinct view we can possibly have of the various changes which have swept over the land of Palestine since it was snatched from the power of the Roman emperors. The more ancient are, of course, the most interesting, because they relate to a period when a far greater number of monuments of still earlier antiquity remained in existence than it has been the lot of any modern pilgrims to visit, and the traditions of the locality were then much more deserving of attention, because they were so much nearer to the time of the events to which they related. It can hardly be supposed that the Christian inhabitants of Jerusalem and its neighbourhood, under the Romans, did not preserve some authentic traditions concerning the localities of the more important events of Gospel history.

We have fortunately one document of a very remarkable character, which has preserved to us the local traditions of the Christians of Syria under the Romans. It was first brought to light by the celebrated French antiquary, Pierre Pithou, who printed it, in 1588, from a manuscript in his own library, under the title of "Itinerarium a Burdigala Hierusalem usque;" and it was afterwards inserted in the editions of the "Antonine Itinerary," by Schott and Wesseling. The author of this Itinerary was a Christian of Bordeaux, who visited the Holy Land in the year 333[1], and it was evidently compiled for the use of his countrymen. This visit took place two years before the consecration of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, built by the emperor Constantine and his mother Helena. The compiler of this Itinerary, who is the first traveller to the East who has left us an account of his journey, departed from Bordeaux, then one of the chief cities of Gaul, passed by Arles and other towns, and crossed the Alps into Italy, which country he traversed, passing through Turin, Pavia, Milan, Brescia, Verona, &c., to the then magnificent city of Aquileia; thence he crossed the Julian Alps, and passed through Noricum, Pannonia, Illyria, Dacia, and Thrace, to Constantinople, and thence, after crossing the Bosphorus, he continued his route through Asia Minor to Syria. Hitherto the Itinerary is a mere recapitulation of names and distances, but, after his arrival in Syria, he continually interrupts his bare list of names, to mention some holy site, or other object which attracted his attention. On his arrival at Jerusalem, he gives us a long description of that city and its neighbourhood. From Jerusalem he returns to Constantinople, varying a little his route, and thence he retraces his steps as far as Heraclea in Thrace, where he leaves his former road, passing through Macedonia to Thessalonica, and thence to Italy, where he visited Brundusium, Capua, and Rome, and thence returned to Milan.

Although this Itinerary has come down to us as a solitary narrative, we learn from the writings of some of the Greek fathers, that pilgrimages to the Holy Land had already, at that period, become so frequent as to lead to many abuses; and the early saints' lives have been the means of preserving to us brief notices of some of the adventures of the pilgrims, which are obscured by the incredible miracles with which those narratives abound. St. Porphyry, a Greek ecclesiastic of the end of the fourth century, after living five years as a hermit in the Thebaid of Egypt, went with his disciple Marcus to Jerusalem, visited the holy places, settled there, and finally became bishop of Gaza. St. Eusebius of Cremona, and his friend St. Jerome, embarked at Porto, in Italy, in June 385, in company with a great number of other pilgrims, and in the midst of tempests passed the Ionian Sea and the Cyclades to Cyprus, where they were received by St. Epiphanius. They went thence to Antioch, where they were welcomed by St. Paulinus, who was bishop of that city, and from thence they proceeded to Jerusalem. After passing some time in the holy city, and visiting the surrounding country, they went to Egypt, to visit the hermits of the Thebaid, and then returning, they took up their abode at Bethlehem, where they founded a monastery. Nearly at the same time, St. Paula, with her daughter, left Rome for Syria, and landed at Sidon, where she visited the tower of Elijah. At Cæsarea she saw the house of the centurion Cornelius, which was changed into a church, and the house of St. Philip, with the chambers of his four daughters. Near Jerusalem she beheld the tomb of Helena, queen of Adiabene. The governor of Palestine, who was acquainted with the family of St. Paula, prepared to receive her in Jerusalem with due honours, but she preferred taking up her abode in a small cell, and she hastened to visit all the holy objects with which she was now surrounded. She went first to the church of the Holy Sepulchre, where she prostrated herself before the true cross, and entered the sepulchre itself, after having kissed the stone which the angels had taken from the entrance. On Mount Sion, she was shown the column to which Christ was bound when scourged, and which then sustained the gallery of a church. She saw also the spot where the Holy Ghost had descended on the Apostles on the day of Pentecost. She thence went to Bethlehem, visiting on the way the sepulchre of Rachel. At Bethlehem she descended into the grotto of the Nativity. She next visited the tower of Ader of the Flocks. At Bethphage, she saw the sepulchre of Lazarus, and the house of Martha and Mary; on Mount Ephraim, she was shown the sepulchre of Joshua, and of the high priest Eleazar; at Sichem, she entered the church built over the well of Jacob, where our Saviour spoke to the Samaritan woman; she next visited the sepulchres of the twelve patriarchs; and, at Sebaste, or Samaria, she saw those of Elisha and Abdias, as well as that of St. John the Baptist. To the latter were brought, from all parts, people possessed with demons, to be cured. St. Paula went subsequently to Egypt, to visit the hermits of the desert, whence she returned to Bethlehem, where she built cells and hospitals for pilgrims, and there she lived in retirement till her death[2]. St. Antoninus visited the Holy Land early in the seventh century; his life contains some absurd legendary stories relating to the cross, which he saw in the church of Golgotha; and he tells that there stood on one part of Mount Sion an "idol of the Saracens," made of very white marble (no doubt an ancient sepulchre), which, at the time of the festival of that idol, suddenly became black as pitch, and after the festival was restored to its original colour. At Nazareth, St. Antoninus praises the beauty of the Jewish women who resided there; and he tells us that the land round that place was prodigiously fertile, and that it produced excellent wine, oil, and honey. The millet grew there to a greater height than elsewhere, and the straw was stronger. After visiting all the holy places, St. Antoninus, like all the other pilgrims who went to the east before the conquests of the Saracens, repaired to Egypt, to visit the hermits of the Thebaid. He landed at Alexandria, a very fine city, the people of which were light in disposition, but friendly to the travellers who came thither. He saw there, in the Nile, a multitude of crocodiles, a great number of which were collected together in a pond. Perhaps this was some remnant of the ancient worship of the Egyptians. On his return to Jerusalem, St. Antoninus fell sick, and was received into a hospital destined for poor pilgrims; he then went into Mesopotamia, and returned by sea to Italy, his native country.

Soon after this period, the circumstances of the pilgrims who arrived in the Holy Land were entirely changed, in consequence of the conquests of the Saracens, who, under Omar, obtained possession of Jerusalem in 637, by a capitulation, however, which allowed them the use of their churches on payment of a tribute, but forbade them to build new ones. This interdiction could not be in itself a great grievance, for the whole of Palestine must have been literally covered with churches when it passed under the Mohammedan yoke. The conquerors soon saw that greater advantages would be reaped by preserving the holy places, and encouraging pilgrimage, than by destroying them; many of them, indeed their own creed taught them, were to be considered as objects of reverence; and thus for two or three centuries the Christians of the west continued to flock to the Holy Sepulchre as numerously as before, subject, perhaps, to not much greater taxation at the holy places than in former times, but exposed on their way to more or less insult and oppression, according to the political or local circumstances of the moment.

Not many years after it had thus fallen under the power of the Arabs, the Holy Land was visited by a French bishop named Arculf, whose narrative stands at the head of the present volume. The French antiquaries have not been able to discover of what see Arculf was bishop, or when he lived; and all that is known of him is the statement of Adamnan, who wrote down his narrative, that on his return from the east he was carried by contrary winds to the shores of Britain, and that he was received at Iona. We learn from Bede[3], that Adamnan visited the court of the Northumbrian king Aldfrid, and that he then presented to the king his book on the Holy Places, which he had taken down from the dictation of bishop Arculf. The visit to king Aldfrid is generally placed in 703, but by an apparent misunderstanding of the words of Bede, and it is probable that it occurred at least as early as 701[4]. The pilgrimage of Arculf must thus have taken place in the latter part of the seventh century. In relating a miracle concerning the sudarium or napkin taken from the head of our Saviour (which has not been thought worth retaining in the present translation), Arculf is made to speak of "Majuvias, king of the Saracens," as having lived in his time[5], and the character of the story leaves no doubt that the king referred to was Moawiyah, the first khalif of the dynasty of the Ommiades, who reigned from 661 to 679. I am inclined to think that Arculf's visit to Jerusalem must be placed not long after this khalif's death.

Arculf's travels, having been reduced to a sort of treatise by Adamnan, do not always present the exact form of a personal narrative, and we cannot trace his course from his native land as we do those of most subsequent travellers. He seems to have followed in the steps of the more ancient pilgrims, and his visit to Egypt, with the avowal of his voyages up the Nile, can only be explained on the supposition that he also went to visit the Coptic monks of the Desert, who had been allowed to remain there, tributary to their Arabian conquerors. He either derived little satisfaction from this visit, or Adamnan considered it as having no interest for his countrymen; and we find no allusion to the Egyptian monks in the later pilgrimages. Arculf speaks of no difficulties he had to encounter, and his narrative is of especial interest, from the circumstance of his visiting the country when all the buildings of the Roman age were still standing.

The narrative of bishop Arculf, besides its intrinsic value as a minute and accurate description of localities and monuments at this interesting period, is of especial importance to us, because, through the abridgment made by Bede, it became the text book on this subject among the Anglo-Saxons, and led to that passion for pilgrimages with which they were soon afterwards seized, and which was not uncongenial to the character of that people whose adventurous steps have since been carried into every corner of the world.

Among the Anglo-Saxons who followed the example of Arculf, one of the most remarkable, and the earliest of whose adventures we have any account, was Willibald, a kinsman, it is said, of the great Boniface, and a native of the kingdom of Wessex, probably of Hampshire. His father, who appears to have been of high rank, was honoured with a place in the Roman calendar, under the title of St. Richard. He, with his two sons, Willibald and Wunibald, and a daughter, afterwards so celebrated under the name of St. Walpurgis, left England probably in the year 718, and travelled through the land of the Franks on their way to Italy. At Lucca, Willibald's father sickened and died; and, having buried him, the three children reached Rome in safety, but there they were seized with a severe fever, on their recovery from which Willibald determined to make a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. I have fixed the date of his departure to the year 721, because that would place his departure from Tyre on his way to Constantinople, in 724; and I have stated on another occasion[6], that it is in the highest degree probable that the difficulties Willibald and his companions experienced in obtaining a passport, and the troubles they met with in their departure from Syria, were coincident with the persecution of the Christian churches in that country in the year just alluded to, when the khalif Yezid II., at the end of his reign, had been instigated by the Jews to publish an edict against the paintings in the churches of his Christian subjects, in consequence of which many of the latter fled their homes. After the death of Yezid, hostilities recommenced between the Greeks and the Arabs, and continued during many years; and it is evident that the two countries were not yet at war when the pilgrims left. At the same time, the whole tenor of the narrative shows that they quitted Syria on account of some sudden change in the internal state of the country, and that they were anxious to get away, for they came to Tyre at the wrong season of the year for making the voyage to Constantinople, and they sailed in rough and tempestuous weather. In 740 or 741, Willibald was consecrated bishop of Eichstadt, being then forty-one years of age. He died, it is supposed, in the year 786. His life was written before his death, by a nun of Heidenheim, of whose name we are ignorant, but who was his kinswoman, and who took down the account of his travels, as she avows, from his own mouth.

The war with the Greeks did not, however, put a stop to pilgrimages from the west, but the travellers now seem to have been obliged to pass by way of Egypt. The geographer, Dicuil, in his treatise De Mensura Orbis Terræ, which he wrote at a very advanced age, in 825, tells us, when speaking of Egypt, that when a youth at school in France, he heard a monk named Fidelis give an account of his travels in Egypt and the Holy Land, to his master, Suibneus, and, from the accuracy with which he cites it, he must have taken notes at the time. He says, that Fidelis went with a party of pilgrims, clerks and laymen, who sailed direct to the mouth of the Nile, no doubt to Alexandria. Proceeding up the Nile a long way, they were struck with astonishment at the sight of the seven "barns" (horrea), built by Joseph, according to the number of the years of abundance, which looked at a distance like mountains, four in one place, and three in another. Curiosity led them to visit the group of three, and near them they found a lion, and eight men and women, all lying dead; "the lion had slain them by its strength, and they had killed the lion with their spears and swords, for the places occupied by both these groups of barns are deserts." They found that these buildings, in their whole elevation, were of stone; at the bottom they were square, in the upper part round, and twisted at the summit in a spire. Fidelis measured the side of one from one angle to the other, and found it to be four hundred feet. Then, entering their ships in the river Nile, they navigated direct to the entrance of the Red Sea, where they entered a port, not far to the east of which was the spot where Moses passed on dry land. Fidelis wished to go to this place, where he expected to see the traces of Pharaoh's chariot wheels, but he could not prevail with the sailors to turn away from their own course. He observed, however, that the sea appeared there to be about six miles across. They sailed thence, without loss of time, along the western part of the Red Sea, or that part which extends itself in a gulf or bay far to the north. From thence we are left to suppose that they proceeded to Palestine[7]. The barns of Joseph were of course the pyramids, with respect to the form of the upper part of which the pilgrim might easily have been deceived; but it will be at once evident to any one acquainted with the geography of Egypt, that the channel by which he passed in a ship from the Nile to the Red Sea, was the ancient canal of Hadrian. This canal is said to have been repaired, and rendered navigable by the Arabs, not long after they had rendered themselves masters of Egypt, but we know that it was finally blocked up by the khalif Abu Giafar Almansor, in 767, to hinder provisions from being sent to the people of Mecca and Medina, who had revolted against his authority. It was therefore previous to this date that Fidelis visited Egypt.

Peace, broken immediately after the departure of Willibald, was not restored till the learned reign of the magnificent Haroun-er-Raschid (786-809), whose name, and his friendship and intercourse with the no less splendid monarch of the west, Charlemagne, have been so often celebrated in history and romance. Their friendship led to the opening of Palestine to the Christian pilgrims on much more liberal terms, and various privileges and comforts were secured for them in the holy city. Pilgrimages now became more frequent, and several are mentioned during the latter part of the eighth and the course of the ninth centuries.

The only one of these pilgrims whose own account of his adventures has been preserved, was a Breton monk, evidently of the celebrated monastery of Mount St. Michel, named Bernard, who is distinguished in the manuscripts by the title of Bernardus Sapiens, or Bernard the Wise, although we have no other testimony to his wisdom except the account of his pilgrimage. This very curious narrative was discovered by Mabillon, in a manuscript of the library of Rheims, and printed in the Acta Sanctorum Ordinis Benedictini. Bernard has given, at the commencement of this narrative, the date of the year in which he started. In Mabillon's text, and in a manuscript of the Cottonian Library, now lost, it is 870; while in another manuscript of the Cottonian Library, still existing, it is given as 970. Internal evidence at once fixes the date of Bernard's pilgrimage to the ninth century, and not to the tenth; and as it is evident that he was at Bari before the siege by Louis II., we can have little hesitation in considering both the dates given by the manuscripts as errors of the scribes, and in fixing Bernard's departure to the year 867.

Bernard left Europe at a time when the Saracens of the west were engaged in hostility with the Christians, and he was obliged to furnish himself with a variety of protections. Although he points at the disadvantageous contrast between the barbarity and turbulence of the western Christians and the well regulated government of the Arabs in the east, it is quite evident that a change had taken place in the condition of the Christians in Syria, and that the pilgrims no longer enjoyed the immunities obtained for them by the emperor Charlemagne. They now, on the contrary, seem to have been subjected to extortions on every side. Bernard, like Fidelis, went by way of Egypt, and proceeded thence into Palestine by land. He is the first traveller who mentions the afterwards celebrated miracle of the holy fire. At Jerusalem Bernard lodged in the hostle which had been founded by Charlemagne, and which was still appropriated to its original destination.

Somewhere near this period a noble Breton of the name of Frotmond, who, with his brother, had committed one of those deeds of blood which so often stain the history of the middle ages, was condemned by the church to a penance, not uncommon in those times. A chain was close riveted round his body and his arms; and in this condition, covered only with a coarse garment, his head sprinkled with ashes, he was to visit, bare-foot, the holy places, and wander about until God should deign to relieve him of his burthen. In the fourth year of his wanderings he returned to France, and went to the monastery of Redon, where he was miraculously delivered from his chains, which had already eaten deep into his flesh, at the tomb of St. Marcellinus. The account of his pilgrimage was collected from the traditions of the monastery long after Frotmond's death, by one of the monks. It is said that he and his brethren went direct to the coast of Syria, and made some stay at Jerusalem, practising there all kinds of austerities. They next went into Egypt, and took up their abode among the monks of the Thebaid, and then went to pray at the tomb of St. Cyprian, on the sea-coast, two leagues from Carthage. They then returned to Rome; but still not obtaining pardon of the pope (Benedict III.), they again passed the sea to Jerusalem, from whence they went to Cana, in Galilee, and then they directed their course to the Red Sea. They next proceeded to the mountains of Armenia, and visited the spot where Noah's ark rested after the deluge. On their way they suffered all kinds of outrages from the infidels, who stripped them naked and scourged them cruelly. This, however, did not turn them from their purpose, and they went subsequently to Mount Sinai, where they remained three years, and so returned to Italy, and thence to France. Frotmond started on his wanderings in the year 868.

Other pilgrimages are mentioned as having taken place before the end of the ninth century, at which time new wars broke out between the Greeks and the Saracens, in the course of which the whole of Judea was taken from the Mohammedans by the emperor John Zimisces, and the holy places were again thrown open to pilgrims from all parts. On the death of Zimisces, in 976, the Greek empire again sunk into weakness, and Palestine was snatched from them by the Fatimite khalifs of Egypt, whose policy it was at first to treat the Christians with lenity, seek commercial relations with the Franks, and encourage the pilgrimages to the holy places. But all these fair prospects were soon cut short by the accession to the throne of Hakem, the third khalif of the Fatimite dynasty, who threw his kingdom into confusion by his cruel despotism, and who made the unfortunate Christians feel the whole weight of his fury. They were everywhere oppressed and massacred, their churches were taken from them, profaned, and destroyed, and the holy places were deserted. During the whole of the eleventh century the Christians of Syria were thus treated with every kind of indignity. Pilgrims still made their way to Jerusalem, and a great number of brief notices of their adventures are preserved by the numerous writers of the age; but they brought back with them little more than complaints of the profanations to which the holy places were exposed, and of the wretched condition to which their brothers in faith had been reduced. The celebrated Gerbert, afterwards pope, under the name of Sylvestre II., was one of the first who made the pilgrimage during the persecutions of Hakem; and on his return, in 986, he published a letter, in which he made Jerusalem deplore her misfortunes, and supplicated the whole Christian world to come to her aid. The French and the Italians were excited to vengeance, and they began to make pilgrimages in armed bodies, and even to attack the coasts of Syria. This only served to exasperate their enemies, who interdicted the Christians in their dominions from the exercise of their religion, took from them their churches, which they profaned by turning them into stables and to still more degrading purposes, and threw down the church of the Sepulchre, and the other sacred places in Jerusalem, in 1008. According to the best authorities the church of the Holy Sepulchre was rebuilt by Hakem's grandson, Al-Mostanser-Billah, between 1046 and 1048, in consequence of a treaty with the Byzantine emperor.

The news of these events threw all Christian Europe into consternation, and excited every where the desire for vengeance on the infidels; but it increased the eagerness for pilgrimage, and, in spite of all the insults and perils to which they were exposed, devotees of all ranks and conditions made their way to Jerusalem in crowds. New revolutions were, however, taking place there; for another people, the Seldjouk Turks, having rendered themselves masters of Persia, and established there a new dynasty of monarchs, the Abassides, passed forwards into Mesopotamia, and then conquered Syria from the Fatimites. The Seldjouks took Jerusalem in 1071, massacred both Saracens and Christians, and delivered up to pillagers the mosques as well as the churches. The fate of the pilgrims under the new rulers of Palestine was more deplorable than ever. They were not allowed to enter the gates of Jerusalem without payment of a very heavy tax; and, as most of them had been plundered on the way, if they had anything to tempt the merciless rapacity of the infidels, the greater part remained outside, to perish by hunger or by the sword. Those who gained admission into the city only entered to suffer new outrages, and, which was still worse, to see everything they held most sacred trodden under foot and defiled by unbelievers.

The Turks, in their turn, became divided and enfeebled; and the Fatimites made a successful effort to recover their power in Syria. In 1096 Jerusalem was delivered, by capitulation, to the general of the khalif Al-Mostaali-Billeh; but the change of masters seems to have ameliorated in no degree the condition of the Christians.

The cry of the eastern Christians had, however, already made itself effectually heard throughout Europe. The voice of Peter the Hermit was first raised in 1095, in the November of which year he stood by the pope, Urban II., at the council of Clermont, and the first crusade was proclaimed. The vast army of invaders assembled in the autumn of 1096, traversed Europe and Asia Minor, and those who escaped from the terrible sufferings and losses it experienced on the road reached Palestine in 1099, and took Jerusalem by assault on the 15th of June. Ten days after the conquerors elected Godfrey of Boulogne king of Jerusalem.

The first pilgrim who followed the crusaders, who has left us a personal narrative, was an Anglo-Saxon named Sæwulf. Our only information relating to this personage, beyond what is found in his own relation, occurs in a passage of William of Malmesbury which appears to relate to him. This writer, in his History of the English Bishops[8], tells us that Sæwulf was a merchant who frequently repaired to bishop Wulstan, of Worcester, to confess his sins, and as frequently, when his fit of penitence was over, returned to his old courses. Wulstan advised him to quit the profession in which he met with so many temptations, and embrace a monastic life; and, on his refusal, the bishop prophesied that the time would arrive when he would take the habit which he now so obstinately refused. William of Malmesbury says that he himself witnessed the fulfilment of this prediction, when in his old age the merchant Sæwulf became a monk in the abbey of Malmesbury. It is fair to suppose that, in a moment of penitence, the merchant sought to appease the divine wrath by undertaking the pilgrimage to Jerusalem, the road to which had then been laid open by the first successes of the crusaders. Nothing in the narrative proves that our traveller was a monk.

The date of Sæwulf's voyage has been fixed by his learned editor, M. D'Avezac, from internal evidence of the most satisfactory kind. Sæwulf makes two or three allusions to historical personages in the course of his adventures. Thus, on his arrival at Cephalonia, he informs us that Robert Guiscard died there. This celebrated warrior, the first duke of the Normans in Italy, the father of the celebrated crusader Bohemond, prince of Tarentum, was meditating the conquest of Greece, when he died, according to some poisoned, in July 1085[9]. Further on Sæwulf mentions two Christian princes, distinguished by their activity in the first crusade, as still living; Baldwin, king of Jerusalem, and Raymond, duke of Toulouse. The first was made king on the 25th of December, 1100, and the latter died on the 28th of February, 1105. Sæwulf mentions further, that when he returned from Syria Tortosa was in the possession of duke Raymond, while Acre still remained in the hands of the Saracens. The latter place was captured on the 12th of March, 1102, while Acre did not fall into the hands of the Christians till the 15th of May, 1104. Now he informs us further that he embarked at Joppa, on his return on the day of Pentecost, which day in the year 1104 fell on the 5th of June, and, as Acre had then been taken, this could not be the year; and we have only to choose between 1102 and 1103. To remove all doubt on the subject, M. D'Avezac points out an element of calculation contained in Sæwulf's text, which enables us to fix the exact date of his departure from Italy, after having brought it within so small a compass from the historical allusions. Sæwulf says that he set sail from Monopoli on Sunday, the feast of St. Mildred. St. Mildred's day is the 13th of July, and that day fell on a Sunday in the year 1102. It was, he says, an unlucky day—dies Ægyptiaca, and they fell in with a storm which drove them along the coast to Brindisi, whence, after a short stay to refit, they sailed again on an unlucky day. Now the ordinary formula to find the unlucky or Egyptiac days, composed by the medieval calculators, give us the 13th and 22nd of July, as falling under this character. It was, therefore, the 13th of July, 1102, when Sæwulf sailed from Monopoli, and the 22nd of the same month when he left Brindisi; and it was the day of Pentecost, 1103, when he embarked at Joppa, on his return. These dates will agree very well with the age of the Sæwulf mentioned by William of Malmesbury.

The events preceding, and connected with the crusades, had considerably modified the route followed by the pilgrims in their way to Jerusalem. They had previously gone by way of Egypt, because it was no doubt safer to pass in ships employed in commerce with the Saracens, or to go with Saracenic passports from the west, than to encounter the hostile feelings with which people were received who came into Syria from the neighbouring territory of the Greeks. But now they might proceed with greater security through the Christian states on the northern shores of the Mediterranean, either visiting Constantinople before they proceeded to Jerusalem, or, if their eagerness to see the holy city overcame all other considerations, sailing along the coast of Greece and through the islands of the Archipelago. The latter course was taken by Sæwulf; he sailed from Italy to the Ionian islands; proceeded overland to Negropont, where he embarked in another ship, and, after touching at several of the islands, proceeded along the coast of Asia Minor to Jaffa, whence he travelled by land to Jerusalem, reserving his visit to the metropolis of the Grecian empire for his return. The narrative appears to be truncated, which has deprived us of Sæwulf's observations of Constantinople.

Sæwulf's account of the disastrous storm which attended their arrival at Jaffa shows us what multitudes of pilgrims now crowded to the Holy Land. Among these were people of all classes, rich and poor, noble and ignoble, laymen equally with monks and clergy. Some went in humility and meekness to visit the scene of their salvation, while others, embarking with crews of desperate marauders, although they went to the Holy City with the same professions, proceeded as privateers, or rather as pirates, plundering and devastating on their way. Among this latter class the descendants of the sea-kings of the north appear to have been especially distinguished, and the Scandinavian sagas have preserved more than one narrative, half authentic and half romantic, of their adventures. It has been thought advisable to give, as a specimen of these, the story of Sigurd the Crusader, a northern prince, whose presence at the capture of Beyrout, in 1110, is mentioned by William of Tyre.

The land of Palestine was at this time beginning to attract, in an unusual degree, the attention of another class of travellers from western Europe—learned men of the Jewish nation—who were anxious to discover and to make known to their brethren the condition of the various synagogues in the East, after so many sanguinary revolutions, as well as to visit the burial-places of the eminent Hebrews of former days. Several of their relations, written in Hebrew, are still preserved in manuscript, and a few have been printed[10]. The earliest of these of any importance is that of Benjamin of Tudela. We have an "Itinerary of Palestine" made by Samuel bar Simson in 1210; a "Description of the Sacred Tombs" by a Jew of Paris named Jacob, in 1258; and several tracts of the same kind in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries.

Mr. Asher, to whom we owe the best edition of Benjamin of Tudela, has fixed the date of Benjamin's travels from his own narrative with great acuteness. It appears from different circumstances to which he alludes, that his visit to Rome must have taken place subsequent to 1159, that he was at Constantinople probably in December 1161, and that his account of Egypt, which almost concludes the work, must have been written prior to 1171[11]. "If we add to these dates," Mr. Asher observes, "that of his return, as given in the preface, we shall find that the narrative refers to a period of about fourteen years, viz. from 1159 or 1160, to 1173." To these dates pointed out by Mr. Asher, it may be added, that he appears to have been at Antioch immediately after the accession of Bohemond III. in 1163; and that he probably reached Sicily, on his way back, early in 1169. By comparing these dates with the general course of the narrative, I have endeavoured to arrange with tolerable accuracy the successive years of Benjamin's wanderings; the dates of which are given at the heads of the pages.

Rabbi Benjamin is the first European traveller whom we find taking a wider circuit in his travels than that which would have been restricted by the limits of Christian or Jewish pilgrimage. As Mr. Asher observes, he appears evidently to have been a merchant, and hence, though the object most at his heart seems to have been to note the number and condition of the Jews in the different countries he visited, he has preserved some valuable information relating to their trade and commerce at that period, and, in spite of some credulity, and an evident love of the marvellous, he describes what he saw with more good sense and accuracy than the Christian travellers of the same age. Benjamin, who was a Jew of Spain, began his travels from Saragossa, and proceeded through Italy and Greece to Constantinople, which city he describes at considerable length. He proceeded thence, by the Greek Islands, to Antioch, and thence through Syria, by Acre and Nablous, to Jerusalem. From Jerusalem he went to Damascus, and from thence to Bagdad, but his route here and elsewhere appears to have been far from direct, as we often trace him moving backwards and forwards, to obtain information, or visit districts that lay out of the ordinary road. The actual extent of his wanderings towards the East appears doubtful; but it is certain he remained at Bagdad and in Persia two or three years, and he returned by way of Arabia and Nubia to Egypt. From Egypt he returned to Sicily, and he then made a tour in Germany before his final return home. Mr. Asher observes that there is "one very peculiar feature" in this work, by which its contents are divided into what he saw, and what he heard. "In many towns, on the route from Saragossa to Bagdad, rabbi Benjamin mentions the names of the principal Jews, elders, and wardens of the congregations he met with. That a great number of the persons enumerated by rabbi Benjamin really were his contemporaries; and that the particulars he incidentally mentions of them are corroborated by other authorities, has been proved in the biographical notes furnished by Dr. Zunz. We therefore do not hesitate to assert that rabbi Benjamin visited all those towns of which he names the elders and principals, and that the first portion of his narrative comprises an account of what he saw. But with Gihiagin, the very first stage beyond Bagdad, all such notices cease, and except those of two princes and of two rabbis, we look in vain for any other names. So very remarkable a difference between this and the preceding part of the work leads us to assert that rabbi Benjamin's travels did not extend beyond Bagdad, and that he there wrote down the second portion of our work, consisting of what he heard. Bagdad, at his time the seat of the prince of the Captivity, must have attracted numerous Jewish pilgrims from all regions, and, beyond doubt, was the fittest place for gathering those notices of the Jews and of trade in different parts of the world, the collecting of which was the aim of rabbi Benjamin's labours." It may be observed, further, that the information he thus collected agrees in general with that furnished by the contemporary Arabian geographers.

The travels of rabbi Benjamin had little, if any, influence on the state of geographical science amongst the Christians of the west; but a variety of causes—the thirst for novelty in science excited by the educational movement of the twelfth century, scattered information, gleaned from an increased intercourse with the Arabs, and the adventurous spirit raised by a hundred years of crusades—were now combining to render them every day more eager for information relating to distant lands, and this spirit received a new impulse from the astonishment and terror excited by the incursions of the Tartars in the earlier half of the thirteenth century. Shrewd and intelligent men were sent out by the monarchs of the west, nominally as ambassadors, but really as spies, to ascertain who these dreaded invaders were, and whence they came, and to report on their strength and character. These envoys met at the court of the khan men of distant, and, to them, unknown countries, from whom they collected information relating to the central and eastern parts of Asia. Among the first of these envoys was John du Plan de Carpin, an Italian friar of the order of St. Francis, sent out by Pope Innocent IV., in the spring of 1245. He was followed immediately by Simon de St. Quentin, a Dominican monk, also sent by the pope; and a year or two later, in 1253, by William de Rubruk, another Franciscan, sent on an embassy to the Tartars by St. Louis. These, as well as other missionaries of the same century, have left behind them interesting narratives, several of which are preserved, and some of them are well known. Merchants, led by the hope of gain, followed in the steps of, and even preceded, the political or religious missionaries, and their objects being less restricted, they often penetrated into the remotest regions of Asia, where they sometimes settled, and rose to rank and wealth. One of these, an Italian named Marco Polo, on his return, after a long residence in Asia, in the middle of the thirteenth century, published the well known narrative, which conduced, more than any other work, to the development of geographical science, and which first gave the grand impulse to geographical research, that led to the more extensive and substantial knowledge which began to dawn in the following century.

From this time, although short descriptions of the Holy Land became more numerous than ever, travellers who published their personal narratives were seldom contented with the old limits of the subject, but they either visited themselves, or described from the information of others, some at least of the surrounding countries. This was carried at times almost to the extreme of affectation. A remarkable example is furnished to us in the book of Sir John Maundeville. This singular writer, more credulous than the most bigotted monk, appears to have visited the east with the double object of performing the pilgrimage to the Holy Sepulchre, and of seeking military service in foreign lands. Professedly a guide to pilgrims to Jerusalem, to which a large portion of the book is devoted, it contains, nevertheless, the description of nearly the whole of Asia, and of some parts of Africa and Europe, and extends to countries which its author visited and to many others which he certainly did not visit. From the rather equivocal light in which he exhibits himself, and the peculiar form of his work, it is impossible to trace the course of his travels, but he assures us that he set out from England in 1322, and that he returned home and compiled his book in 1356. It appears clear, from evidence furnished by the book itself, that Maundeville was in Egypt for some time previous to the year 1342[12], and a closer examination would probably fix the date of his presence in some other countries. But there can be no doubt that his book is partly a compilation, for we find him not only borrowing from ancient writers, like Solinus and Pliny, but it is quite evident that he made large use of the previous narratives of Marco Polo and of the Franciscan Oderic, who had travelled over a great part of Asia in the earlier years of the fourteenth century, and had published his account during Maundeville's absence in the east. It would not be difficult to analyze a great portion of Maundeville's book, and show from whence it was compiled.

It is now generally agreed that Marco Polo originally wrote the account of his travels in the French language, from which it was subsequently translated into Latin and Italian. French had now, indeed, become the general language of popular treatises, and it seems to be equally well established that in it was written the original text of Maundeville, who states expressly in the French copies preserved in manuscript, that he chose French in preference to Latin, as a language more generally understood, "especially by lords and knights, and others who understand not Latin."[13] We learn, from the colophon to some of the Latin copies, that he was at this time residing at Liege, where he is said to have ended his days, and that he soon afterwards translated his own book into Latin. An English version, said to be also from the pen of Maundeville himself, appeared soon afterwards, and the three versions must have become extremely popular within a few years after their publication, from the number of early copies that are still found among our various collections of manuscripts. The travels of Sir John Maundeville form, perhaps, the most popular work of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, and it continued long afterwards to be read eagerly in a variety of forms. Yet all we know of him with any certainty is his own statement that he was a native of St. Albans,—the rest of his biography, as commonly given, is a mere tissue of errors. Bale tells us that he died at Liege, on the 17th of November, 1371, and that he was buried there in the abbey of the Guillamites. Abraham Orbelius, in his "Itinerarium Belgiæ," gives an epitaph from that abbey, which appears to be a comparatively recent fabrication. One of the manuscripts, written in the fifteenth century, (MS. Harl. 3989,) says that Maundeville died at Liege in 1382.

Contemporary with Maundeville lived a German named variously Boldensel, Boldensle, and Boldenslave, who visited the east in 1336, and, on his return, published a description of the Holy Land, of which there is an early printed edition. It had been preceded by the description of the Holy Land by Brochard, published in 1332. From this time the narratives of travels in Palestine became much more numerous and more detailed, and I shall not attempt even a bare enumeration. The majority of them consist of little more than a repetition of the same facts and the same legends. Some, however, are far superior to the rest, by the interest of the narrative, and the novelty of the information gathered by the traveller. Two, belonging to the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, stand pre-eminent in this respect, the narratives of Breydenbach and Rauwulf, which merit separate publication. I have selected to follow sir John Maundeville, the travels of Bertrandon de la Brocquière, on account of their peculiar character.

The Turks, who were gradually overthrowing the empire of the Arabs in the east, were becoming formidable to the Christians also towards the end of the fourteenth century. Since the time of Brochard, who had written expressly to show how the east lay open to an attack from the Christians, several attempts had been made to raise a new crusade. La Brocquière, like Maundeville, was a knight, and he held the high position of counsellor and first esquire carver to the duke of Burgundy. As was the case with so many others of his own class, his pilgrimage to Jerusalem was the result of a vow, but the curiosity and ardour of the man-at-arms were perhaps more powerful in him than the mere calls of religion. He left Burgundy in the February of 1432, in company with other great lords of that country, passed through Italy by way of Rome to Venice, and there embarked and proceeded by sea to Jaffa. But when this holy pilgrimage was completed, as far as lay in his power to perform it, he undertook a pilgrimage of another kind, and in order to observe the manners and condition of the Turks, who were already threatening Constantinople, he formed the bold scheme of returning to France overland, which would lead him to traverse the western part of Asia and eastern Europe. The notices he has given us of the countries through which he passed, some of them but imperfectly known even at present, combined with the interesting period at which the journey was made, give an especial importance to this narrative, which is marked by the accuracy and good sense of its writer, and exhibits none of the credulity of previous travellers. On his return to the court of Burgundy, La Brocquière's appearance excited great interest, and duke Philip began to talk loudly of his intention to lead a crusade against the Infidels. It was probably to further his object that La Brocquière compiled his narrative, which was published in French, soon after the year 1438, to which date he alludes in his text. The state of Europe, however, was not now favourable to a crusade, and the duke's designs never went further than a few empty proclamations, and some equally fruitless feasting and pageantry. The Turks were allowed to pursue their conquests, and the victorious Mohammed II. became master of Constantinople in the May of 1453.

Our notices of the medieval travellers would properly conclude here. A new era was opening upon the west as well as upon the east, and the last breath of the spirit of the crusades died, as the system which had nourished it sunk before the great religious Reformation of the sixteenth century. Instead of monks and soldiers, Europe, more enlightened, began soon afterwards to send merchants, and consuls, and ambassadors. A clearer and more satisfactory light was now thrown on the geography of the Holy Land. The English traveller in Palestine of most authority in the seventeenth century was Sandys, who, however, often erred on the side of credulity. Before the end of the century came the well known Henry Maundrell, who, on account of the brevity of his narrative and the extreme accuracy of his descriptions, has been selected to conclude the present volume. We know little more of Maundrell than that he was a fellow of Exeter College, Oxford, which he left to take the appointment of chaplain to the English factory at Aleppo. It is not within our province to notice the works of subsequent travellers.

It will be necessary to make some statement to our readers of the manner in which the present volume has been edited, and of the sources from which the different works it contains have been derived.

The travels of bishop Arculf, (as compiled by Adamnan,) as well as those of Bernard the Wise, and the life of Willibald, were printed in the Acta Sanctorum Ordinis S. Benedicti, Sæc. III., Part II., in 1672. A previous edition of Arculf had been published in a small quarto volume, Ingoldstadt, 1619, which also contained the abridgment by Bede. The latter, under the title of Libellus de Locis Sanctis, is included in the different editions of Bede's works, and will be found in the recent edition by Dr. Giles, accompanied with an English translation. Another edition of the narrative of Bernard was published from a manuscript in the Cottonian Library in the British Museum by M. Francisque Michel, in the Memoirs of the Society of Geography at Paris. M. Michel's text is in many respects inferior to that of Mabillon, but it contains the concluding paragraphs relating to the state of society in Egypt, Italy, and France, which were wanting in the manuscript from which Mabillon printed. But the new editor, M. Michel, has fallen into a very grave error; for the treatise of Bede, De Locis Sanctis, following in the Cottonian manuscript the tract of Bernard, he has mistaken them for one continued treatise, and printed them as such, accusing Mabillon of having printed only one half of his author. The narrative of Sæwulf, the only manuscript of which is preserved in the library of Corpus Christi College, Cambridge, was published in the collection of the French Geographical Society by M. D'Avezac, from a transcript furnished by the editor of the present volume. M. D'Avezac has executed his task of editing with remarkable care and discrimination, but I fear that the transcript was in two or three instances inaccurate, and at the time of publication it was unfortunately not in the power of M. D'Avezac to have it collated with the original. One omission of some importance for the architectural history of the church of the Holy Sepulchre was very kindly pointed out to me by Professor Willis, and has been corrected in the translation. In describing this church, the text as printed by M. D'Avezac contains the words, "Ista oratoria sanctissima continentur in atrio Dominici sepulchri ad orientalem plagam. In lateribus autem ipsius ecclesiæ suæ capellæ sibi adhærent præclarissimæ hinc inde, sicut ipsi participes Dominicæ passionis sibi in lateribus constiterunt hinc inde." In the original manuscript the passage stands thus, and is rendered intelligible—"Ista oratoria sanctissima continentur in atrio Dominici sepulchri ad orientalem plagam. In lateribus vero ipsius ecclesiæ duæ capellæ sibi adhærent præclarissimæ hinc inde, Sanctæ Mariæ scilicet Sanctique Johannis in honore, sicut ipsi participes Dominicæ passionis sibi in lateribus constiterunt hinc inde."

These four narratives are here translated for the first time. In translating Bernard, the text of Mabillon has been compared with that of Michel. The narrative of Arculf has been somewhat abridged, and relieved of some miracles and theological observations that are totally without interest. It may be right to observe, also, that in the original manuscript this narrative is accompanied with plans of churches, copies of which are given in the edition of Mabillon, and in the editions of Bede's abridgement.

The translation of the Saga of Sigurd the Crusader, is taken, by the obliging permission of Mr. Laing, from his recently published "Hemskringla," or "Chronicle of the Kings of Norway."

A number of editions, and several translations, of the travels of Benjamin of Tudela, have appeared, but the only strictly correct one is that published by Mr. A. Asher, Berlin, 1840. The translation published in the present volume is a mere revision of the English version by Mr. Asher, altered a little in the language, to make it more suitable for the popular English reader. My notes are chiefly abridged from the valuable volume of notes published by Mr. Asher in 1841.

The only edition of the English text of the book of Sir John Maundeville which correctly represents an original manuscript, is that published from the Cottonian Library in 1725, of which a reprint appeared in 1839, with an introduction, and some additional notes by Mr. Halliwell. The language of this edition has been modernized for the present volume. The travels of Bertrandon de la Brocquière are preserved in a manuscript preserved in the Royal Library in Paris, from which they were published, with some abridgment and in modernized French, in the fifth volume of the Mémoires of the Institute of France, by Legrand d'Aussy. They were thence translated into English by Mr. Johns, and printed at his private press at Hafod, in 1807. This translation, which has become a rare book, has been here slightly revised, and a few illustrative notes have been added. Maundrell's journey is reprinted from the original edition.

Brompton, Aug. 28, 1848.

THE TRAVELS OF BISHOP ARCULF IN THE HOLY LAND.

TOWARDS A.D. 700.

WRITTEN FROM HIS DICTATION, BY ADAMNAN, ABBOT OF IONA.

Arculf, the holy bishop, a native of Gaul, after visiting many remote countries, resided nine months at Jerusalem, and made daily visits to the surrounding districts. He counted in the circuit of the walls of the holy city eighty-four towers and six gates, the latter being distributed in the following order:—the gate of David on the west of Mount Sion, the gate of the valley of the Fuller, St. Stephen's gate, Benjamin's gate, the little gate leading by a flight of steps to the valley of Jehoshaphat, and the gate called Tecuitis; of which, the three most frequented are, one to the west, another to the north, and a third to the east. That part of the wall which, with its towers, extends from the gate of David over the northern brow of Mount Sion, which overlooks the city from the south, to the precipitous brow of the same mountain which looks to the east, has no gates.

The city itself begins from the northern brow of Mount Sion, and declines with a gentle slope towards the walls on the north and east, where it is lower; so that the rain which falls on the city runs in streams through the eastern gates, carrying with it all the filth of the streets into the brook Cedron, in the valley of Jehoshaphat. On the 15th of September, annually, an immense multitude of people of different nations are used to meet in Jerusalem for the purpose of commerce, and the streets are so clogged with the dung of camels, horses, mules, and oxen, that they become almost impassable, and the smell would be a nuisance to the whole town. But, by a miraculous providence, which exhibits God's peculiar attachment to this place, no sooner has the multitude left Jerusalem than a heavy fall of rain begins on the night following, and ceases only when the city has been perfectly cleansed.

On the spot where the Temple once stood, near the eastern wall, the Saracens have now erected a square house of prayer, in a rough manner, by raising beams and planks upon some remains of old ruins; this is their place of worship, and it is said that it will hold about three thousand men[14]. Arculf also observed many large and handsome houses of stone in all parts of the city, but his attention was more especially attracted by the holy places.

The church of the Holy Sepulchre is very large and round, encompassed with three walls, with a broad space between each, and containing three altars of wonderful workmanship, in the middle wall, at three different points; on the south, the north, and the west. It is supported by twelve stone columns of extraordinary magnitude; and it has eight doors or entrances through the three opposite walls, four fronting the north-east, and four to the south-east. In the middle space of the inner circle is a round grotto cut in the solid rock, the interior of which is large enough to allow nine men to pray, standing, and the roof of which is about a foot and a half higher than a man of ordinary stature. The entrance is from the east side, and the whole of the exterior is covered with choice marble to the very top of the roof, which is adorned with gold, and supports a large golden cross. Within, on the north side, is the tomb of our Lord, hewn out of the same rock, seven feet in length, and rising three palms above the floor. These measurements were taken by Arculf with his own hand. This tomb is broad enough to hold one man lying on his back, and has a raised division in the stone to separate his legs. The entrance is on the south side, and there are twelve lamps burning day and night, according to the number of the twelve apostles; four within at the foot, and the other eight above, on the right-hand side. Internally, the stone of the rock remains in its original state, and still exhibits the marks of the workman's tools; its colour is not uniform, but appears to be a mixture of white and red. The stone that was laid at the entrance to the monument is now broken in two; the lesser portion standing as a square altar, before the entrance, while the greater forms another square altar in the east part of the same church, covered with linen cloths.

To the right of this round church (which is called the Anastasis, or Resurrection,) adjoins the square church of the Virgin Mary, and to the east of this another large church is built on the spot called in Hebrew Golgotha, from the ceiling of which hangs a brazen wheel with lamps, beneath which a large silver cross is fixed in the very place where stood the wooden cross on which the Saviour of the human race suffered. Under the place of our Lord's cross, a cave is hewn in the rock, in which sacrifice is offered on an altar for the souls of certain honoured persons deceased, their bodies remaining meanwhile in the way or street between this church and the round church. Adjoining the church of Golgotha, to the east, is the basilica, or church, erected with so much magnificence by the emperor Constantine, and called the Martyrdom, built, it is said, in the place where the cross of our Lord with the other two crosses were found by divine revelation, two hundred and thirty-three years after they had been buried. Between these two last-mentioned churches, is the place where Abraham raised the altar for the sacrifice of his son Isaac, where there is now a small wooden table, on which the alms for the poor are offered. Between the Anastasis, or round church, and the basilica of Constantine, a certain open space extends to the church of Golgotha, in which are lamps burning day and night. In the same space between the Martyrdom and the Golgotha, is a seat, in which is the cup of our Lord, concealed in a little shrine, which Arculf touched and kissed through a hole in the covering. It is made of silver, of the capacity of about a French quart, and has two handles, one on each side. In it also is the sponge which was held up to our Lord's mouth. The soldier's lance, with which he pierced our Lord's side, which has been broken into two pieces, is also kept in the portico of the Martyrdom, inserted in a wooden cross. Arculf saw some other relics, and he observed a lofty column in the holy places to the north, in the middle of the city, which, at mid-day at the summer solstice, casts no shadow, which shows that this is the centre of the earth[15].

Arculf next visited the holy places in the immediate neighbourhood of Jerusalem. In the valley of Jehoshaphat he saw the round church of St. Mary, divided into two stories by slabs of stone; in the upper part are four altars; on the eastern side below there is another, and to the right of it an empty tomb of stone, in which the Virgin Mary is said to have been buried; but who moved her body, or when this took place, no one can say. On entering this chamber, you see on the right-hand side a stone inserted in the wall, on which Christ knelt when he prayed on the night in which he was betrayed; and the marks of his knees are still seen in the stone, as if it had been as soft as wax. In the same valley, not far from the church of St. Mary, is shown the tower of Jehoshaphat, in which his tomb is seen; adjoining to which little tower, on the right, is a separate chamber cut out of the rock of Mount Olivet, containing two hollow sepulchres, one, that of the aged Simeon the Just, who held the child Jesus in the temple, and prophesied of him; the other of Joseph, the husband of Mary. On the side of Mount Olivet there is a cave, not far from the church of St. Mary, on an eminence looking towards the valley of Jehoshaphat, in which are two very deep pits. One of these extends under the mountain to a vast depth; the other is sunk straight down from the pavement of the cavern, and is said to be of great extent. These pits are always closed above. In this cavern are four stone tables; one, near the entrance, is that of our Lord Jesus, whose seat is attached to it, and who, doubtless, rested himself here while his twelve apostles sat at the other tables. There is a wooden door to the cave, which was often visited by Arculf[16].

After passing through the gate of David, which is adjacent to Mount Sion, we come to a stone bridge, raised on arches, and pointing straight across the valley to the south; half-way along which, a little to the west of it, is the spot where Judas Iscariot hanged himself; and there is still shown a large fig-tree, from the top of which he is said to have suspended himself, according to the words of the poet Juvencus,—

"Informem rapuit ficus de vertice mortem."

On Mount Sion, Arculf saw a square church, which included the site of our Lord's Supper, the place where the Holy Ghost descended upon the apostles, the marble column to which our Lord was bound when he was scourged, and the spot where the Virgin Mary died. Here also is shown the site of the martyrdom of St. Stephen. He saw on the south of Mount Sion a small field (Aceldama) covered with a heap of stones, where the bodies of many pilgrims are carefully buried, while others are left to rot on the surface.

The ground to the north of Jerusalem, as far as the city of Samuel, which is called Ramatha, is at intervals rough and stony. There are open valleys, covered with thorns, extending all the way to the region of Tamnitis; but, on the other side, from Ælia (Jerusalem) and Mount Sion to Cæsarea of Palestine, though some narrow and craggy places are found, yet the principal part of the way is a level plain interspersed with olive-yards. Arculf states that few trees are found on Mount Olivet, except vines and olive trees, but wheat and barley flourish exceedingly; the nature of the soil, which is not adapted to trees, is favourable to grass and flowers. The height of this hill appears to be equal to that of Mount Sion, although it is much more extensive in length and breadth: the two mountains are separated by the valley of Jehoshaphat. On the highest point of Mount Olivet, where our Lord ascended into heaven, is a large round church, having around it three vaulted porticoes. The inner apartment is not vaulted and covered, because of the passage of our Lord's body; but it has an altar on the east side, covered with a narrow roof. On the ground, in the midst of it, are to be seen the last prints in the dust of our Lord's feet, and the roof appears open above, where he ascended; and although the earth is daily carried away by believers, yet still it remains as before, and retains the same impression of the feet. Near this is a brazen wheel, as high as a man's neck, having an entrance towards the west, with a great lamp hanging above it on a pulley, and burning night and day. In the western part of the same church are eight windows; and eight lamps, hanging by cords opposite them, cast their light through the glass as far as Jerusalem; which light, Arculf said, strikes the hearts of the beholders with a mixture of joy and divine fear. Every year, on the day of the Ascension, when mass is ended, a strong blast of wind comes down, and casts to the ground all who are in the church. All that night, lanterns are kept burning there, so that the mountain appears not only lighted up, but actually on fire, and all that side of the city is illuminated by it.

Arculf visited at Bethany a field in the middle of a large grove of olives, where there is a great monastery, and a church built over the cave where our Lord raised Lazarus from the dead. There is also a much frequented church to the north of Bethany, on that part of Mount Olivet where our Lord is said to have preached to his disciples.

From Jerusalem Arculf went to Bethlehem, which is situated on a narrow ridge, surrounded on all sides by valleys. The ridge is about a mile long, from west to east; and a low wall, without towers, surrounds the brow of the hill, and overlooks the valley. The houses of the inhabitants are scattered here and there over the space within the wall. At the extreme eastern angle there is a sort of natural half cave, the outer part of which is said to have been the place of our Lord's birth; the inside is called our Lord's Manger. The whole of this cave is covered within with precious marble. Over the place where more especially our Lord is said to have been born, stands the great church of St. Mary. Near the wall is a hollow stone, which received back from the wall the water in which our Lord's body was washed, and has ever since been full of the purest water, without any diminution. If by any accident or service it has been emptied, it quickly becomes as full as before. In the valley to the north of Bethlehem, Arculf saw the tomb of David, in the middle of a church, covered with a low pyramidal stone, unadorned, with a lamp placed above it. In another church, on the slope of the hill to the south, is the tomb of St. Jerome, equally without ornament. About a mile to the east of Bethlehem, by the tower of Ader, that is, of the Flock, is a church containing monuments of the three Shepherds, to whom, on this spot, the angel announced the birth of our Lord.

There is a highway, according to Arculf, leading southward from Jerusalem to Hebron, to the east of which Bethlehem is situated, six miles from Jerusalem. At the extremity of this road, on the west side, is the tomb of Rachel, rudely built of stones, without any ornament, presenting externally the form of a pyramid. Her name, placed there by her husband Jacob, is still shown upon it.

Hebron, which is also called Mamre, has no walls, and exhibits only the ruins of the ancient city; but there are some ill-built villages and hamlets scattered over the plain, and inhabited by a multitude of people. To the east is a double cave, looking towards Mamre, where are the tombs of the four patriarchs, Abram, Isaac, Jacob, and Adam the first man. Contrary to the usual custom, they are placed with the feet to the south, and the heads to the north; and they are inclosed by a square low wall. Each of the tombs is covered with a single stone, worked somewhat in form of a church, and of a light colour for those of the three patriarchs, which are together. The tomb of Adam, which is of meaner workmanship, lies not far from them, at the furthest extremity to the north. Arculf also saw poorer and smaller monuments of the three women, Sarah, Rebecca, and Leah, who were here buried in the earth. The hill of Mamre is a mile to the south-west of these monuments, and is covered with grass and flowers, with a flat plain at the summit; on the north side of which is a church, in which is still seen, rooted in the ground, the stump of the oak of Mamre, called also the oak of Abraham, because under it he received the angels. St. Jerome says that this oak had stood there from the beginning of the world. Passing from Hebron towards the north, a hill of no great size is seen to the left, covered with fir-trees, about three miles from Hebron. Fir-wood, for fuel, is carried hence to Jerusalem on camels, for, as Arculf observed, carriages or waggons are very seldom met with throughout the whole of Judæa.

In another excursion, Arculf proceeded to Jericho, where, although the city had been three times built, and as many times utterly destroyed, yet the walls of the house of Rahab still stand, although without a roof. The whole site of the city is covered with corn-fields and vineyards, without any habitations. Between it and the Jordan are large groves of palm trees, interspersed with open spaces, in which are almost innumerable houses, inhabited by a diminutive sort of men of the race of Canaan. A large church stands on the site of Galgalis, where the children of Israel first encamped after passing the Jordan. It is five miles from Jericho. Within the church are the twelve stones which Joshua ordered to be taken out of the Jordan; six on the south side of the church floor, and six on the north. They are so heavy, that two strong men, at the present day, could hardly lift one of them; one has been accidentally broken in two, but the pieces have been reunited by means of iron.

A wooden cross stands in the Jordan, on the spot where our Lord was baptized, the depth of which, when the water is highest, reaches to the neck of a tall man, and, when lowest, to the breast. The river is here about as broad as a man can throw a stone with a sling. A stone bridge, raised on arches, reaches from the bank of the river to the cross, where people bathe. Arculf swam backwards and forwards in the water. A little church stands at the brink of the water, on the spot where our Lord is said to have laid his clothes when he entered the river. On the higher ground is a large monastery of monks, and a church dedicated to St. John. Arculf found the waters of the Jordan of a yellowish milky colour, and observed that they preserved this colour to a considerable distance, after they flowed into the Dead Sea, where he also witnessed the way in which salt was obtained from the waters of the latter.

In another excursion, Arculf visited the spot at the foot of Mount Libanus where the Jordan has its rise from two fountains, which are named Jor and Dan, the waters of which uniting, take the name of Jordan; and he went round the greater part of the Sea of Galilee, called also the Lake of Gennesareth, and the Sea of Tiberias, which is surrounded by thick woods, and is a hundred and forty stadia in length. The waters are sweet, and fit to drink; for it receives no mud, or other coarse substance, from any marshy pools, but is surrounded on all sides by a sandy shore. Arculf also travelled over the country of Samaria, and visited the town called in Hebrew Sichem, but by the Greeks and Latins Sicima, and now more usually Sichar. Here, without the walls, he saw a cruciform church, in the centre of which is the well of Jacob, where our Saviour met the Samaritan woman. Arculf, who drank of the water, estimated its depth at forty cubits. He also saw in the wilderness a clear fountain, protected with a covering of masonry, at which it is reported John the Baptist used to drink. He likewise saw a very small species of locust, the bodies of which are slender and short, about the size of a finger; and, because they make short leaps like frogs, they are easily caught among the grass. When boiled in oil, they form a poor sort of food. In the same desert he saw trees with broad round leaves of a milky colour, with the savour of honey, which are naturally fragile, and, after being bruised with the hand, are eaten; and this is the wild honey found in the woods. He further saw, on this side of the Sea of Galilee, to the north of the city of Tiberias, the place where our Lord blessed the loaves and fishes, a grassy and level plain, which has never been ploughed since that event, and shows no traces of buildings, except a few columns round the fountain where, as they say, those persons drank after they had eaten their fill.

Those who wish to go from Jerusalem to Capernaum, take the direct way by Tiberias, and from thence, along the Sea of Gennesareth, to the place where the loaves were blessed, from which Capernaum is at no great distance. Arculf saw this place from a neighbouring hill, and observed that it has no walls, but lies on a narrow piece of ground between the mountain and the lake. On the shore, towards the east, it extends a long way, having the mountain on the north and the water on the south. Arculf remained two days and two nights at Nazareth, which is on a hill, and is also without walls, but it has large houses of stone, and two very large churches. One of these is raised upon mounds and arches connecting them, and under it, between the mounds, is a clear fountain, from which all the citizens draw water in vessels, which they raise up into the church by means of pulleys. On this site stood formerly the house in which our Lord was nursed when an infant. The other church was built on the site of the house in which the archangel Gabriel came to the blessed Mary.

Mount Tabor, in Galilee, is three miles from the Lake of Gennesareth, of a remarkably round shape, and covered in an extraordinary manner with grass and flowers. At the top is a pleasant and extensive meadow, surrounded by a thick wood, and in the middle of the meadow a great monastery, with numerous cells of monks. The meadow is about twenty-four stadia in breadth, and the height of the mountain about thirty stadia. There are also three handsome churches on the top, according to the number of tabernacles described by Peter[17]. The monastery and churches are inclosed by a stone wall.

From Mount Tabor, Arculf went to the royal city of Damascus, eight days' journey, and remained there some days. It is situated in a plain, surrounded by a broad and ample circuit of walls, with numerous towers, and is intersected by four great rivers. On all sides beyond the walls are numerous groves of olives. The king of the Saracens has obtained possession of this city, and reigns in it[18]. It contains a large church of St. John the Baptist, frequented by the Christians. The unbelieving Saracens have built themselves a large mosque here. From hence Arculf repaired to Tyre, and thence (as it appears) he returned to Jerusalem. He went subsequently from Jerusalem to Joppa, and thence sailed, in forty days, to Alexandria in Egypt, a city famous throughout the whole world. It extends to a great length from east to west, so that Arculf, who began to enter the city at nine o'clock in the morning (hora tertia), in the month of October, and proceeding through the whole length of the city, hardly reached the other side before dark[19]. On the south it is bounded by the mouths of the Nile, and on the north by the Lake Mareotis. Its port is difficult of access, and bears some resemblance to the human body; for in its head it is sufficiently ample, but at its entrance it is very narrow, where it admits the tide of the sea, together with such ships as run into the port to take shelter and refit. But when you have passed the narrow neck and mouth of the harbour, the sea, like the human body, stretches out far and wide. On the right hand side is a small port, in which is the Pharos, a large tower, which is every night lighted up with torches, lest mariners might mistake their way in the dark, and be dashed against the rocks in their attempt to find the entrance, particularly as this is much impeded and disturbed by the waves dashing to and fro. The port, however, is always calm, and in magnitude about thirty stadia. The precautions alluded to are necessary for a port which is, in a manner, the emporium of the whole world; for innumerable people from all parts go there for commerce, and the surrounding region is extremely fruitful. Although the country is destitute of rain, the Nile serves both as a cultivator of the land, and as the means of transferring its products from one place to another. Here you see people sowing, there navigating, which are their chief occupations. The Nile is navigable to the place they call the town of Elephants[20]; beyond that the cataracts hinder a ship from proceeding, not from want of water, but because all the waters of the river run in a sort of wild ruin down a steep descent. Towards Egypt, as we enter the city, there is a large church on the right, in which St. Mark the Evangelist is interred. The body is buried in the eastern part of the church, before the altar, with a monument of squared marble over it. Along the Nile, the Egyptians are in the habit of constructing numerous embankments, to prevent the irruption of the water, which, if these mounds were broken down by the neglect of their keepers, would rather inundate and destroy than irrigate the lands below. The Egyptians who inhabit the plains, as Arculf, who frequently passed backward and forward along the Nile, observed, make their houses over canals by laying planks across. Arculf relates further, that the river Nile is haunted by crocodiles, aquatic beasts, not so large as they are ravenous, and so strong, that if one of them see by chance a horse or an ass, or even an ox, feeding near the bank of the river, he suddenly rushes out to attack it, and seizing it perhaps by the foot, drags it under the water, and devours the whole.

On his return from Alexandria, Arculf went to Constantinople, which is bounded on all sides, except the north, by the sea. The circuit of the walls, which are angular, according to the line of the sea, is about twelve miles. Constantine was at first disposed to build it in Cilicia, near the sea which separates Europe and Asia; but on a certain night all the iron tools were carried away, and when men were sent to seek them, they were found on the European side; for there it was God's will that the city should be built. In this city is a church of wonderful workmanship, called the Church of St. Sophia, built circular from its foundation, domed in, and surrounded by three walls. It is supported to a great height on columns and arches, and has, in its inmost part, on the north side, a large and beautiful closet, wherein is a wooden chest with a wooden lid, containing three pieces of our Lord's cross[21]; that is to say, the long timber cut in two, and the transverse part of the same holy cross. These pieces are exhibited for the adoration of the people three times only in the year; namely, on the day of our Lord's Supper, the day of the Preparation, and on Holy Saturday. On the first of these, the chest, which is two cubits long and one broad, is set out on a golden altar, with the holy cross exposed to view: the Emperor first approaches, and, after him, all the different ranks of laymen in order kiss and worship it; on the following day, the Empress and all the married women and virgins do the same; on the third day, the bishops and different orders of the clergy observe the same ceremonies; and then the chest is shut, and carried back to the closet before mentioned.

Arculf saw other sacred relics in Constantinople, and then sailed for his own country. About twelve miles from Sicily he saw the isle of Vulcano, whence constantly issued smoke by day and fire by night, with a noise like thunder, but with more intensity on Fridays and Saturdays. The noise is heard in Sicily, where Arculf made a short stay; and afterwards, on his way home, he was carried by contrary winds to the shores of Britain, and at length came to me, Adamnan, who by diligent inquiry obtained from him the above particulars, which I have carefully committed to writing.

THE TRAVELS OF WILLIBALD.

A.D. 721-727.

WRITTEN FROM HIS OWN RECITAL BY A NUN OF HEIDENHEIM.

After the ceremonies of Easter were ended, the active champion (of Christ) prepared for his voyage with his two companions, and left Rome. They first went eastward to the town of Daterina[22], where they remained two days; and thence to Cajeta, on the coast, where they went on board a ship and sailed over to Nebule[23]. They here left the ship, and remained a fortnight. These are cities belonging to the Romans; they are in the territory of Beneventum, but subject to Rome. There, after waiting anxiously, in constant prayer that their desires might be agreeable to heaven, they found a ship bound for Egypt, in which they took their passage, and sailed to the land of Calabria, to the town which is called Rhegia[24], and there remained two days; and then proceeded to the island of Sicily, in which is the town of Catania, where the body of St. Agatha, the virgin, reposes. And there is Mount Etna; in case of an eruption of which, the inhabitants of Catania take the veil of St. Agatha, and hold it up towards the fire, which immediately ceases. They made a stay of three weeks at this place, and then sailed to the isle of Samos, and thence to the town of Ephesus, in Asia, which is one mile from the sea. They walked thence to the place where the seven sleepers repose; and onward thence to John the Evangelist, in a beautiful locality by Ephesus. They next walked two miles along the sea-side to a large village which is called Figila[25], where they remained one day, and, having begged bread, they went to a fountain in the middle of the town, and, sitting on the edge, they dipped their bread in the water, and so made their meal. They next walked along the sea-shore to the town of Strobole[26], seated on a lofty hill, and thence to the place called Patera, where they remained till the rigour of winter was past.

After this, going on ship-board, they came to the town which is called Melitena[27], which had been nearly destroyed by an inundation; and two hermits lived there on a rock, secured by walls, so that the water could not reach them. And there they suffered much from hunger, from which they were only relieved by God's providential mercy[28]. They sailed thence to the isle of Cyprus, which is between the Greeks and the Saracens, to the town of Papho, where they passed the first week in the year. And thence they went to the town of Constantia, where St. Epiphanius reposes, and there they remained till after the Nativity of St. John the Baptist[29]. They then put to sea again and came into the region of the Saracens to the town of Tharratas[30], by the sea; and thence they walked a distance of nine to twelve miles to a castle called Archæ[31], where there was a Greek bishop; and there they had divine service according to the Greek custom. Thence they walked twelve miles to the town which is called Emessa, where there is a large church built by St. Helena, in honour of John the Baptist, whose head was long preserved there. This is in Syria.

Willibald's party had now increased to eight in number, and they became an object of suspicion to the Saracens, who, seeing that they were strangers, seized them and threw them into prison, because they knew not of what country they were, and supposed them to be spies. They carried them as prisoners before a certain rich old man, that he might examine them; and he inquired whence they came and the object of their mission; whereupon they related to him the true cause of their journey. The old man replied, "I have often seen men of the parts of the earth whence these come, travelling hither; they seek no harm, but desire to fulfil their law." And upon that they went to the palace, to obtain leave to proceed to Jerusalem.

While they were in prison it happened, by a manifest intervention of Divine Providence, that a merchant residing there was desirous, as an act of charity, and for the salvation of his soul, to purchase their deliverance, that they might pursue their way, but he was not allowed to carry his generous design into effect; nevertheless he sent them daily their meals, and on Wednesdays and Saturdays sent his son to them in prison, who took them out to the bath, and brought them back again. And on Sunday he took them to church through the market, that they might see the shops, and whatever they seemed to take a liking to he afterwards bought for them at his own expense. The townsmen used then to come there to look at them, because they were young and handsome, and clad in good garments.

Then, while they were still remaining in prison, a man, who was a native of Spain, came and spoke with them, and inquired earnestly who they were and from whence they came, and they told him the object of their pilgrimage. This Spaniard had a brother in the king's palace, who was chamberlain to the king of the Saracens; and when the governor who had thrown them into prison came to the palace, the captain in whose ship they had sailed from Cyprus, and the Spaniard who had spoken to them in prison, went together before the king of the Saracens, whose title is Emir-al-Mumenin[32], and, when their cause came on, the Spaniard spoke to his brother, and begged him to intercede with the king for them. After this, when all three came before the king, and told him the case, he asked whence the prisoners came. And they said, "These men come from the west country, where the sun sets; and we know of no land beyond them, but water only." And the king replied, "Why ought we to punish them? they have not sinned against us:—give them leave, and let them go." And even the fine of four deniers, which the other prisoners had to pay, was remitted to them. The Cyprians were then situated between the Greeks and the Saracens, and were not in arms: for there was great peace and friendship between the Greeks and Saracens. It was a great and extensive region, and had twelve bishops.

As soon as they had obtained leave, the travellers went direct to Damascus, a distance of a hundred miles. St. Ananias reposes there, and it is in the land of Syria. They remained there one week. And at two miles from the city was a church, on the spot where St. Paul was first converted, and the Lord said to him, "Saul, Saul, why persecutest thou me?" &c. And after praying there, they went into Galilee, to the place where Gabriel first came to St. Mary, and said, "Hail, full of grace," &c. A church now stands there, and the village which contains the church is Nazareth. The Christians repeatedly bought that church of the pagans, when the latter were about to destroy it. And having there recommended themselves to the Lord, they proceeded to the town of Cana, where our Lord turned water into wine. A large church stands there, and near the altar is still preserved one of the six vessels which our Lord commanded to fill with water to be turned into wine; and the travellers drunk wine out of it. They remained there one day, and then continued their journey to Mount Tabor, the scene of our Lord's transfiguration, where there is now a monastery and a church consecrated to our Lord, and Moses, and Elijah. And those who dwell there call it Hagemon (the Holy Mount). After praying there, they proceeded to the town of Tiberias, which stands on the shore of the sea on which our Lord walked with dry feet, and on which Peter tried to walk but sank. Here are many churches, and a synagogue of the Jews. They remained there some days, and observed where the Jordan passes through the midst of the sea. And thence they went round the sea, and by the village of Magdalum to the village of Capernaum, where our Lord raised the prince's daughter. Here was a house and a great wall, which the people of the place told them was the residence of Zebedæus with his sons John and James. And thence they went to Bethsaida, the residence of Peter and Andrew, where there is now a church on the site of their house. They remained there that night, and next morning went to Chorazin, where our Lord healed the demoniacs, and sent the devil into a herd of swine. Here was a church of the Christians.

Having performed their devotions there, they went to the place where the two fountains, Jor and Dan, issue from the earth, and flowing down from the mountain are collected into one, and form the Jordan. And there they passed the night between the two fountains, and the shepherds gave them sour ewes' milk to drink. The sheep are of an extraordinary kind, with a long back, short legs, large upright horns, and all of one colour. There are deep marshes in the neighbourhood, and when the heat of the sun, in summer, is oppressive, the sheep go to the marsh, and immerse themselves in the water all but the head. Thence they proceeded to Cæsarea, where there was a church and a multitude of Christians. They next went to the monastery of St. John the Baptist[33], where there were about twenty monks, and remained one night there, and next day went the distance of a mile to the spot in the river Jordan where our Lord was baptized. Here is now a church raised upon stone columns, and under the church it is now dry land where our Lord was baptized. They still continue to baptize in this place; and a wooden cross stands in the middle of the river, where there is small depth of water, and a rope is extended to it over the Jordan. At the feast of the Epiphany, the infirm and sick come thither, and, holding by the rope, dip in the water. And women who are barren come thither also, and thus obtain God's grace. Willibald here bathed in the Jordan, and they remained at this place one day.

Thence they went to Galgala, a journey of five miles, where is a moderate-sized wooden church, in which are the twelve stones which the children of Israel carried out of the Jordan to Galgala, and placed there as a memorial of their passage. Here also they performed their devotions, and then proceeded to Jericho, above seven miles from the Jordan, and saw there the fountain which was blessed by the prophet Elisha, and hence to the monastery of St. Eustochium, which stands in the middle of the plain between Jericho and Jerusalem.

On their arrival at Jerusalem, they first visited the spot where the holy cross was found, where there is now a church which is called the Place of Calvary, and which was formerly outside of Jerusalem; but when St. Helena found the cross, the place was taken into the circuit of the city. Three wooden crosses stand in this place, on the outside of the wall of the church, in memory of our Lord's cross and of those of the other persons crucified at the same time. They are without the church, but under a roof. And near at hand is the garden in which was the sepulchre of our Saviour, which was cut in the rock. That rock is now above ground, square at the bottom, but tapering above, with a cross on the summit. And over it there is now built a wonderful edifice. And on the east side of the rock of the sepulchre there is a door, by which men enter the sepulchre to pray. And there is a bed within, on which our Lord's body lay; and on the bed stand fifteen golden cups with oil burning day and night. The bed on which our Lord's body rested stands within the rock of the sepulchre on the north side, to the right of a man entering the sepulchre to pray. And before the door of the sepulchre lies a great square stone, in the likeness of the former stone which the angel rolled from the mouth of the monument. Our bishop arrived here on the feast of St. Martin[34], and was suddenly seized with sickness, and lay sick until the week before the Nativity of our Lord. And then, being a little recovered, he rose and went to the church called St. Sion, which is in the middle of Jerusalem, and, after performing his devotions, he went to the porch of Solomon, where is the pool where the infirm wait for the motion of the water, when the angel comes to move it; and then he who first enters it is healed. Here our Lord said to the paralytic, "Rise, take up thy bed, and walk!"[35] St. Mary expired in the middle of Jerusalem, in the place called St. Sion; and as the twelve apostles were carrying her body, the angels came and took her from their hands and carried her to paradise.

Bishop Willibald next descended to the valley of Jehoshaphat, which is close to the city of Jerusalem, on the east side. And in that valley is the church of St. Mary, which contains her sepulchre, not because her body rests there, but in memory of it. And having prayed there, he ascended Mount Olivet, which is on the east side of the valley, and where there is now a church, where our Lord prayed before his passion, and said to his disciples, "Watch and pray, that ye enter not into temptation."[36] And thence he came to the church on the mountain itself, where our Lord ascended to heaven. In the middle of the church is a square receptacle, beautifully sculptured in brass, on the spot of the Ascension, and there is on it a small lamp in a glass case, closed on every side, that the lamp may burn always, in rain or in fair weather, for the church is open above, without a roof; and two columns stand within the church, against the north wall and the south wall, in memory of the two men who said, "Men of Galilee, why stand ye gazing up into heaven?"[37] And the man who can creep between the wall and the columns will have remission of his sins.

He next came to the place where the angel appeared to the shepherds, and thence to Bethlehem, where our Lord was born, distant seven miles from Jerusalem. The place where Christ was born was once a cave under the earth, but it is now a square house cut in the rock, and the earth is dug up and thrown from it all round, and a church is now built above it, and an altar is placed over the site of the birth. There is another smaller altar, in order that when they desire to celebrate mass in the cave, they may carry in the smaller altar for the occasion. This church is a glorious building, in the form of a cross. After prayers here, Willibald came to a large town called Thecua, where the children were slain by Herod, and where there is now a church; here rests one of the prophets. And then he came to the valley of Laura, where there is a large monastery; here the abbot resides in the monastery, and he is porter of the church, with many other monks who belong to the monastery, and have their cells round the valley on the slope of the mountain. The mountain is in a circle round the valley, in which the monastery is built. Here rests St. Saba. He next arrived at the place where Philip baptized the eunuch, where there is a small church, in an extensive valley between Bethlehem and Gaza, where the travellers prayed. Thence they went to St. Matthew, where there is great glory on the Sunday. And while our bishop Willibald was standing at mass in this church, he suddenly lost his sight, and was blind for two months. And thence they went to St. Zacharias, the prophet, not the father of John, but another prophet. They next went to the castle of Aframia, where the three patriarchs, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, repose, with their wives, and thence he returned to Jerusalem, and there, entering the church where the holy cross of our Lord was found, he recovered his sight.

After remaining some time at Jerusalem, Willibald set out on another journey, and came first to St. George, at Diospolis, which is ten miles from Jerusalem, and then to a town where there is a church of St. Peter the apostle, who here restored to life the widow named Dorcas. He went thence to the coast, far away from Jerusalem, to Tyre and Sidon, which stand on the sea-shore six miles from each other; after which he passed over Mount Libanus, to Damascus, and so again to Cæsarea, and a third time to Jerusalem, where he passed the following winter. And then he went to the town of Ptolemais, on the extreme bounds of Syria, and was obliged by sickness to remain there all Lent. His companions went forward to the king of the Saracens, named Emir-al-Mumenin, with the hope of obtaining letters of safe conduct; but they could not find the king, because he had fled out of his kingdom. Upon this, they came back, and remained together at Ptolemais until the week before Easter.

Then they went again to Emessa, and asked the governor there to give them letters, and he gave them a letter for each two, because they could not travel in a company, but only two and two, on account of the difficulty of obtaining food. And then they went to Damascus, and returned a fourth time to Jerusalem, where they remained a short period.

They now left Jerusalem by another route, and came to the town of Sebaste, which was formerly called Samaria, and they call the castle Sebastia. Here repose St. John the Baptist, and the prophets Abdiah and Elisha; and near the castle is the well at which our Lord asked for water of the Samaritan woman, and over which well there is now a church. And near is the mountain on which the Samaritans worshipped; for the woman said to our Lord, "Our fathers worshipped in this mountain, and ye say that in Jerusalem is the place where men ought to worship."[38] Here the travellers performed their devotions, and then they proceeded to a large town on the farthest borders of Samaria, where they reposed that night. And thence they continued their journey over an extensive plain covered with olive trees, and they were accompanied by a black with two camels and a mule, who was conducting a woman through the wood. And on their way they were met by a lion[39], which threatened them much with fearful roaring; but the black encouraged them, and told them to go forwards; and when they approached it, the lion, as God willed, hurried off in another direction, and they soon heard his roaring in the distance. They supposed he came there to devour people who went into the wood to gather olives. At length they arrived at a town called Thalamartha, on the sea-coast; and they proceeded onwards to the head of Mount Libanus, where it forms a promontory in the sea, and where stands the tower of Libanus. Nobody is allowed to pass this place without letters of safe conduct, for there is a guard in it; those who are without such letters, are seized and sent to Tyre. That mountain is between Tyre and Thalamartha. And so the bishop arrived again at Tyre.

Willibald had formerly, when at Jerusalem, bought balsam, and filled a gourd with it; and he took a gourd that was hollow, and had flax, and filled it with rock oil[40]; and poured some in the other gourd, and cut the small stalk, so that it fitted exactly and closed up the mouth of the gourd. So, when they came to Tyre, the citizens stopped them, and examined their burthens to see if they had any thing concealed; for if they had found any thing, they would immediately have put them to death. But they found nothing but Willibald's gourd, which they opened, and, smelling the rock oil in the stalk, they did not discover the balsam that was within. So they let them go. They remained here many days waiting for a ship, and when they had obtained one they were at sea all the winter, from the day of St. Andrew the apostle[41] till a week before Easter, when they reached Constantinople. Here repose in one altar the three saints, Andrew, Timothy, and Luke the evangelist; and the sepulchre of John Chrysostom is before the altar where the priest stands when he performs mass. Willibald remained there two years, and was lodged in the church, so that he might behold daily where the saints reposed. And then he came to the town of Nice, where the emperor Constantine held a synod, at which three hundred and eighteen bishops were present. The church here resembles the church on Mount Olivet, where our Lord ascended to heaven, and in it are the pictures of the bishops who were at the synod. Willibald went thither from Constantinople, that he might see how that church was built, and then returned to Constantinople.

At the end of the two years they sailed, in company with the envoys of the pope and the emperor, to the isle of Sicily, to the town of Syracuse, and thence to Catania, and so to the city of Regia, in Calabria; and thence to the isle of Vulcano, where is Theodoric's Hell[42]. And when they arrived there, they went on shore to see what sort of a hell it was; and Willibald especially, who was curious to see the interior, was wishful to ascend to the summit of the mountain where the opening was; but he was unable to accomplish his wish, on account of the cinders which were thrown up from the gulf, and settled in heaps round the brim, as snow settles on the ground when it falls from heaven. But though Willibald was defeated in his attempt to reach the summit, he had a near view of the column of flame and smoke which was projected upwards from the pit with a noise like thunder. And he saw how the pumice-stone, which writers use[43], was thrown with the flame from the hell, and fell into the sea, and was thence cast on the shore, where men gathered it and carried it away. After having witnessed this spectacle, they sailed to the church of St. Bartholomew the apostle, which stands on the sea-shore, and came to the mountains which are called Didymi. Thence they went by sea to Naples.

THE VOYAGE OF BERNARD THE WISE.

A.D. 867.

In the year from the incarnation of our Lord Jesus Christ 867, in the name of the Lord wishing to visit the holy places at Jerusalem, I, Bernard, having taken for my companions two brother monks, one of whom was of the monastery of St. Vincent at Beneventum, and named Theudemund, and the other a Spaniard, named Stephen, we went to Rome, to Pope Nicholas, and obtained the desired licence to go, along with his benediction and assistance.

Thence we went to Mount Gargano, in which is the Church of St. Michael, under one stone, covered above with oak trees; which church is said to have been dedicated by the archangel himself. Its entrance is from the north, and it is capable of containing sixty men. In the interior, on the east side, is the image of the angel; to the south is an altar on which sacrifice is offered, and no other gift is placed there. But there is suspended before the altar a vessel in which gifts are deposited, which also has near it other altars. Benignatus is abbot of this place, and presides over a numerous brotherhood.

Leaving Mount Gargano, we travelled a hundred and fifty miles, to a city in the power of the Saracens, named Bari[44], which was formerly subject to Beneventum. It is seated on the sea, and is fortified to the south by two very wide walls; but to the north it stands exposed to the sea. Here we obtained from the prince of the city, called the sultan, the necessary arrangements for our voyage, with two letters of safe conduct, describing our persons and the object of our journey, to the prince of Alexandria, and to the prince of Babylonia[45]. These princes are under the jurisdiction of the Emir-al-Mumenin, who rules over all the Saracens, and resides in Bagada and Axinarri, which are beyond Jerusalem.

From Bari we proceeded to the port of the city of Tarentum, a distance of ninety miles, where we found six ships, having on board nine thousand captives of the Christians of Beneventum. In the two ships which sailed first, and which were bound for Africa, were three thousand captives; and in the two which followed them, and which went to Tunis, there were also three thousand. The two others, which likewise contained the same number of Christian captives, carried us to the port of Alexandria, after a voyage of thirty days. Here we were prohibited from landing by the captain of the sailors, who had sixty under his command, until we had given six aurei for our leave. Thence we went to the prince of Alexandria, and showed him the letter which the sultan had given us, to which, however, he paid no attention, but obliged each of us to pay thirteen deniers, and then gave us letters to the prince of Babylonia. It is the custom of these people to take in weight only what can be weighed; and six of our sols and six deniers make three sols and three deniers of their money.

The city of Alexandria is adjacent to the sea. It was here that St. Mark, preaching the gospel, bore the episcopal dignity; and outside the eastern gate of the city is the monastery of the saint, with the church in which he formerly reposed. But the Venetians coming there obtained his body by stealth, and carrying it on shipboard, sailed home with it. Without the western gate is a monastery called The Forty Saints, in which, as well as in the former, there are a number of monks. The port is to the north of the city; on the south is the entrance to the Gyon, or Nile, which waters Egypt, and, running through the middle of the city, empties itself into the sea in the aforesaid port. We entered the river, and sailed to the south six days, and came to the city of Babylon of Egypt, where once reigned king Pharaoh, under whom Joseph built the seven granaries still remaining. When we went on shore at Babylon, the guards of the city carried us before the prince, a Saracen named Adalhacham, who inquired of us the object of our journey, and asked us from what princes we had letters. Whereupon we showed him the letters of the aforesaid sultan, and those of the prince of Alexandria; but they were of no service to us, for he sent us to prison, where we remained six days, and then, having consulted together, we obtained our liberty by giving more money. He then gave us letters, which effectually protected us from any further exactions, for he was second in command to the Emir-al-Mumenin aforesaid. Nevertheless, when we entered the cities mentioned in the following narrative, we were never allowed to leave them until we had received a paper or impression of a seal, for which we had to pay one or two deniers.

There is in this city a patriarch, by name Michael[46], who by the grace of God rules over the bishops, monks, and other Christians throughout Egypt. These Christians are tolerated by the pagans, on condition of paying for each person an annual tribute to the aforesaid prince, and they live in security and freedom. This tribute is three, or two, or one aureus, or for a meaner person thirteen deniers. But he who cannot pay thirteen deniers, whether he be a native or a stranger, is thrown into prison, until God or some good Christian redeem him.

We now returned by the river Gyon, and came to the city of Sitinulh, and thence proceeded to Malla; and from Malla we sailed across to Damietta, which has the sea to the north, and on all other sides the river Nile, with the exception of a small strip of land. We sailed thence to the city of Tamnis, in which the Christians are very pious, and exceedingly hospitable. This city possesses no land, except where the churches stand; and there is shown the field of Thanis, where lie, in the manner of three walls, the bodies of those who died in the time of Moses[47]. From Tamnis we came to the city of Faramea, where is a church of St. Mary, on the spot to which, by the admonition of the angel, Joseph fled with the child and its mother. In this city there is a multitude of camels, which are hired from the natives by travellers to carry their baggage across the desert, which is a journey of six days. At this city the desert begins; and it may well be called a desert, for it bears neither grass nor fruit of any kind, with the exception of palm-trees, and it is white, like a plain covered with snow. In the middle of the route there are two caravanserais, one called Albara, the other Albacara, in which the Christians and pagans traffic for the things necessary on the journey. But around them the earth is as barren as in the rest of the desert. After Albacara the earth becomes fruitful, and continues so to the city of Gaza, which was the city of Samson, and is very rich in all things. Then we came to Alariza, and thence we went to Ramula, near which is the monastery of St. George the Martyr, in which he rests. From Ramula we hastened to the castle of Emaus; and thence we went to the holy city of Jerusalem, where we were received in the hostel founded there by the glorious emperor Charles[48], in which are received all the pilgrims who speak the Roman tongue; to which adjoins a church in honour of St. Mary, with a most noble library, founded by the same emperor, with twelve mansions, fields, vineyards, and a garden in the Valley of Jehoshaphat. In front of the hospital is a market, for which every one trading there pays yearly to him who provides it two aurei.

Within this city, besides others, there are four principal churches, connected with each other by walls; one to the east, which contains the Mount of Calvary, and the place in which the cross of our Lord was found, and is called the Basilica of Constantine; another to the south; a third to the west, in the middle of which is the sepulchre of our Lord, having nine columns in its circuit, between which are walls made of the most excellent stones; of which nine columns, four are in front of the monument itself; which, with their walls, include the stone placed before the sepulchre, which the angel rolled away, and on which he sat after our Lord's resurrection. It is not necessary to say more of this sepulchre, since Bede has given a full description of it in his history[49]. I must not, however, omit to state, that on Holy Saturday, which is the eve of Easter, the office is begun in the morning in this church, and after it is ended the Kyrie Eleison is chanted, until an angel comes and lights the lamps which hang over the aforesaid sepulchre[50]; of which light the patriarch gives their shares to the bishops and to the rest of the people, that each may illuminate his own house. The present patriarch is called Theodosius[51], and was brought to this place on account of his piety from his monastery, which is fifteen miles from Jerusalem, and was made patriarch over all the Christians in the Land of Promise. Between the aforesaid four churches is a parvis without roof, the walls of which shine with gold, and the pavement is laid with very precious stone; and in the middle four chains, coming from each of the four churches, join in a point which is said to be the middle of the world.

There is, moreover, in the city, another church on Mount Sion, which is called the Church of St. Simeon, where our Lord washed the feet of his disciples, and in which is suspended our Lord's crown of thorns. St. Mary is said to have died in this church. Near it, towards the east, is a church in honour of St. Stephen, on the spot where he is believed to have been stoned. And, indirectly to the east, is a church in honour of St. Peter, in the place where he denied our Lord. To the north is the Temple of Solomon, having a synagogue of the Saracens[52]. To the south of it are the iron gates through which the angel of the Lord led Peter out of prison, and which were never opened afterwards.

Leaving Jerusalem, we descended into the Valley of Jehoshaphat, which is a mile from the city, containing the village of Gethsemane, with the place of the nativity of St. Mary. In it is a round church of St. Mary, containing her sepulchre, on which the rain never falls, although there is no roof above it. There is also a church on the spot where our Lord was betrayed, containing the four round tables of his Supper. In the Valley of Jehoshaphat there is also a church of St. Leon, in which it is said that our Lord will come at the Last Judgment. Thence we went to Mount Olivet, on the declivity of which is shown the place of our Lord's prayer to the Father. On the side of the same mountain is shown the place where the Pharisees brought to our Lord the woman taken in adultery, where there is a church in honour of St. John, in which is preserved the writing in marble which our Lord wrote on the ground[53]. At the summit of the mountain, a mile from the Valley of Jehoshaphat, is the place of our Lord's ascension, in the middle of which, on the spot from which he ascended, is an altar open to the sky, on which mass is celebrated. Thence we proceeded to Bethany, which is to the south, on the ascent of the mountain, one mile from the top; there is here a monastery, with a church containing the sepulchre of Lazarus; near which, to the north, is a pool in which, by our Lord's command, Lazarus washed himself after he had been raised from the dead; and he is said to have been subsequently bishop in Ephesus forty years. On the western declivity of Mount Olivet is shown the marble from which the Lord descended on the foal of an ass. Between these, to the south, in the Valley of Jehoshaphat, is the pool of Siloah.

When we left Jerusalem on the way to Bethlehem, the place of our Lord's nativity, distant six miles, we were shown the field in which Habakkuk was at work when the angel of the Lord ordered him to carry his meal to Daniel in Babylon, which is to the south, where Nebuchadnezzar reigned, but which is now the haunt of serpents and wild beasts. At Bethlehem there is a very large church in honour of St. Mary, in the middle of which is a crypt under a stone, the entrance of which is from the south, and the egress from the east, in which is shown the manger of our Lord, on the west side of the crypt. But the place in which our Lord cried, is to the east, having an altar where masses are celebrated. Near this church, to the south, is a church of the Blessed Innocents, the martyrs. One mile from Bethlehem, is the monastery of the Holy Shepherds, to whom the angel appeared at our Lord's nativity. Lastly, thirty miles to the east of Jerusalem is the river Jordan, on which is the monastery of St. John; in which space there are also many other monasteries. Among them, one mile to the south of the city of Jerusalem, is the church of St. Mamilla, in which are many bodies of martyrs slain by the Saracens, and diligently buried there by her.

We returned from the holy city of Jerusalem direct to the sea, where we took ship, and sailed sixty days in very great peril, from the violence of the wind. At length we landed at Mons Aureus, where is a crypt containing seven altars, and having above it a great forest; which crypt is so dark, that none can enter it without lamps. The abbot there is Dom Valentine. Thence we went to Rome, within which city, to the east, in a place called Lateran, is a well-built church in honour of St. John the Baptist, where is the special see of the popes; and there, every year, the keys are carried to the pope from every part of the city. On the west side of Rome is the church of St. Peter, the chief of the Apostles, where he rests; the magnitude of which is unequalled by any church in the whole world, and it contains a variety of ornaments. In which city repose innumerable bodies of saints.

Here I separated from my companions; I myself proceeded thence to St. Michael ad Duas Tumbas[54], which is a place situated on a mountain that runs out two leagues into the sea. At the summit of this mountain is a church in honour of St. Michael; the mountain is surrounded by the tide twice every day, at morning and evening, and men cannot go to the mountain until the sea retires. But on the Feast of St. Michael the sea does not join round the mountain when the tide comes in, but stands like walls to the right and left, so that on that day all who wish to perform their devotions there can pass to the mountain any hour of the day, which they cannot do on other days. There Phinimontius, a Breton, is abbot.

Now I will tell you how the Christians keep God's law both at Jerusalem and in Egypt. The Christians and Pagans have there such a peace between them, that if I should go a journey, and in the journey my camel or ass which carries my baggage should die, and I should leave everything there without a guard, and go to the next town to get another, on my return I should find all my property untouched. The law of public safety is there such, that if they find in a city, or on the sea, or on the road, any man journeying by night or by day, without a letter, or some mark of a king or prince of that land, he is immediately thrown into prison, till the time he can give a good account whether he be a spy or not.

The people of Beneventum, in their pride, slew their prince, Sichard, and did great injury to the Christian faith; then they had quarrels and contentions among themselves, until Louis, the brother of Lothaire and Charles[55], obtained the empire over them. And in Romania many crimes are committed, and there are bad people there, banditti and thieves, and so men cannot go to Rome to visit St. Peter, unless they join together in troops, and go armed. In Lombardy, under the reign of the aforesaid Louis, there is tolerably good peace. The Bretons also have peace among themselves; and it is there the custom that if any one injure another, a third immediately comes, whoever he may be who witnesses it, and takes up the cause of the injured man as though he were his neighbour. And if any one is proved to have stolen more than four deniers, they slay him, or hang him on a gallows[56].

I will add, in conclusion, that we saw in the village of Gethsemane squared marble stones of that fineness that a man might see any thing he liked in them, as in a looking-glass.

THE TRAVELS OF SÆWULF.

A.D. 1102 AND 1103.

I, Sæwulf, though conscious of my own unworthiness, went to offer up my prayers at the Holy Sepulchre; but, owing to my sins, or to the badness of the ship, being unable to proceed thither by the direct course on the open sea, I will commence with an enumeration of the different islands at which we touched.

Some pilgrims embark at Bari, others at Barlo (Barletta?), some at Siponte, or at Trani; while others take ship at Otranto, the entrance port of Apulia. We set sail from Monopoli, one day's journey from Bari, on Sunday, being the feast of St. Mildred[57]. But starting at an unlucky hour, as happened to us again on a subsequent occasion, we had not proceeded more than three miles, when the mercy of God alone saved us from perishing; for the same day the violence of the waves wrecked our vessel, but with God's help we all reached the shore in safety. We then went to Brandia[58], and again our ship, being refitted, set sail on an unlucky day[59], and reached the town of Corfu, on the eve of St. James the Apostle[60]. From thence we were driven by a tempest to the island of Cephalonia, which we reached on the 1st of August. Here Robert Guiscard died[61]; we also lost some of our party, which was the cause of sadness to us. We next touched at Polipolis[62]; after which we came to the celebrated island of Patras, the city of which we entered for the sake of praying to St. Andrew the Apostle, who suffered martyrdom and was buried here, but was afterwards translated to Constantinople. From Patras we went to Corinth, which we reached on the eve of St. Lawrence[63]. St. Paul preached the word of God here, and wrote an epistle to the citizens. In this place we suffered many contrarieties. Thence we sailed to the port of Hosta[64]; from which place we proceeded, some on foot, others on asses, to the city of Thebes, vulgarly called Stivas. On the eve of St. Bartholomew the Apostle[65], we came to Nigropont, where we hired another ship. Athens, where the Apostle Paul preached, is two days' journey from Corinth; St. Dionysius was born and taught there, and was afterwards converted by St. Paul. Here is a church of the blessed Virgin Mary, which has a lamp that burns always and never wants oil.

We went afterwards to the island of Petalion[66]; thence to Andros, where are made rich sindals and samits and other stuffs of silk. We then touched successively at Tinos, Syra, Miconi, and Naxia, near which is the famous island of Crete. Next we came to Carea (Khero), Amorgo, Samos, Scio, and Meteline. We then proceeded to Pathmos, where St. John the Apostle and Evangelist, banished by Domitian Cæsar, wrote the Revelations. On the side towards Smyrna, a day's journey distant, is Ephesus, where he afterwards entered the sepulchre living; the apostle Paul, moreover, wrote an Epistle to the Ephesians. Then we came to the isles of Lero and Calimno, and afterwards to Ancho[67], where Galen, the physician most celebrated among the Greeks, was born. Thence we passed over to the port of Lido[68], a city destroyed, where Titus, the disciple of St. Paul, preached. Next, to Asus, which is interpreted silvery.

Our next station was the famous island of Rhodes, which is said to have possessed one of the seven wonders of the world, the idol called Colossus, which was a hundred and twenty feet high, and was destroyed by the Persians, with nearly all the province of Romania, when they were on their way to Spain. These are the Colossians, to whom St. Paul the Apostle wrote his epistle[69]. Hence, it is a distance of one day to the city of Patera, where St. Nicholas the archbishop was born, and where we arrived in the evening, after escaping a violent storm. Next morning we sailed to an entirely desolate town called Mogronissi of St. Mary, which means Long Island, which it would appear by the churches and other buildings had been inhabited by the Christians, after they had been driven by the Turks from Alexandria[70]. Then we came to the city of Myra, where St. Nicholas was archbishop, and which is the port of the Adriatic Sea, as Constantinople is the port of the Ægean Sea. After having worshipped at the sepulchre of the saint, we sailed to the island which is called Xindacopo[71], which means sixty oars, on account of the force of the sea; near it is the port and district of Finica. Thence we sailed over the broad part of the Adriatic Sea[72], to the city of Paffus (Baffo), which is in the isle of Cyprus, where all the Apostles met after the ascension of our Lord, and held a council for the arrangement of the affairs of the gospel, on which occasion they sent forth St. Barnabas to preach; after whose death St. Peter went thence to Joppa, and sowed the seed of God's word there, before he ascended the episcopal see of Antioch.

After leaving the isle of Cyprus, we were tossed about by tempestuous weather for seven days and seven nights, being forced back one night almost to the spot from which we sailed; but after much suffering, by divine mercy, at sun-rise on the eighth day, we saw before us the coast of the port of Joppa, which filled us with an unexpected and extraordinary joy. Thus, after a course of thirteen weeks, as we took ship at Monopoli, on a Sunday, having dwelt constantly on the waves of the sea, or in islands, or in deserted cots and sheds (for the Greeks are not hospitable), we put into the port of Joppa, with great rejoicings and thanksgivings, on a Sunday[73].

And now, my dear friends, all join with me in thanking God for his mercy shown to me through this long voyage; blessed be his name now and evermore! Listen now to a new instance of his mercy shown to me, although the lowest of his servants, and to my companions. The very day we came in sight of the port, one said to me (I believe by divine inspiration), "Sir, go on shore to-day, lest a storm come on in the night, which will render it impossible to land to-morrow." When I heard this, I was suddenly seized with a great desire of landing, and, having hired a boat, went into it, with all my companions; but, before I had reached the shore, the sea was troubled, and became continually more tempestuous. We landed, however, with God's grace, without hurt, and entering the city weary and hungry, we secured a lodging, and reposed ourselves that night. But next morning, as we were returning from church, we heard the roaring of the sea, and the shouts of the people, and saw that every body was in confusion and astonishment. We were also dragged along with the crowd to the shore, where we saw the waves swelling higher than mountains, and innumerable bodies of drowned persons of both sexes scattered over the beach, while the fragments of ships were floating on every side. Nothing was to be heard but the roaring of the sea and the dashing together of the ships, which drowned entirely the shouts and clamour of the people. Our own ship, which was a very large and strong one, and many others laden with corn and merchandise, as well as with pilgrims coming and returning, still held by their anchors, but how they were tossed by the waves! how their crews were filled with terror! how they cast overboard their merchandise! what eye of those who were looking on could be so hard and stony as to refrain from tears? We had not looked at them long before the ships were driven from their anchors by the violence of the waves, which threw them now up aloft, and now down, until they were run aground or upon the rocks, and there they were beaten backwards and forwards until they were crushed to pieces. For the violence of the wind would not allow them to put out to sea, and the character of the coast would not allow them to put into shore with safety. Of the sailors and pilgrims who had lost all hope of escape, some remained on the ships, others laid hold of the masts or beams of wood; many remained in a state of stupor, and were drowned in that condition without any attempt to save themselves; some (although it may appear incredible) had in my sight their heads knocked off by the very timbers of the ships to which they had attached themselves for safety; others were carried out to sea on the beams, instead of being brought to land; even those who knew how to swim had not strength to struggle with the waves, and very few thus trusting to their own strength reached the shore alive. Thus, out of thirty very large ships, of which some were what are commonly called dromunds, some gulafres, and others cats[74], all laden with palmers and with merchandise, scarcely seven remained safe when we left the shore. Of persons of both sexes, there perished more than a thousand that day. Indeed, no eye ever beheld a greater misfortune in the space of a single day, from all which God snatched us by his grace; to whom be honour and glory for ever. Amen.

We went up from Joppa to the city of Jerusalem, a journey of two days, by a mountainous road, very rough, and dangerous on account of the Saracens, who lie in wait in the caves of the mountains to surprise the Christians, watching both day and night to surprise those less capable of resisting by the smallness of their company, or the weary, who may chance to lag behind their companions. At one moment, you see them on every side; at another, they are altogether invisible, as may be witnessed by any body travelling there. Numbers of human bodies lie scattered in the way, and by the way-side, torn to pieces by wild beasts. Some may, perhaps, wonder that the bodies of Christians are allowed to remain unburied, but it is not surprising when we consider that there is not much earth on the hard rock to dig a grave; and if earth were not wanting, who would be so simple as to leave his company, and go alone to dig a grave for a companion? Indeed, if he did so, he would rather be digging a grave for himself than for the dead man. For on that road, not only the poor and weak, but the rich and strong, are surrounded with perils; many are cut off by the Saracens, but more by heat and thirst; many perish by the want of drink, but more by too much drinking. We, however, with all our company, reached the end of our journey in safety. Blessed be the Lord, who did not turn away my prayer, and hath not turned his mercy from me. Amen.

The entrance to the city of Jerusalem is from the west, under the citadel of king David, by the gate which is called the gate of David. The first place to be visited is the church of the Holy Sepulchre, which is called the Martyrdom, not only because the streets lead most directly to it, but because it is more celebrated than all the other churches; and that rightly and justly, for all the things which were foretold and forewritten by the holy prophets of our Saviour Jesus Christ were there actually fulfilled. The church itself was royally and magnificently built, after the discovery of our Lord's cross, by the archbishop Maximus, with the patronage of the emperor Constantine, and his mother Helena. In the middle of this church is our Lord's Sepulchre, surrounded by a very strong wall and roof, lest the rain should fall upon the Holy Sepulchre, for the church above is open to the sky. This church is situated, like the city, on the declivity of Mount Sion. The Roman emperors Titus and Vespasian, to revenge our Lord, entirely destroyed the city of Jerusalem, that our Lord's prophecy might be fulfilled, which, as he approached Jerusalem, seeing the city, he pronounced, weeping over it, "If thou hadst known, even thou, for the day shall come upon thee, that thine enemies shall cast a trench about thee, and compass thee round, and keep thee in on every side, and shall lay thee even with the ground, and thy children with thee; and they shall not leave in thee one stone upon another."[75] We know that our Lord suffered without the gate. But the emperor Hadrian, who was called Ælius, rebuilt the city of Jerusalem, and the Temple of the Lord, and added to the city as far as the Tower of David, which was previously a considerable distance from the city, for any one may see from the Mount of Olivet where the extreme western walls of the city stood originally, and how much it is since increased. And the emperor called the city after his own name Ælia, which is interpreted the House of God. Some, however, say that the city was rebuilt by the emperor Justinian, and also the Temple of the Lord as it is now; but they say that according to supposition, and not according to truth. For the Assyrians[76], whose fathers dwelt in that country from the first persecution, say that the city was taken and destroyed many times after our Lord's Passion, along with all the churches, but not entirely defaced.

In the court of the church of our Lord's sepulchre are seen some very holy places, namely, the prison in which our Lord Jesus Christ was confined after he was betrayed, according to the testimony of the Assyrians; then, a little above, appears the place where the holy cross and the other crosses were found, where afterwards a large church was built in honour of queen Helena, but which has since been utterly destroyed by the Pagans; and below, not far from the prison, stands the marble column to which our Lord Jesus Christ was bound in the common hall, and scourged with most cruel stripes. Near this is the spot where our Lord was stripped of his garments by the soldiers; and next, the place where he was clad in a purple vest by the soldiers, and crowned with the crown of thorns, and they cast lots for his garments. Next we ascend Mount Calvary, where the patriarch Abraham raised an altar, and prepared, by God's command, to sacrifice his own son; there afterwards the Son of God, whom he prefigured, was offered up as a sacrifice to God the Father for the redemption of the world. The rock of that mountain remains a witness of our Lord's passion, being much cracked near the foss in which our Lord's cross was fixed, because it could not suffer the death of its Maker without splitting, as we read in the Passion, "and the rocks rent."[77] Below is the place called Golgotha, where Adam is said to have been raised to life by the blood of our Lord which fell upon him, as is said in the Passion, "And many bodies of the saints which slept arose."[78] But in the Sentences of St. Augustine, we read that he was buried in Hebron, where also the three patriarchs were afterwards buried with their wives; Abraham with Sarah, Isaac with Rebecca, and Jacob with Leah; as well as the bones of Joseph, which the Children of Israel carried with them from Egypt. Near the place of Calvary is the church of St. Mary, on the spot where the body of our Lord, after having been taken down from the cross, was anointed before it was buried, and wrapped in a linen cloth or shroud.

At the head of the church of the Holy Sepulchre, in the wall outside, not far from the place of Calvary, is the place called Compas, which our Lord Jesus Christ himself signified and measured with his own hand as the middle of the world, according to the words of the Psalmist, "For God is my king of old, working salvation in the midst of the earth."[79] But some say that that is the place where our Lord Jesus Christ first appeared to Mary Magdalene, while she sought him weeping, and thought he had been a gardener, as is related in the Gospel. These most holy places of prayer are contained in the court of our Lord's Sepulchre, on the east side. In the sides of the church itself are attached, on one side and the other, two most beautiful chapels in honour of St. Mary and St. John, as they, participating in our Lord's sufferings, stationed themselves beside him here and there. On the west wall of the chapel of St. Mary is seen the picture of our Lord's Mother, painted externally, who once, by speaking wonderfully through the Holy Spirit, in the form in which she is here painted, comforted Mary the Egyptian, when she repented with her whole heart, and sought the help of the Mother of our Lord, as we read in her life. On the other side of the church of St. John is a very fair monastery of the Holy Trinity, in which is the place of the baptistery, to which adjoins the chapel of St. John the Apostle, who first filled the pontifical see at Jerusalem. These are all so composed and arranged, that any one standing in the furthest church may clearly perceive the five churches from door to door.

Without the gate of the Holy Sepulchre, to the south, is the church of St. Mary, called the Latin, because the monks there perform divine service in the Latin tongue; and the Assyrians say that the blessed Mother of our Lord, at the crucifixion of her Son, stood on the spot now occupied by the altar of this church. Adjoining to this church is another church of St. Mary, called the Little, occupied by nuns who serve devoutly the Virgin and her Son. Near which is the Hospital, where is a celebrated monastery founded in honour of St. John the Baptist.

We descend from our Lord's sepulchre, about the distance of two arbalist-shots, to the Temple of the Lord, which is to the east of the Holy Sepulchre, the court of which is of great length and breadth, having many gates; but the principal gate, which is in front of the Temple, is called the Beautiful, on account of its elaborate workmanship and variety of colours, and is the spot where Peter healed Claudius, when he and John went up into the Temple at the ninth hour of prayer, as we read in the Acts of the Apostles. The place where Solomon built the Temple was called anciently Bethel; whither Jacob repaired by God's command, and where he dwelt, and saw the ladder whose summit touched heaven, and the angels ascending and descending, and said, "Truly this place is holy," as we read in Genesis. There he raised a stone as a memorial, and constructed an altar, and poured oil upon it; and in the same place afterwards, by God's will, Solomon built a temple to the Lord of magnificent and incomparable work, and decorated it wonderfully with every ornament, as we read in the Book of Kings. It exceeded all the mountains around in height, and all walls and buildings in brilliancy and glory. In the middle of which temple is seen a high and large rock, hollowed beneath, in which was the Holy of Holies. In this place Solomon placed the Ark of the Covenant, having the Manna and the Rod of Aaron, which flourished and budded there and produced almonds, and the two Tables of the Testament; here our Lord Jesus Christ, wearied with the insolence of the Jews, was accustomed to repose; here was the place of confession, where his disciples confessed themselves to him; here the angel Gabriel appeared to Zacharias, saying, "Thou shalt receive a child in thy old age;" here Zacharias, the son of Barachias, was slain between the temple and the altar; here the child Jesus was circumcised on the eighth day, and named Jesus, which is interpreted Saviour; here the Lord Jesus was offered by his parents, with the Virgin Mary, on the day of her purification, and received by the aged Simeon; here, also, when Jesus was twelve years of age, he was found sitting in the midst of the doctors, hearing and interrogating them, as we read in the Gospel; here afterwards he cast out the oxen, and sheep, and pigeons, saying, "My house shall be a house of prayer;" and here he said to the Jews, "Destroy this temple, and in three days I will raise it up." There still are seen in the rock the footsteps of our Lord, when he concealed himself, and went out from the Temple, as we read in the Gospel, lest the Jews should throw at him the stones they carried. Thither the woman taken in adultery was brought before Jesus by the Jews, that they might find some accusation against him[80]. There is the gate of the city on the eastern side of the Temple, which is called the Golden, where Joachim, the father of the Blessed Mary, by order of the Angel of the Lord, met his wife Anne. By the same gate the Lord Jesus, coming from Bethany on the day of olives, sitting on an ass, entered the city of Jerusalem, while the children sang, "Hosanna to the son of David." By this gate the emperor Heraclius entered Jerusalem, when he returned victorious from Persia, with the cross of our Lord; but the stones first fell down and closed up the passage, so that the gate became one mass, until humbling himself at the admonition of an angel, he descended from his horse, and so the entrance was opened to him. In the court of the Temple of the Lord, to the south, is the Temple of Solomon, of wonderful magnitude, on the east side of which is an oratory containing the cradle of Christ, and his bath, and the bed of the Virgin Mary, according to the testimony of the Assyrians[81].

From the Temple of the Lord you go to the church of St. Anne, the mother of the Blessed Mary, towards the north, where she lived with her husband, and she was there delivered of her daughter Mary. Near it is the pool called in Hebrew Bethsaida, having five porticoes, of which the Gospel speaks. A little above is the place where the woman was healed by our Lord, by touching the hem of his garment, while he was surrounded by a crowd in the street[82].

From St. Anne we pass through the gate which leads to the Valley of Jehoshaphat, to the church of St. Mary in the same valley, where she was honourably buried by the Apostles after her death; her sepulchre, as is just and proper, is revered with the greatest honours by the faithful, and monks perform service there day and night. Here is the brook Cedron; here also is Gethsemane, where our Lord came with his disciples from Mount Sion, over the brook Cedron, before the hour of his betrayal; there is a certain oratory where he dismissed Peter, James, and John, saying, "Tarry ye here, and watch with me;"[83] and going forward, he fell on his face and prayed, and came to his disciples, and found them sleeping: the places are still visible where the disciples slept, apart from each other. Gethsemane is at the foot of Mount Olivet, and the brook Cedron below, between Mount Sion and Mount Olivet, as it were the division of the mountains; and the low ground between the mountains is the Valley of Jehoshaphat. A little above, in Mount Olivet, is an oratory in the place where our Lord prayed, as we read in the Passion, "And he was withdrawn from them about a stone's cast, and being in an agony, he prayed more earnestly, and his sweat was, as it were, great drops of blood falling down to the ground."[84] Next we come to Aceldama, the field bought with the price of the Lord, also at the foot of Mount Olivet, near a valley about three or four arbalist-shots to the south of Gethsemane, where are seen innumerable monuments. That field is near the sepulchres of the holy fathers Simeon the Just and Joseph the foster-father of our Lord. These two sepulchres are ancient structures, in the manner of towers, cut into the foot of the mountain itself. We next descend, by Aceldama, to the fountain which is called the Pool of Siloah, where, by our Lord's command, the man born blind washed his eyes, after the Lord had anointed them with clay and spittle.

From the church of St. Mary before mentioned, we go up by a very steep path nearly to the summit of Mount Olivet, towards the east, to the place whence our Lord ascended to heaven in the sight of his disciples. The place is surrounded by a little tower, and honourably adorned, with an altar raised on the spot within, and also surrounded on all sides with a wall. On the spot where the Apostles stood with his mother, wondering at his ascension, is an altar of St. Mary; there the two men in white garments stood by them, saying, "Ye men of Galilee, why stand ye gazing into heaven?" About a stone's throw from that place is the spot where, according to the Assyrians, our Lord wrote the Lord's Prayer in Hebrew, with his own fingers, on marble; and there a very beautiful church was built, but it has since been entirely destroyed by the Pagans, as are all the churches outside the walls, except the church of the Holy Ghost on Mount Sion, about an arrow-shot from the wall to the north, where the Apostles received the promise of the Father, namely, the Paraclete Spirit, on the day of Pentecost; there they made the Creed. In that church is a chapel in the place where the Blessed Mary died. On the other side of the church is the chapel where our Lord Jesus Christ first appeared to the Apostles after his resurrection, and it is called Galilee, as he said to the Apostles, "After I am risen again, I will go before you unto Galilee."[85] That place was called Galilee, because the Apostles, who were called Galileans, frequently rested there.

The great city of Galilee is by Mount Tabor, a journey of three days from Jerusalem. On the other side of Mount Tabor is the city called Tiberias, and after it Capernaum and Nazareth, on the sea of Galilee or sea of Tiberias, whither Peter and the other Apostles, after the resurrection, returned to their fishing, and where the Lord afterwards showed himself to them on the sea. Near the city of Tiberias is the field where the Lord Jesus blessed the five loaves and two fishes, and afterwards fed four thousand men with them, as we read in the Gospel. But I will return to my immediate subject.

In the Galilee of Mount Sion, where the Apostles were concealed in an inner chamber, with closed doors, for fear of the Jews, Jesus stood in the middle of them and said, "Peace be unto you;"[86] and he again appeared there when Thomas put his finger into his side and into the place of the nails. There he supped with his disciples before the Passion, and washed their feet; and the marble table is still preserved there on which he supped. There the relics of St. Stephen, Nicodemus, Gamaliel, and Abido, were honourably deposited by St. John the Patriarch after they were found. The stoning of St. Stephen took place about two or three arbalist-shots without the wall, to the north, where a very handsome church was built, which has been entirely destroyed by the Pagans. The church of the Holy Cross, about a mile to the west of Jerusalem, in the place where the holy cross was cut out, and which was also a very handsome one, has been similarly laid waste by the Pagans; but the destruction here fell chiefly on the surrounding buildings and the cells of the monks, the church itself not having suffered so much. Under the wall of the city, outside, on the declivity of Mount Sion, is the church of St. Peter, which is called the Gallican, where, after having denied his Lord, he hid himself in a very deep crypt, as may still be seen there, and there wept bitterly for his offence. About three miles to the west of the church of the Holy Cross is a very fine and large monastery in honour of St. Saba, who was one of the seventy-two disciples of our Lord Jesus Christ. There were above three hundred Greek monks living there, in the service of the Lord and of the Saint, of whom the greater part have been slain by the Saracens, and the few who remain have taken up their abode in another monastery of the same Saint, within the walls of the city, near the tower of David, their other monastery being left entirely desolate.

The city of Bethlehem in Judea is six miles to the north of Jerusalem. The Saracens have left nothing there habitable, but every thing is destroyed (as in the other holy places without the walls of the city of Jerusalem) except the monastery of the blessed Virgin Mary, which is a large and noble building. In the church there is a crypt under the choir, about the middle, in which is seen the place of our Lord's nativity, as it were to the left. A little lower, to the right, near the place of the nativity, is the manger where the ox and ass stood when the child was placed before them in it; and the stone which supported the head of our Saviour in the sepulchre, which was brought hither from Jerusalem by St. Jerome the Presbyter, may be seen in the manger. St. Jerome himself rests in the same church, under the altar, to the north-east; and the innocents who were slain for the infant Christ, by Herod, lie under the altar on the north part of the church, as well as the two most holy women, Paula and her daughter Eustochium, the virgin. There is the marble table on which the blessed Virgin Mary eat with the three Magians, after they had given their offerings. There is a cistern in the church, near the crypt of our Lord's nativity, into which the star is said to have fallen. There, also, is said to be the bath of the blessed Virgin Mary.

Bethany, where Lazarus was raised by our Lord from the dead, is distant from the city about two miles to the east, on the other side of Mount Olivet, and contains the church of St. Lazarus, in which is seen his sepulchre, as well as those of many bishops of Jerusalem. Under the altar is the place where Mary Magdalene washed the feet of our Lord Jesus with her tears, and wiped them with her hair, and kissed his feet and anointed them with ointment. Bethphage, where our Lord sent forward his disciples to the city, is on Mount Olivet, but nearly all traces of it have disappeared. Jericho, where is the garden of Abraham, is ten leagues from Jerusalem, in a land covered with trees, and producing all kinds of palms and other fruits. There is the well of the prophet Elisha, the water of which was most bitter to drink and productive of sterility, until he blessed it and threw salt into it, when it became sweet. This place is surrounded on every side by a beautiful plain. From thence we ascend a lofty mountain, to the spot where our Lord fasted forty days, and where he was afterwards tempted by Satan, about three miles from Jericho.

The river Jordan is four leagues to the east of Jericho. On this side Jordan is the region called Judea, as far as the Adriatic Sea, that is, to the port which is called Joppa; on the other side Jordan is Arabia, most hostile to Christians, and hateful to all who worship God, in which is the mountain whence Elijah was carried into heaven in a fiery chariot. It is eighteen days' journey from Jordan to Mount Sinai, where the Lord appeared to Moses in the burning bush, and where, afterwards, Moses ascended by God's command, and was there fasting forty days and as many nights, and there received from the Lord the two stone tables, written by the finger of God, to teach the Children of Israel the law and the commandments, which were contained in the same tables.

Hebron, where the holy patriarchs, Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob repose, each with his wife, and where Adam, the first of mankind, is also buried, is distant from Bethlehem four leagues to the south. Here king David reigned seven years, before he obtained possession of the city of Jerusalem from the family of king Saul. The city of Hebron, which was large and very handsome, is destroyed by the Saracens. On the eastern side of it the monuments of the holy patriarchs, of ancient workmanship, are surrounded by a very strong castle, each of the three monuments being like a great church, with two sarcophagi placed in a very honourable manner within, that is, one for the man and one for the woman; and, even at the present day, the smell of the balsam and precious aromatics with which the bodies were anointed, rising sweetly from the sepulchre, fills the nostrils of those who stand round them. But the bones of Joseph, which the Children of Israel, as he had charged them, brought with them out of Egypt, are buried, more humbly than the rest, as it were, at the extremity of the castle. The holm-oak, under the shade of which Abraham stood when he saw the three youths descending by the road, still flourishes and bears leaves, according to the statement of the inhabitants of the place, not far distant from the aforesaid castle.

The city of Nazareth of Galilee, where the blessed Virgin Mary received the salutation of our Lord's nativity from the angel, is about four days' journey from Jerusalem, the road lying through Sichem, a city of Samaria, which is now called Neapolis, where St. John the Baptist received sentence of decollation from Herod. There, also, is the well of Jacob, where Jesus, weary with his journey, thirsty, and sitting upon the well, condescended to ask water of the Samaritan woman who came thither to draw it, as we read in the Gospel. From Sichem we come to Cæsarea of Palestine, from Cæsarea to Cayphas[87], and from Cayphas to Accaron[88]. Nazareth is about eight miles to the east of Accaron. The city of Nazareth is entirely laid waste and overthrown by the Saracens; but the place of the annunciation of our Lord is indicated by a very noble monastery. A most limpid fountain bubbles out near the city, still surrounded, as formerly, with marble columns and blocks, from which the child Jesus, with other children, often drew water for the use of his mother.

From Nazareth we proceed about four miles to the east, to Mount Tabor, the scene of our Lord's transfiguration, which is covered in an extraordinary manner with grass and flowers, and rises in the middle of the green plain of Galilee so as to exceed in altitude all the mountains which, though at a distance, surround it. On the summit still remain three ancient monasteries; one in honour of our Lord Jesus Christ; another in honour of Moses; and a third, at some distance from the others, in honour of Elias, according to the words of Peter, "Lord, it is good for us to be here; if thou wilt, let us make here three tabernacles, one for thee, and one for Moses, and one for Elias."[89]

The sea of Galilee is about six miles from Mount Tabor to the east and north-east, and is about ten miles long by five in breadth. The city of Tiberias stands on the sea-shore on one side, and on the other side are Corozaim and Bethsaida, the city of Andrew and Peter. About four miles to the north-east of the city of Tiberias is the castle of Gennesareth, where the Lord appeared to the disciples when fishing, as we learn from the Gospel. About two miles to the east of Gennesareth is the mount on which our Lord Jesus fed five thousand men with five loaves and two fishes. This mount is called by the inhabitants our Lord's table; and at its foot stands a very beautiful church of St. Peter, but deserted. Six miles to the north-east of Nazareth, on a hill, is Cana of Galilee, where our Lord converted water into wine at the marriage feast. There nothing is left standing except the monastery called that of Architriclinius[90]. About half way between Nazareth and Galilee is a castle which is called Roma, where all travellers from Accaron to Tiberias are lodged, having Nazareth on the right, and Galilee to the left.

A day's journey to the north-east of Tiberias is Mount Libanus, at the foot of which the river Jordan boils out from two foundations, of which one is called Jor, and the other Dan; the streams of which, joining in one, become a very rapid river, and take the name of Jordan. Its origin is near Cæsarea, the city of Philip the Tetrarch, in the district where Jesus, as is related in the Gospel, interrogated his disciples, saying, "Whom do men say that I, the Son of Man, am?"[91] Now the river Jordan, flowing from its spring with a very rapid course, falls into the sea of Galilee on one side, and passing out of it on the opposite side, by the violence of its current, makes itself a bed, through which it runs a distance of eight days' journey, and then falls into the Dead Sea. The water of the Jordan is whiter and more of a milky colour than any other water, and it may be distinguished by its colour a long distance into the Dead Sea.

Having, to the best of our power, visited and paid our devotion at all the holy places in the city of Jerusalem and the surrounding country, we took ship at Joppa on the day of Pentecost[92], on our return; but, fearing to meet the fleet of the Saracens, we did not venture out into the open sea by the same course we came, but sailed along the coast by several cities, some of which have fallen into the hands of the Franks, while others still remain in the power of the Saracens. Their names are as follows:—First, after Joppa, is the town called popularly Atsuph, but in Latin, Azotum; next, Cæsarea of Palestine; and then Cayphas. Baldwin, the flower of kings, has possession of these cities. Next after these is the very strong city of Acre, which is called Accaron; then Sur and Sagete, which are Tyre and Sidon; then Jubelet; then Baruth; and then Tartusa, which is in possession of duke Raimund. Next Gibel, where are the mountains of Gilboa; and then Tripolis and Lice. We passed by all these cities[93].

On the Wednesday of Pentecost, as we were sailing between Cayphas and Accaron[94], twenty-six ships of the Saracens suddenly came in sight, the forces of the admiral of Tyre and Sidon, which were carrying an army to Babylonia to assist the Chaldeans in making war on the king of Jerusalem; upon which two of our ships, which had come with us from Joppa full of palmers, leaving our ship behind because they were lighter, fled in all haste to Cæsarea. The Saracens, encircling our ship on all sides, at the distance of about an arrow's shot, rejoiced in the prospect of such a rich prey; but our men, ready to meet death in the cause of Christ, took to their arms, and stationed themselves as quickly as possible on the castle of the ship; for our dromund carried about two hundred soldiers. After the space of about an hour, the commander of the hostile fleet held a council, and sent a sailor up the mast of his ship, which was the largest, that he might give information of our condition and preparations; and as soon as he understood from him the bold countenance we showed, they hoisted their sails and put out to sea, and so that day the Lord by his grace snatched us from our enemies. Some of our people from Joppa afterwards took three of the ships we had seen, and enriched themselves with their spoils.

Thus making our way as well as we could along the coast of Syria, in eight days we reached the port of St. Andrew, in the isle of Cyprus[95]; and thence, next day, we sailed towards Romania, passing the port of St. Simon, and the port of St. Mary, and after many days reached Little Antioch[96]. In this part of the voyage we were several times attacked by pirates; but, under the Divine protection, we escaped unhurt from the attacks of enemies and the shocks of tempests. Then directing our course along the coast of Romania, and passing the towns of Stamirra[97] and Patras of St. Nicholas, we with difficulty reached the island of Rhodes on the eve of St. John the Baptist[98], after a narrow escape from wreck in the bay of Satalia. At Rhodes we hired a smaller ship, that we might proceed more rapidly, and then returned to the coast of Romania. We then came to Stromlo[99], a very fair city, but entirely laid waste by the Turks, and there we were detained many days by a strong contrary wind. Then we came to the island of Samos, and having bought provisions there, as we did in all the islands, we arrived at length at the island of Scio, where we parted with our ship and company, and undertook the journey to Constantinople, to perform our devotions there. After leaving Scio, we passed by the great town of Smyrna, and came to the island of Meteline, and then to Tenit[100], near which, on the coast of Romania, was the very ancient and famous city of Troy, the ruins of the buildings of which, as the Greeks say, are still apparent over a space of many miles.

After leaving this place, we came to the narrow sea which is called the arm of St. George, which divides the two lands, Romania and Macedonia, through which we sailed to St. Phemius, having Greece to the right, and Macedonia to the left. The city of St. Phemius the bishop is on one side of the arm, in Macedonia, and another city, which is called Samthe, stands on the other side in Greece, so that two or three arbalist-shots would reach from one city to the other[101]. They are said to be the keys of Constantinople. Then we sailed by Callipolis, and Agios Georgios, and Paniados, and other notable castles of Macedonia, and came to the city of Rothostoca, after Michaelmas. We came next to the noble city of Raclea, whence, according to the Greeks, Helen was ravished by Paris Alexander[102].

THE SAGA OF SIGURD THE CRUSADER.

A.D. 1107-1111.

(from the Heimskringla, or Chronicle of the Kings of Norway, by Samuel Laing, Esq.)

After king Magnus Barefoot's fall, his sons, Eystein, Sigurd, and Olaf[103], took the kingdom of Norway. Eystein got the northern, and Sigurd the southern parts of the country. King Olaf was then four or five years old, and the third part of the country which he had was under the management of his two brothers. King Sigurd was chosen king when he was thirteen or fourteen years old, and Eystein was a year older. When king Magnus's sons were chosen kings, the men who had followed Skopte Ogmundsson returned home. Some had been to Jerusalem, some to Constantinople; and there they had made themselves renowned, and they had many kinds of novelties to talk about. By these extraordinary tidings many men in Norway were incited to the same expedition; and it was also told that the Northmen who liked to go into the military service at Constantinople found many opportunities of getting property. Then these Northmen desired much that one of the two kings, either Eystein or Sigurd, should go as commander of the troop which was preparing for this expedition. The kings agreed to this, and carried on the equipment at their common expense. Many great men, both of the lendermen and bonders, took part in this enterprize; and when all was ready for the journey, it was determined that Sigurd should go, and Eystein, in the mean time, should rule the kingdom upon their joint account.

A year or two after king Magnus's fall, Hakon, a son of earl Paul, came from Orkney. The kings gave him the earldom and government of the Orkney Islands, as the earls before him, his father Paul or his uncle Erlend, had possessed it; and earl Hakon then sailed back immediately to Orkney.

Four years after the fall of king Magnus, king Sigurd sailed with his fleet of sixty ships from Norway. So says Thorarin Stutfeld:—

"A young king just and kind,
People of loyal mind:
Such brave men soon agree,—
To distant lands they sail with glee.
To the distant Holy Land
A brave and pious band,
Magnificent and gay,
In sixty long ships glide away."

King Sigurd sailed in autumn to England, where Henry, son of William the Bastard, was then king, and Sigurd remained with him all winter. So says Einar Skuleson:—

"The king is on the waves!
The storm he boldly braves.
His ocean steed,
With winged speed,
O'er the white-flashing surges,
To England's coast he urges;
And there he stays the winter o'er:
More gallant king ne'er trod that shore."

In spring[104] king Sigurd and his fleet sailed westward to Valland[105], and in autumn came to Galicia[106], where he staid the second winter. So says Einar Skuleson:—

"Our king, whose land so wide
No kingdom stands beside,
In Jacob's land[107] next winter spent,
On holy things intent;
And I have heard the royal youth
Cut off an earl who swerved from truth.
Our brave king will endure no ill,—
The hawks with him will get their fill."

It went thus:—The earl who ruled over the land made an agreement with king Sigurd, that he should provide king Sigurd and his men a market at which they could purchase victuals all the winter; but this he did not fulfil longer than to about Yule. It began then to be difficult to get food and necessaries, for it is a poor barren land. Then king Sigurd with a great body of men went against a castle which belonged to the earl; and the earl fled from it, having but few people. King Sigurd took there a great deal of victuals and of other booty, which he put on board of his ships, and then made ready and proceeded westward to Spain. It so fell out, as the king was sailing past Spain, that some pirates who were cruising for plunder met him with a fleet of galleys, and king Sigurd attacked them. This was his first battle with heathen men; and he won it, and took eight galleys from them. So says Halldor Skualldre:—

"Bold vikings, not slow
To the death-fray to go,
Meet our Norse king by chance,
And their galleys advance.
The bold vikings lost
Many a man of their host,
And eight galleys too,
With cargo and crew."

Thereafter king Sigurd sailed against a castle called Sintre[108], and fought another battle. This castle is in Spain, and was occupied by many heathens, who from thence plundered Christian people. King Sigurd took the castle, and killed every man in it, because they refused to be baptized; and he got there an immense booty. So sings Halldor Skualldre:—

"From Spain I have much news to tell
Of what our generous king befell.
And first he routs the viking crew,
At Cintra next the heathens slew;
The men he treated as God's foes,
Who dared the true faith to oppose.
No man he spared who would not take
The Christian faith for Jesus' sake."

After this king Sigurd sailed with his fleet to Lisbon, which is a great city in Spain, half Christian and half heathen; for there lies the division between Christian Spain and heathen Spain[109], and all the districts which lie west of the city are occupied by heathens. There king Sigurd had his third battle with the heathens, and gained the victory, and with it a great booty. So says Halldor Skualldre:—

"The son of kings on Lisbon's plains
A third and bloody battle gains.
He and his Norsemen boldly land,
Running their stout ships on the strand."

Then king Sigurd sailed westwards along heathen Spain, and brought up at a town called Alkassi[110]; and here he had his fourth battle with the heathens, and took the town, and killed so many people that the town was left empty. They got there also immense booty. So says Halldor Skualldre:—

"A fourth great battle, I am told,
Our Norse king and his people hold
At Alkassi; and here again
The victory fell to our Norsemen."

And also this verse:—

"I heard that through the town he went,
And heathen widows' wild lament
Resounded in the empty halls;
For every townsman flies or falls."

King Sigurd then proceeded on his voyage, and came to Nörfa Sound[111]; and in the Sound he was met by a large viking force, and the king gave them battle: and this was his fifth engagement with heathens since the time he left Norway. So says Halldor Skualldre:—

"Ye moistened your dry swords with blood,
As through Niorfa Sound ye stood:
The screaming raven got a feast,
As ye sailed onward to the East."

King Sigurd then sailed eastward along the coast of Serkland[112], and came to an island there called Formentara. There a great many heathen Moors had taken up their dwelling in a cave, and had built a strong stone-wall before its mouth. It was high up to climb to the wall, so that whoever attempted to ascend was driven back with stones or missile weapons. They harried the country all round, and carried all their booty to their cave. King Sigurd landed on this island, and went to the cave; but it lay in a precipice, and there was a high winding path to the stone-wall, and the precipice above projected over it. The heathens defended the stone-wall, and were not afraid of the Northmen's arms; for they could throw stones, or shoot down upon the Northmen under their feet: neither did the Northmen, under such circumstances, dare to mount up. The heathens took their clothes and other valuable things, carried them out upon the wall, spread them out before the Northmen, shouted, and defied them, and upbraided them as cowards. Then Sigurd fell upon this plan: he had two ship's boats, such as we call barks, drawn up the precipice right above the mouth of the cave; and had thick ropes fastened round the stem, stern, and hull of each. In these boats as many men went as could find room, and then the boats were lowered by the ropes down in front of the mouth of the cave; and the men in the boats shot with stones and missiles into the cave, and the heathens were thus driven from the stone-wall. Then Sigurd with his troops climbed up the precipice to the foot of the stone-wall, which they succeeded in breaking down, so that they came into the cave. Now the heathens fled within the stone-wall that was built across the cave; on which the king ordered large trees to be brought to the cave, made a great pile in the mouth of it, and set fire to the wood. When the fire and smoke got the upper hand, some of the heathens lost their lives in it; some fled; some fell by the hands of the Northmen; and part were killed, part burned; and the Northmen made the greatest booty they had got on all their expeditions. So says Halldor Skualldre:—

"Formentara lay
In the victor's way;
His ships' stems fly
To victory.
The bluemen there
Must fire bear,
And Norsemen's steel
At their hearts feel."

And also thus:—

"'Twas a feat of renown,—
The boat lowered down,
With a boat's crew brave,
In front of the cave;
While up the rock scaling,
And comrades up trailing,
The Norsemen gain,
And the bluemen are slain."

And also Thorarin Stuttfeld says:—

"The king's men up the mountain's side
Drag two boats from the ocean's tide:
The two boats lay,
Like hill-wolves gray.
Now o'er the rock in ropes they're swinging,
Well manned, and death to bluemen bringing:
They hang before
The robbers' door."

Thereafter king Sigurd proceeded on his expedition, and came to an island called Ivitsa (Ivica), and had there his seventh battle, and gained a victory. So says Halldor Skualldre:—

"His ships at Ivica now ride,
The king's, whose fame spreads far and wide;
And here the bearers of the shield
Their arms again in battle wield."

Thereafter king Sigurd came to an island called Minorca, and held there his eighth battle with heathen men, and gained the victory. So says Halldor Skualldre:—

"On green Minorca's plains
The eighth battle now he gains:
Again the heathen foe
Falls at the Norse king's blow."

In spring king Sigurd came to Sicily, and remained a long time there. There was then a duke Roger in Sicily, who received the king kindly, and invited him to a feast. King Sigurd came to it with a great retinue, and was splendidly entertained. Every day duke Roger stood at the company's table, doing service to the king; but the seventh day of the feast, when the people had come to table, and had wiped their hands, king Sigurd took the duke by the hand, led him up to the high seat, and saluted him with the title of king; and gave the right that there should be always a king over the dominion of Sicily, although before there had only been earls or dukes over that country[113].

It is written in the chronicles, that earl Roger let himself first be called the king of Sicily in the year of our Lord 1102, having before contented himself with the title of earl only of Sicily, although he was duke of Calabria and Apulia, and was called Roger the Great; and when he afterwards made the king of Tunet or Tunis tributary to him, he had these words engraved on his sword,—

"Apulus et Calaber, Siculus mihi servit et Afer."

King Roger of Sicily was a very great king. He won and subdued all Apulia, and many large islands besides in the Greek sea; and therefore he was called Roger the Great. His son was William, king of Sicily, who for a long time had great hostility with the emperor of Constantinople. King William had three daughters, but no son. One of his daughters he married to the emperor Henry, a son of the emperor Frederic; and their son was Frederic, who for a short time after was emperor of Rome. His second daughter was married to the duke of Kypur[114]. The third daughter, Margaret, was married to the chief of the corsairs; but the emperor Henry killed both these brothers-in-law. The daughter of Roger the Great, king of Sicily, was married to the emperor Manuel of Constantinople; and their son was the emperor Kirialax[115].

In summer king Sigurd sailed across the Greek sea to Palestine[116], and came to Acre[117], where he landed, and went by land to Jerusalem[118]. Now when Baldwin, king of Palestine, heard that king Sigurd would visit the city, he let valuable clothes be brought and spread upon the road, and the nearer to the city the more valuable; and said, "Now ye must know that a celebrated king from the northern part of the earth is come to visit us; and many are the gallant deeds and celebrated actions told of him, therefore we shall receive him well; and in doing so we shall also know his magnificence and power. If he ride straight on to the city, taking little notice of these splendid preparations, I will conclude that he has enough of such things in his own kingdom; but, on the other hand, if he rides off the road, I shall not think so highly of his royal dignity at home." Now king Sigurd rides to the city with great state; and when he saw this magnificence, he rode straight forward over the clothes, and told all his men to do the same. King Baldwin received him particularly well, and rode with him all the way to the river Jordan, and then back to the city of Jerusalem. Einar Skuleson speaks thus of it:—

"Good reason has the scald to sing
The generous temper of the king,
Whose sea-cold keel from Northern waves
Ploughs the blue sea that green isles laves.
At Acre scarce were we made fast,
In holy ground our anchors cast,
When the king made a joyful morn
To all who toil with him had borne."

And again he sang:—

"To Jerusalem he came,
He who loves war's noble game,
(The scald no greater monarch finds
Beneath the heaven's wide hall of winds)
All sin and evil from him flings
In Jordan's wave: for all his sins
(Which all must praise) he pardon wins."

King Sigurd staid a long time in the land of Jerusalem in autumn, and in the beginning of winter.

King Baldwin made a magnificent feast for king Sigurd and many of his people, and gave him many holy relics. By the orders of king Baldwin and the patriarch, there was taken a splinter off the holy cross; and on this holy relic both made oath, that this wood was of the holy cross upon which God himself had been tortured. Then this holy relic was given to king Sigurd; with the condition that he, and twelve other men with him, should swear to promote Christianity with all his power, and erect an archbishop's seat in Norway if he could; and also that the cross should be kept where the holy king Olaf reposed, and that he should introduce tithes, and also pay them himself. After this king Sigurd returned to his ships at Acre; and then king Baldwin prepared to go to Syria, to a town called Saet, which some think had been Sidon. This castle, which belonged to the heathens, he wished to conquer, and lay under the Christians. On this expedition king Sigurd accompanied him with all his men, and sixty ships; and after the kings had besieged the town some time it surrendered[119], and they took possession of it, and of a great treasure of money; and their men found other booty. King Sigurd made a present of his share to king Baldwin. So says Halldor Skualldre:—

"He who for wolves provides the feast
Seized on the city in the east,
The heathen nest; and honour drew,
And gold to give, from those he slew."

Einar Skuleson also tells of it:—

"The Norsemen's king, the scalds relate,
Has ta'en the heathen town of Saet;
The slinging engine, with dread noise,
Gables and roofs with stones destroys.
The town wall totters too,—it falls;
The Norsemen mount the blackened walls.
He who stains red the raven's bill
Has won,—the town lies at his will."

Thereafter king Sigurd went to his ships, and made ready to leave Palestine. They sailed north to the island of Cyprus; and king Sigurd staid there awhile, and then went to the Greek country, and came to the land with all his fleet at Engilsness[120]. Here he lay still for a fortnight, although every day it blew a breeze for going before the wind to the north; but Sigurd would wait a side wind, so that the sails might stretch fore and aft in the ship; for in all his sails there was silk joined in, before and behind in the sail, and neither those before nor those behind the ships could see the slightest appearance of this, if the vessel was before the wind; so they would rather wait a side wind.

When king Sigurd sailed into Constantinople, he steered near the land. Over all the land there are burghs, castles, country towns, the one upon the other without interval. There from the land one could see into the bights of the sails; and the sails stood so close beside each other, that they seemed to form one inclosure. All the people turned out to see king Sigurd sailing past. The emperor Alexius had also heard of king Sigurd's expedition, and ordered the city port of Constantinople to be opened, which is called the Gold Tower, through which the emperor rides when he has been long absent from Constantinople, or has made a campaign in which he has been victorious. The emperor had precious cloths spread out from the Gold Tower to Loktiar, which is the name of the emperor's most splendid hall. King Sigurd ordered his men to ride in great state into the city, and not to regard all the new things they might see; and this they did. The emperor sent singers and stringed instruments to meet them; and with this great splendour king Sigurd and his followers were received into Constantinople. It is told that king Sigurd had his horse shod with golden shoes before he rode into the city, and managed so that one of the shoes came off in the street, but that none of his men should regard it. When king Sigurd came to the magnificent hall, every thing was in the grandest style; and when king Sigurd's men had come to their seats, and were ready to drink, the emperor's messengers came into the hall, bearing between them purses of gold and silver, which they said the emperor had sent to king Sigurd; but the king did not look upon it, but told his men to divide it among themselves. When the messengers returned to the emperor, and told him this, he said, "This king must be very powerful and rich not to care for such things, or even give a word of thanks for them;" and ordered them to return with great chests filled with gold. They come again to king Sigurd, and say, "These gifts and presents are sent thee from the emperor." King Sigurd said, "This is a great and handsome treasure, my men; divide it among you." The messengers return and tell this to the emperor. He replies, "This king must either exceed other kings in power and wealth, or he has not so much understanding as a king ought to have. Go thou now the third time, and carry him the costliest purple, and these chests with ornaments of gold:" to which he added two gold rings. Now the messengers went again to king Sigurd, and told him the emperor had sent him this great treasure. Then he stood up, and took the rings, and put them on his hand; and the king made a beautiful oration in Greek, in which he thanked the emperor in many fine expressions for all this honour and magnificence, but divided the treasure again very equitably among his men. King Sigurd remained here some time. The emperor Alexius sent his men to him to ask if he would rather accept from the emperor six skifpound [one ton] of gold, or would have the emperor give the games in his honour which the emperor was used to have played at the Padreimr[121]. King Sigurd preferred the games, and the messengers said the spectacle would not cost the emperor less than the money offered. Then the emperor prepared for the games, which were held in the usual way: but this day every thing went on better for the king than for the queen; for the queen has always the half part in the games, and their men, therefore, always strive against each other in all games. The Greeks accordingly think that when the king's men win more games at the Padreimr than the queen's, the king will gain the victory when he goes into battle. People who have been in Constantinople tell that the Padreimr is thus constructed:—A high wall surrounds a flat plain, which may be compared to a round bare Thing-place[122], with earthen banks all around at the stone-wall, on which banks the spectators sit; but the games themselves are in the flat plain. There are many sorts of old events represented concerning the Asers, Volsungers, and Giukungers, in these games[123]; and all the figures are cast in copper, or metal, with so great art that they appear to be living things; and to the people it appears as if they were really present in the games. The games themselves are so artfully and carefully managed, that people appear to be riding in the air; and at them also are used shot-fire[124], and all kinds of harp-playing, singing, and music instruments.

It is related that king Sigurd one day was to give the emperor a feast, and he ordered his men to provide sumptuously all that was necessary for the entertainment; and when all things were provided which are suitable for an entertainment given by a great personage to persons of high dignity, king Sigurd ordered his men to go to the street in the city where fire-wood was sold, as they would require a great quantity to prepare the feast. They said the king need not be afraid of wanting fire-wood, for every day many loads were brought into the town. When it was necessary, however, to have fire-wood, it was found that it was all sold, which they told the king. He replied, "Go and try if you can get walnuts. They will answer as well as wood for fuel." They went and got as many as they needed. Now came the emperor, and his grandees and court, and sat down to table. All was very splendid; and king Sigurd received the emperor with great state, and entertained him magnificently. When the queen and the emperor found that nothing was wanting, she sent some persons to inquire what they had used for firewood; and they came to a house filled with walnuts, and they came back and told the queen. "Truly," said she, "this is a magnificent king, who spares no expense where his honour is concerned." She had contrived this to try what they would do when they could get no firewood to dress their feast with.

King Sigurd soon after prepared for his return home. He gave the emperor all his ships; and the valuable figure-heads which were on the king's ships were set up in Peter's church, where they have since been to be seen. The emperor gave the king many horses and guides to conduct him through all his dominions, and appointed markets for him in his territories at which he could buy food and drink. Then king Sigurd left Constantinople; but many Northmen remained, and went into the emperor's pay. Then king Sigurd travelled from Bulgaria, and through Hungary, Pannonia, Suabia, and Bavaria. In Suabia he met the Roman emperor Lotharius, who received him in the most friendly way, gave him guides through his dominions, and had markets established for him at which he could purchase all he required. When king Sigurd came to Sleswick in Denmark, earl Eilif made a sumptuous feast for him; and it was then midsummer. In Heidaby he met the Danish king Nicolaus, who received him in the most friendly way, made a great entertainment for him, accompanied him north to Jutland, and gave him a ship provided with every thing needful. From thence the king returned to Norway, and was joyfully welcomed on his return to his kingdom. It was the common talk among the people, that none had ever made so honourable a journey from Norway as this of king Sigurd. He was twenty years of age, and had been three years on these travels. His brother Olaf was then twelve years old.

[William of Tyre, book xi., gives the following account of the arrival of the Northmen in Syria:—

"The town of Bereyth was taken in the year 1111 [1110] from the incarnation of our Saviour, and on the 27th of the month of April. That same year people from the isles of the west, and principally from the western country called Norway, having heard that the faithful Christians had taken possession of the holy city of Jerusalem, resolved to repair thither and pay their devotions; and they prepared a fleet accordingly. They embarked, and being favoured by the winds, they traversed the British Sea, passed the strait of Calpe and Assos, by which the Mediterranean Sea is formed, and having coasted along its whole length, they landed at Joppa. The supreme chief of this expedition was a stout, handsome young man, brother of the king of Norway. As soon as he had disembarked at Joppa, with all his followers, they proceeded to Jerusalem, the object of their wishes and vows. The king, on being informed of the arrival of the noble prince of Norway, made all haste to meet him, received him with much kindness, conversed familiarly with him, and tried to discover if the prince would be disposed to stop some time in the kingdom with his naval force, and to consecrate to Christ the fruit of his labour by giving his aid to extend the dominion of the faithful, and by taking possession of some other towns. The Norwegians, after holding a council among themselves, replied that they were come with the express intention of employing themselves usefully in the service of Christ, and that consequently they were quite disposed to proceed, without the least delay, by sea, towards any of the maritime towns which the king was disposed to attack with his army, and would demand no other pay than the victuals necessary for their support. The king accepted these terms with the greatest ardour; and immediately assembling all the forces of his kingdom, and all the knights he could collect, he began his march to Sidon. The fleet left the port of Acre, and proceeded also to Sidon, where the land and sea forces arrived simultaneously.... The people of the fleet received presents from the king, took leave of him, and returned to their country loaded with the blessings of all Christians. The town of Sidon was taken in the year of grace 1111 [1110], and on the 19th of December."

This account of Sigurd the Crusader's expedition to the holy land, by a nearly contemporary historian, native of the country, corroborates Snorro Sturleson's account of it even in the minute details, but he makes him arrive at Joppa, instead of Acre, as the Norse account has it.]

THE TRAVELS OF RABBI BENJAMIN OF TUDELA.

A.D. 1160-1173.

HEBREW PREFACE.

This book contains the reports of Rabbi Benjamin, the son of Jonah, of blessed memory[125], of Tudela, in the kingdom of Navarre. This man travelled through many and distant countries, as related in the following account, and took down in writing in each place what he saw or what was told him by men of integrity, whose names were known in Spain. Rabbi Benjamin also mentions some of the principal men in the places he visited; and when he returned, he brought this report along with him to the country of Castile in the year 933 (A.D. 1173). The above-mentioned Rabbi Benjamin was a man of wisdom and understanding, and of much information; and after strict inquiry his words were found to be true and correct, for he was a true man.

TRAVELS OF RABBI BENJAMIN OF BLESSED MEMORY.

Thus says Rabbi Benjamin, son of Jonah, of blessed memory. I first set out from the city of Saragossa, and proceeded down the river Ebro to Tortosa. Two days' journey brought me to the ancient city of Tarragona, which contains many cyclopean and pelasgic remains[126], and similar buildings are found nowhere else in the whole kingdom of Spain. This city stands on the coast. Two days thence is Barcelona, in which place there is a congregation of wise, learned, and princely men, such as R. Shesheth, R. Shealthiel, and R. Solomon, son of R. Abraham, son of Chisdai of blessed memory. The city is handsome, though small, and is situated on the sea-shore. Its trade attracts merchants from all parts of the world: from Greece, from Pisa, Genoa, and Sicily, from Alexandria in Egypt, from Palestine and the adjacent countries.

A day's journey and a half brings you to Gerona, which city contains a small congregation of Jews. From thence it is three days to Narbonne, eminent for its university, from which the study of the law spreads over all countries. The city contains many wise and noble men, especially R. Calonymos, son of the great and noble R. Theodoros of blessed memory, a descendant of the house of David, as proved by his pedigree. This man holds landed property from the sovereigns of the country, and nobody can deprive him of it by force. There is also R. Abraham, the president of the university, R. Makhir, R. Juda, and others of much merit and learning. Altogether the number of Jews amounts to about three hundred. It is four parasangs thence to the city of Beziers, which contains a congregation of learned men, the principals of which are R. Solomon Chalaphtha and R. Joseph, son of R. Nathaniel of blessed memory.

From thence it is two days to Har Gáash, or Montpellier, a city conveniently situated for trade, being within two parasangs from the coast. You here meet with Christian and Mohammedan merchants from all parts: from Algarve (Portugal), Lombardy, the Roman empire, Egypt, Palestine, Greece, France, Spain, and England. People of all tongues meet here, chiefly in consequence of the traffic of the Genoese and Pisans. The Jews of this city are among the wisest and most esteemed of the present generation. R. Reuben, son of Theodoros, R. Nathan, son of Zacharias, R. Samuel, their rabbi, R. Shelemiah, and R. Mordecai of blessed memory, are the principal among them. Others are very rich, and benevolent towards all who apply to them for assistance. It is four parasangs hence to Lunel, a city containing also a holy congregation of Jews, who employ all their time upon the study of the law. This town is the place of residence of the celebrated rabbi R. Meshullam and his five sons (R. Joseph, R. Isaac, R. Jacob, R. Aaron, and R. Asher), all of whom are eminent scholars and rich men. The latter is an ascetic, who does not attend to any worldly business, but studies day and night, keeps fasts, and never eats meat. He possesses an extraordinary degree of knowledge of every thing relating to Talmudic learning. R. Moses, his brother-in-law, R. Samuel, the minister, R. Solomon Cohen, and the physician R. Juda, son of Thibbon, of Spanish origin, are also inhabitants of Lunel. All foreign students who resort hither to study the law, are supplied with food and raiment at the public expense during the whole time of their stay in the university. The Jews of this city, amounting to about three hundred, are wise, holy, and benevolent men, who support their poor brethren near and far. The town stands within two parasangs of the coast. It is two parasangs hence to Beaucaire, a large town, containing about four hundred Jews, and a great university under the presidency of the great rabbi, R. Abraham, son of David of blessed memory, a scholar of the first eminence in scriptural and talmudic learning. He attracts students from distant countries, who are lodged in his own house and are taught by him; he, moreover, provides them with all necessaries of life from his own means and private property, which is very considerable. R. Joseph, son of R. Menachem, R. Benbenast, R. Benjamin, R. Abraham, and R. Isaac, son of R. Moses of blessed memory of this city, are also very great scholars and wise men. It is three parasangs further to Nogres or Bourg de St. Gilles. The chief of the Jewish inhabitants, of which there are about one hundred, are R. Isaac, son of R. Jacob, R. Abraham, son of R. Juda, R. Eliasar, R. Isaac, R. Moses, and R. Jacob, son of the late rabbi R. Levi of blessed memory. This town is a place of pilgrimage[127], visited by the inhabitants of distant countries and islands. It is situated within three parasangs of the sea, on the very banks of the large river Rhone, which traverses the whole of Provence. It is the place of residence of R. Abba Mari, son of R. Isaac of blessed memory, who holds the office of steward to count Raymond.

To Arles, three parasangs. The chief of its two hundred Israelites are R. Moses, R. Tobi, R. Isaiah, R. Solomon the rabbi, R. Nathan, and R. Abba Mari of blessed memory. It is three days hence to Marseilles, a city containing many eminent and wise men. Its three hundred Jews form two congregations, one of which resides in the lower town on the shore of the Mediterranean, and the other in the upper part, near the fortress. The latter supports a great university and boasts of many learned scholars. R. Simeon, son of R. Antoli, his brother, R. Jacob, and R. Levaro, are the chief of the upper synagogue, R. Jacob Perpiano, a rich man, R. Abraham, and his son-in-law, R. Meir, R. Isaac, and another Meir, preside over the lower congregation. An extensive trade is carried on in this city, which stands immediately on the coast. And here people take ship for Genoa, which also stands on the coast, and is reached in about four days. Two Jews from Ceuta, R. Samuel, son of Khilam, and his brother, reside there. The city is surrounded by a wall; no king governs over it, but senators chosen by the citizens out of their own body. Every house is provided with a tower, and in times of civil commotion war is carried on from the tops of these towers. The Genoese are masters of the sea, and build vessels called galleys, by means of which they carry on war in many places and bring home much plunder and booty. They are now at war with the Pisans.

From their city it is a distance of two days' journey to Pisa, which is a place of very great extent, containing about ten thousand fortified houses, from which war is carried on in times of civil commotion. All the inhabitants are brave; no king or prince governs over them, the supreme authority being vested in senators chosen by the people. The principal of the twenty Jews resident at Pisa are R. Moses, R. Chaim, and R. Joseph. The city has no walls, and stands about four miles from the sea, the navigation being carried on by means of vessels which ply upon the Arno, a river that runs through the city. Hence it is four parasangs to Lucca, a large city, which contains about forty Jews, the principal of whom are R. David, R. Samuel, and R. Jacob.

A journey of six days from thence brings you to the large city of Rome, the metropolis of all Christendom. Two hundred Jews live there, who are very much respected, and pay tribute to no one. Some of them are officers in the service of pope Alexander[128], who is the chief ecclesiastic and head of the Christian church. The principal of the many eminent Jews resident here are R. Daniel and R. Jechiel. The latter is one of the pope's officers, a handsome, prudent, and wise man, who frequents the pope's palace, being the steward of his household and minister of his private property. R. Jechiel is a descendant of R. Nathan, the author of the book Aruch and its comments[129]. There are likewise at Rome, R. Joab, son of the rabbi R. Solomon, R. Menachem, the president of the university, R. Jechiel, who resides in Trastevere, and R. Benjamin, son of R. Shabthai of blessed memory.

The city of Rome is divided into two parts by the river Tiber, which runs through it. In the first of these divisions you see the large place of worship called St. Peter of Rome, on the site of the extensive palace of Julius Cæsar. The city contains numerous buildings and structures entirely different from all other buildings upon the face of the earth. The extent of ground covered by the ruined and inhabited parts of Rome amounts to four-and-twenty miles. You there find eighty halls of the eighty eminent kings who were all called Imperator, from king Tarquin to king Pepin, the father of Charles (Charlemagne), who first conquered Spain and wrested it from the Mohammedans[130]. In the outskirts of Rome is the palace of Titus, who was rejected by three hundred senators in consequence of his having wasted three years in the conquest of Jerusalem, which, according to their will, he ought to have accomplished in two years. There is likewise the hall of the palace of king Vespasianus, a very large and strong building; also the hall of king Galba, containing 360 windows, equal in number to the days of the year. The circumference of this palace is nearly three miles. A battle was fought here in times of yore, and in the palace fell more than a hundred thousand, whose bones are hung up there even to the present day. The king caused a representation of the battle to be drawn, army against army, the men, the horses, and all their accoutrements being sculptured in marble, in order to preserve a memorial of the wars of antiquity. You there find also a cave under ground containing the king and his queen upon their thrones, surrounded by about one hundred nobles of their court, all embalmed by physicians and in good preservation to this day.

Another remarkable object is St. Giovanni in porta Latina, in which place of worship there are two copper pillars constructed by king Solomon of blessed memory, whose name, "Solomon, son of David," is engraved upon each. The Jews in Rome told Benjamin, that every year, about the time of the 9th of Ab[131], these pillars sweat so much that the water runs down from them. You there see also the cave in which Titus, the son of Vespasian, hid the vessels of the temple, which he brought from Jerusalem; and in another cave on the banks of the Tiber, you find the sepulchres of those holy men of blessed memory, the ten martyrs of the kingdom[132]. Opposite St. Giovanni de Laterano, there is a statue of Samson, with a lance of stone in his hand; also that of Absalom, the son of David, and of king Constantine, who built Constantinople, which city is called after his name; his statue is cast in copper, the man and horse being gilt. Rome contains many other remarkable buildings and works, the whole of which nobody can enumerate.

Four days from Rome is Capua, a large city, built by king Capys. The town is elegant, but the water is bad, and the country unhealthy. Among the three hundred Jews who reside at Capua are many very wise men of universal fame, such as R. Konpasso and his brother, R. Samuel, R. Saken, and the rabbi R. David, who bears the title of Principalo.

From thence to Puzzuolo, or Sorrento, a large city built by Tsintsan Hadareser, who fled in fear of king David of blessed memory. This city has been inundated in two spots by the sea; and even to this day you may see the streets and towers of the submerged city. A hot spring, which issues forth from under ground, produces the oil called Petroleum, which is collected upon the surface of the water and used in medicine. There are likewise hot baths, proceeding from hot subterranean springs, which here issue from under ground. Two of these baths are situated on the sea-shore, and whoever is afflicted with any disease generally experiences great relief, if not certain cure, from the use of these waters. During the summer season all persons afflicted with diseases crowd hither from the whole of Lombardy[133].

From this place a man may travel fifteen miles by a causeway under the mountains, constructed by king Romulus, the founder of Rome, who feared David, king of Israel, and Joab, his general, and constructed buildings both upon and under the mountains. The city of Naples is very strongly fortified; it is situated on the coast, and was originally built by the Greeks. The principal of the five hundred Jews who live here are R. Chiskiah, R. Shalom, R. Eliah Cohen, and R. Isaac, from Mount Hor. One day's journey brings you to Salerno, the chief medical university of Christendom. The number of Jews living here amounts to about six hundred, among whom R. Juda, son of R. Isaac, R. Melchisedek, the grand rabbi, originally from Siponte, R. Solomon Cohen, R. Elija Hajevani (i.e. the Greek), R. Abraham Narboni, and R. Thamon, deserve particular notice as wise and learned men. The city is surrounded by a wall towards the land; one part of it however stands on the shore of the sea. The fort on the summit of the hill is very strong. Half a day to Amalfi, among the inhabitants of which city are twenty Jews, the chief being R. Chananel, the physician, R. Elisha, and the benevolent (or noble) Abu-al-Gid. The Christian population of this country is chiefly occupied with trade; they do not till the ground, but buy every thing for money, because they reside on high mountains and upon rocky hills; fruit, however, abounds; the land being covered with vineyards, olive-groves, gardens, and orchards. Nobody ventures to make war upon them.

One day to Bavento, a large city between the coast and a high mountain. The congregation of Jews is about two hundred, of which the principals are R. Calonymos, R. Sarach, and R. Abraham of blessed memory. From hence two days to Melfi in Apulia, the Pul[134] of scripture, with about two hundred Jews, of which R. Achimaats, R. Nathan, and R. Sadok are the principal. One day's journey hence to Ascoli; the principal of the forty Jews who live there are R. Kontilo, R. Semach, his son-in-law, and R. Joseph. Two days to Trani, on the coast. All the pilgrims who travel to Jerusalem assemble here, on account of the convenience of its port. This city contains about two hundred Israelites, the chief of whom are R. Elijah, R. Nathan the lecturer[135], and R. Jacob. Trani is a large and elegant town. One day's journey to St. Nicholas di Bari[136], formerly a large city, but it was destroyed by William king of Sicily. It still lies in ruins, and contains neither Jewish nor Christian inhabitants. One day's journey and a half to Taranto, the frontier town of Calabria, the inhabitants of which are Greeks. It is a large city, and the principal of the three hundred Jews who live there are R. Mali, R. Nathan, and R. Israel. One day's journey to Brindisi, on the sea-coast, containing about ten Jews, who are dyers. Two days to Otranto, on the coast of the Grecian sea; the principal of its five hundred Jewish inhabitants are R. Menachem, R. Khaleb, R. Meier, and R. Mali.

From thence you cross over in two days to the island of Corfu, containing but one Jew, a dyer, of the name of R. Joseph. Unto this place reaches the kingdom of Sicily[137]. Two days' voyage by sea brings you to the coast of Arta, the confines of the empire of Manuel, king of Greece. On this coast lies a village with about a hundred Jewish inhabitants, the principal of whom are R. Shelachiah, and R. Hercules. Two days to Achelous, containing ten Jews, of whom the principal is R. Shabthai. Half a day to Anatolica on the gulf. One day by sea to Patras. This is the city of Antipatros, king of Greece, one of the four kings who rose after king Alexander[138]. It contains large and ancient buildings, and about fifty Jews reside there, of whom R. Isaac, R. Jacob, and R. Samuel are the principal. Half a day by sea to Lepanto, on the coast. The principal of the hundred Jews who reside there are R. Gisri, R. Shalom, and R. Abraham. One day's journey and a half to Crissa. Two hundred Jews live there by themselves on mount Parnassus, and carry on agriculture upon their own land and property; of these, R. Solomon, R. Chaim, and R. Jedaiah are the principal. Three days to the city of Corinth, which contains about three hundred Jews, of whom the chief are R. Leon, R. Jacob, and R. Ezekias.

Three days to the large city of Thebes, containing about two thousand Jewish inhabitants. These are the most eminent manufacturers of silk and purple cloth in all Greece[139]. Among them are many eminent Talmudic scholars and men as famous as any of the present generation. The principal of them are, the great rabbi R. Aaron Koti, his brother, R. Moses, R. Chija, R. Elijah Tareteno, and R. Joktan. No scholars like them are to be found in the whole Grecian empire, except at Constantinople. A journey of three days brings you to Negropont, a large city on the coast, to which merchants resort from all parts. Of the two hundred Jews who reside there, the principal are R. Elijah Psalteri, R. Emanuel, and R. Khaleb. From thence to Jabustrisa[140] is one day's journey. This city stands on the coast, and contains about one hundred Jews, the principal of whom are R. Joseph, R. Samuel, and R. Nethaniah. Rabenica[141] is distant one day's journey, and contains about one hundred Jews, of whom R. Joseph, R. Eleasar, and R. Isaac are the principal. Sinon Potamo, or Zeitun, is one day's journey further; R. Solomon and R. Jacob are the principal of its fifty Jewish inhabitants.

Here we reach the confines of Wallachia, the inhabitants of which country are called Vlachi. They are as nimble as deer, and descend from their mountains into the plains of Greece, committing robberies and making booty. Nobody ventures to make war upon them, nor can any king bring them to submission, and they do not profess the Christian faith. Their names are of Jewish origin, and some even say that they have been Jews, which nation they call brethren. Whenever they meet an Israelite, they rob, but never kill him, as they do the Greeks. They profess no religious creed.

From thence it is two days to Gardiki[142], a ruined place, containing but few Jewish or Grecian inhabitants. Two days further, on the coast, stands the large commercial city of Armiro[143], which is frequented by the Venetians, the Pisans, the Genoese, and many other merchants. It is a large city, and contains about four hundred Jewish inhabitants; of whom the chief are R. Shiloh, R. Joseph the elder, and R. Solomon, the president. One day to Bissina[144]; the principal of the hundred Jews who reside here are the rabbi R. Shabtha, R. Solomon, and R. Jacob. The town of Salunki[145] is distant two days by sea; it was built by king Seleucus, one of the four Greek nobles who rose after Alexander, is a very large city, and contains about five hundred Jewish inhabitants. The rabbi R. Samuel and his sons are eminent scholars, and he is appointed provost of the resident Jews by the king's command. His son-in-law R. Shabthai, R. Elijah, and R. Michael, also reside there. The Jews are much oppressed in this place, and live by the exercise of handicraft. Mitrizzi[146], distant two days' journey, contains about twenty Jews. R. Isaiah, R. Makhir, and R. Eliab are the principal of them. Drama[147], distance from hence two days' journey, contains about one hundred and forty Jews, of whom the chief are R. Michael and R. Joseph. From thence one day's journey to Christopoli[148], which contains about twenty Jewish inhabitants. Three days from thence by sea stands Abydos, on the coast.

It is hence five days' journey through the mountains to the large city of Constantinople, the metropolis of the whole Grecian empire, and the residence of the emperor, king Manuel[149]. Twelve princely officers govern the whole empire by his command, each of them inhabiting a palace at Constantinople, and possessing fortresses and cities of his own. The first of these nobles bears the title of Præpositus magnus; the second is called Megas Domesticus, the third Dominus, the fourth Megas Ducas, the fifth Œconomus magnus, and the names of the others are similar to these[150].

The circumference of the city of Constantinople is eighteen miles; one half of the city being bounded by the continent, the other by the sea, two arms of which meet here; the one a branch or outlet of the Russian, the other of the Spanish sea. Great stir and bustle prevails at Constantinople in consequence of the conflux of many merchants, who resort thither, both by land and by sea, from all parts of the world for purposes of trade, including merchants, from Babylon and from Mesopotamia, from Media and Persia, from Egypt and Palestine, as well as from Russia, Hungary, Patzinakia, Budia, Lombardy, and Spain. In this respect the city is equalled only by Bagdad, the metropolis of the Mohammedans. At Constantinople is the place of worship called St. Sophia, and the metropolitan seat of the pope of the Greeks, who are at variance with the pope of Rome. It contains as many altars as there are days of the year, and possesses innumerable riches, which are augmented every year by the contributions of the two islands and of the adjacent towns and villages. All the other places of worship in the whole world do not equal St. Sophia in riches. It is ornamented with pillars of gold and silver, and with innumerable lamps of the same precious materials. The Hippodrome is a public place near the wall of the palace, set aside for the king's sports. Every year the birthday of Jesus the Nazarene is celebrated there with public rejoicings. On these occasions you may see there representations of all the nations who inhabit the different parts of the world, with surprising feats of jugglery. Lions, bears, leopards, and wild asses, as well as birds, which have been trained to fight each other, are also exhibited. All this sport, the equal of which is nowhere to be met with, is carried on in the presence of the king and the queen[151].

King Manuel has built a large palace for his residence on the sea-shore, near the palace built by his predecessors; and to this edifice is given the name of Blachernes. The pillars and walls are covered with pure gold, and all the wars of the ancients, as well as his own wars, are represented in pictures. The throne in this palace is of gold, and ornamented with precious stones; a golden crown hangs over it, suspended on a chain of the same material, the length of which exactly admits the emperor to sit under it. This crown is ornamented with precious stones of inestimable value. Such is the lustre of these diamonds, that, even without any other light, they illumine the room in which they are kept. Other objects of curiosity are met with here which it would be impossible to describe adequately.

The tribute, which is brought to Constantinople every year from all parts of Greece, consisting of silks, and purple cloths, and gold, fills many towers. These riches and buildings are equalled nowhere in the world. They say that the tribute of the city alone amounts every day to twenty thousand florins, arising from rents of hostelries and bazaars, and from the duties paid by merchants who arrive by sea and by land. The Greeks who inhabit the country are extremely rich, and possess great wealth in gold and precious stones. They dress in garments of silk, ornamented with gold and other valuable materials. They ride upon horses, and in their appearance they are like princes. The country is rich, producing all sorts of delicacies, as well as abundance of bread, meat, and wine. They are well skilled in the Greek sciences, and live comfortably, "every man under his vine and his fig tree."[152] The Greeks hire soldiers of all nations, whom they call barbarians, for the purpose of carrying on their wars with the sultan of the Thogarmim, who are called Turks. They have no martial spirit themselves, and, like women, are unfit for warlike enterprises.

No Jews dwell in the city with them; they are obliged to reside beyond the one arm of the sea, where they are shut in by the channel of Sophia on one side, and they can reach the city by water only, when they want to visit it for purposes of trade. The number of Jews at Constantinople amounts to two thousand Rabbanites and five hundred Caraites[153], who live on one spot, but divided by a wall. The principal of the Rabbanites, who are learned in the law, are the rabbi R. Abtalion, R. Obadiah, R. Aaron Khuspo, R. Joseph Sargeno, and R. Eliakim the elder. Many of them are manufacturers of silk cloth, many others are merchants, some being extremely rich; but no Jew is allowed to ride upon a horse, except R. Solomon Hamitsri, who is the king's physician, and by whose influence the Jews enjoy many advantages even in their state of oppression, which is very severely felt by them; and the hatred against them is increased by the practice of the tanners, who pour out their filthy water in the streets and even before the very doors of the Jews, who, being thus defiled, become objects of contempt to the Greeks. Their yoke is severely felt by the Jews, both good and bad; for they are exposed to be beaten in the streets, and must submit to all sorts of bad treatment. Still the Jews are rich, good, benevolent, and religious men, who bear the misfortunes of their exile with humility. The quarter inhabited by the Jews is called Pera.

Two days from Constantinople stands Rodosto, containing a congregation of about four hundred Jews, the principal of whom are R. Moses, R. Abijah, and R. Jacob. From hence it is two days to Gallipoli. Of the two hundred Jews of this city the principal are R. Elijah Kapid, R. Shabthai the little, and R. Isaac Megas; this latter term in the Greek language means tall. To (Kales, or) Kilia[154], two days. The principal of the fifty Jews who inhabit this place are R. Juda, R. Jacob, and R. Shemaiah. It is hence two days to Mitilene, one of the islands of the sea. Ten places in this island contain Jewish congregations. Three days from thence is situated the island of Chio, containing about four hundred Jews, the principal of whom are R. Elijah, R. Theman, and R. Shabthai. The trees which yield mastic are found here[155]. Two days bring us to the island of Samos, which contains about three hundred Jews, the chief of whom are R. Shemaria, R. Obadiah, and R. Joel. These islands contain many congregations of Jews. It is three days hence by sea to Rhodes. The principal of the four hundred Jews who reside here are R. Aba, R. Chananel, and R. Elijah. Hence it is four days to Cyprus. Besides the rabbanitic Jews in this island, there is a community of heretic Jews called Kaphrosein, or Cyprians. They are epicureans, and the orthodox Jews excommunicate them. These sectarians profane the evening of the Sabbath and keep holy that of the Sunday. We next come in two days to Corycus, the frontier of Aram, which is called Armenia. Here are the confines of the empire of Toros, king of the mountains[156], sovereign of Armenia, whose rule extends to the city of Dhuchia and the country of the Togarmim, or Turks. Two days further is Malmistras[157], which is Thersoos, situated on the coast. Thus far reaches the empire of the Javanites, who are called Greeks.

The large city of Antioch is distant two days hence. It stands on the banks of the Makloub, which river flows down from Mount Lebanon, from the country of Hamah. The city was founded by king Antiochus, and is overlooked by a very high mountain. A wall surrounds this height, on the summit of which is situated a well. The inspector of the well distributes the water by subterranean aqueducts, and thus provides the houses of the principal inhabitants of the city. The other side of the city is surrounded by the river. This place is very strongly fortified, and in the possession of prince Boemond Poitevin, surnamed le Baube[158]. It contains about ten Jews, who are glass manufacturers, and the principal of whom are R. Mordecai, R. Chaiim, and R. Ishmael.

Two days bring us from thence to Lega, which is Latachia, and contains about two hundred Jews, the principal of whom are R. Chiia and R. Joseph. Hence it is two days to Jebilee, the Baal Gad of Scripture, under Mount Lebanon.

In this vicinity reside the people called Assassins, who do not believe in the tenets of Mohammedanism, but in those of one whom they consider like unto the prophet Kharmath[159]. They fulfil whatever he commands them, whether it be a matter of life or death. He goes by the name of Sheikh-al-Hashishin, or their old man, by whose commands all the acts of these mountaineers are regulated. His residence is in the city of Kadmus[160], the Kedemoth of Scripture, in the land of Sichon. The Assassins are faithful to one another by the command of their old man, and make themselves the dread of every one, because their devotion leads them gladly to risk their lives, and to kill even kings when commanded. The extent of their country is eight days' journey. They are at war with the Christians, called Franks, and with the count of Tripoli, which is Tarablous el Sham. Some time ago Tripoli was visited by an earthquake, which destroyed many Jews and Gentiles, numbers of the inhabitants being killed by the falling houses and walls, under the ruins of which they were buried. More than twenty thousand persons were killed in Palestine by this earthquake.

One day's journey to the other Jebail, which was the Gebal of the children of Ammon[161]; it contains about one hundred and fifty Jews, and is governed by seven Genoese, the supreme command being vested in one of them named Julianus Embriaco[162]. You there find the ancient place of worship of the children of Ammon. The idol of this people is seated on a cathedral or throne, constructed of stone and richly gilt; two female figures occupy the seats on his side, one being on the right, the other on the left, and before it stands an altar, upon which the children of Ammon anciently offered sacrifices and burned incense. The city contains about two hundred Jews, the principal of whom are R. Meir, R. Jacob, and R. Szimchah. It stands on the coast of the sea of the Holy Land. Two days hence is Beyrut, which is Beeroth[163]. The principal of its fifty Jewish inhabitants are R. Solomon, R. Obadiah, and R. Joseph. It is hence one day's journey to Saida, which is Sidon of Scripture, a large city, with about twenty Jewish inhabitants.

Within twenty miles of this place reside a people who are at war with the inhabitants of Sidon, and who are called Druses. They are called heathens and unbelievers, because they confess no religion. Their dwellings are on the summits of the mountains and in the ridges of the rocks, and they are subject to no king or prince. Mount Hermon, a distance of three days' journey, is the boundary of their territory. This people live incestuously; a father cohabits with his own daughter, and once every year all men and women assemble to celebrate a festival, upon which occasion, after eating and drinking, they hold promiscuous intercourse. They say that the soul of a virtuous man is transferred to the body of a new-born child; whereas that of the wicked transmigrates into a dog or some other animal. This their way is their folly. Jews have no permanent residence among them, although some tradesmen and a few dyers travel through the country occasionally, to carry on their trades or sell goods, and return home when their business is done. The Druses are friendly towards the Jews; they are so nimble in climbing hills and mountains, that nobody can successfully carry on war against them.

One day's journey to New Sur, a very beautiful city, the port of which is in the town itself, and is guarded by two towers, within which the vessels ride at anchor. The officers of the customs draw an iron chain from tower to tower every night, thus effectually preventing any thieves or robbers from escape by boats or by other means. There is no port in the world equal to this. About four hundred Jews reside here, the principal of whom are the judge R. Ephraim Mitsri, R. Meier of Carcasson, and R. Abraham, the elder of the community. The Jews of Sur are ship-owners and manufacturers of the celebrated Tyrian glass[164]; the purple dye is also found in this vicinity. If you mount the walls of New Sur, you may see the remains of "Tyre the crowning,"[165] which was inundated by the sea; it is about the distance of a stone's throw from the new town, and whoever embarks may observe the towers, the markets, the streets, and the halls at the bottom of the sea. The city of New Sur is very commercial, and one to which traders resort from all parts.

It is one day hence to Acre, the Acco of Scripture, on the confines of the tribe of Asher. It is the frontier town of Palestine; and, in consequence of its situation on the shore of the Mediterranean and of its large port, it is the principal place of disembarkation of all pilgrims who visit Jerusalem by sea. A river called Kishon[166] runs near the city. There are here about two hundred Jewish inhabitants, of whom R. Zadok, R. Jepheth, and R. Jona are the principal. Three parasangs further is Kaiffa, which is Gath Hachepher[167]. One side of this city is situated on the coast, on the other it is overlooked by Mount Carmel. Under the mountain are many Jewish sepulchres, and near the summit is the cavern of Elija, upon whom be peace. Two Christians have built a place of worship near this site, which they call St. Elias. On the summit of the hill you may still trace the site of the altar which was rebuilt by Elija of blessed memory, in the time of king Ahab[168], and the circumference of which is about four yards. The river Mukattua runs down the mountain and along its base. It is four parasangs hence to Khephar Thanchum, which is Capernaum, identical with Meon, the place of abode of Nabal the Carmelite. Six parasangs brings us to Cesarea, the Gath of the Philistines of Scripture, inhabited by about ten Jews and two hundred Cutheans. The latter are Samaritan Jews, commonly called Samaritans. This city is very elegant and beautiful, situated on the sea-shore, and was built by king Herod, who called it Cesarea in honour of the emperor, or Cæsar. To Kakun, the Keilah of Scripture[169], half a day's journey; in this place are no Jews. To St. George, the ancient Luz[170], half a day's journey. One Jew only, a dyer, lives here. To Sebaste, one day's journey. This is the ancient Shomron, where you may still trace the site of the palace of Ahab, king of Israel. It was formerly a very strong city, and is situated on a mount, in a fine country, richly watered, and surrounded with gardens, orchards, vineyards, and olive-groves. No Jews live here.

It is two parasangs further to Nablous, the ancient Sichem, on Mount Ephraim. This place contains no Jewish inhabitants, and is situated in the valley between Mount Gerizim and Mount Ebal. It is the abode of about one hundred Cutheans, who observe the Mosaic law only, and are called Samaritans. They have priests, descendants of Aaron the priest of blessed memory, whom they call Aaronim. These do not intermarry with any other but priestly families; but they are priests only of their own law, who offer sacrifices and burnt-offerings in their synagogue on Mount Gerizim. They do this in accordance with the words of Scripture[171], "Thou shalt put the blessing on Mount Gerizim," and they pretend that this is the holy temple[172]. On passover and holidays they offer burnt-offerings on the altar which they have erected on Mount Gerizim, from the stones put up by the children of Israel after they had crossed the Jordan. They pretend to be of the tribe of Ephraim, and are in possession of the tomb of Joseph the righteous, the son of our father Jacob, upon whom be peace, as is proved by the following passage of Scripture[173], "The bones of Joseph, which the children of Israel brought up with them from Egypt, they buried in Sichem." The Samaritans do not possess the three letters He, Cheth, and Ain; the He of the name of our father Abraham, and they have no glory; the Cheth of the name of our father Isaac, in consequence of which they are devoid of piety; the Ain of the name of Jacob, for they want humility. Instead of these letters, they always put an Aleph, by which you may know that they are not of Jewish origin, because, in their knowledge of the law of Moses, they are deficient in three letters[174]. This sect carefully avoid being defiled by touching corpses, bones, those killed by accident, or graves; and they change their daily garments whenever they visit their synagogue, upon which occasion they wash their body and put on other clothes. These are their daily habits.

Mount Gerizim is rich in wells and orchards, whereas Mount Ebal is dry like stone and rock. The city of Nablous lies in the valley between these two hills. Four parasangs from thence is situated Mount Gilboa, which Christians call Monto Jelbon. The country in this part is very barren. Five parasangs further is the valley of Ajalon[175], called by the Christians Val de Luna. One parasang to Gran David, formerly the large city of Gibeon. It contains no Jewish inhabitants.

From thence it is three parasangs to Jerusalem, a small city strongly fortified with three walls. It contains a numerous population, composed of Jacobites, Armenians, Greeks, Georgians, Franks, and indeed of people of all tongues. The dyeing-house is rented by the year, and the exclusive privilege of dyeing is purchased from the king by the Jews of Jerusalem, two hundred of whom dwell in one corner of the city, under the tower of David. About ten yards of the base of this building are very ancient, having been constructed by our ancestors; the remaining part was added by the Mohammedans. The city contains no building stronger than the tower of David. There are at Jerusalem two hospitals, which support four hundred knights, and afford shelter to the sick; these are provided with everything they may want, both during life and in death; the second is called the hospital of Solomon, being the palace originally built by king Solomon. This hospital also harbours and furnishes four hundred knights[176], who are ever ready to wage war, over and above those knights who arrive from the country of the Franks and other parts of Christendom. These generally have taken a vow upon themselves to stay a year or two, and they remain until the period of their vow is expired. The large place of worship, called Sepulchre, and containing the sepulchre of that man[177], is visited by all pilgrims.

Jerusalem has four gates, called the gates of Abraham, David, Sion, and Jehoshaphat. The latter stands opposite the place of the holy temple, which is occupied at present by a building called Templo Domino. Omar Ben Al-Khataab erected a large and handsome cupola over it, and nobody is allowed to introduce any image or painting into this place, it being set aside for prayers only. In front of it you see the western wall, one of the walls which formed the Holy of Holies of the ancient temple; it is called the Gate of Mercy, and all Jews resort thither to say their prayers near the wall of the court-yard. At Jerusalem you also see the stables erected by Solomon[178], and which formed part of his house. Immense stones have been employed in this fabric, the like of which are nowhere else to be met with. You further see to this day vestiges of the canal near which the sacrifices were slaughtered in ancient times; and all Jews inscribe their name upon an adjacent wall. If you leave the city by the gate of Jehoshaphat, you may see the pillar erected on Absalom's place[179], and the sepulchre of king Uzziah[180], and the great spring of Shiloah, which runs into the brook Kedron. Over this spring is a large building erected in the times of our forefathers. Very little water is found at Jerusalem; the inhabitants generally drink rain water, which they collect in their houses.

From the Valley of Jehoshaphat the traveller immediately ascends the Mount of Olives, as this valley only intervenes between the city and the mount. From hence the Dead Sea is distinctly visible. Two parasangs from the sea stands the salt pillar into which Lot's wife was metamorphosed; and although the sheep continually lick it, the pillar grows again, and retains its original state. You also have a prospect over the whole valley of the Dead Sea, and of the brook of Shittim, even as far as Mount Nebo. Mount Sion is also near Jerusalem, upon the acclivity of which stands no building except a place of worship of the Nazarenes (Christians). The traveller further sees there three Jewish cemeteries, where formerly the dead were buried; some of the sepulchres had stones with inscriptions upon them, but the Christians destroy these monuments, and use the stones in building their houses.

Jerusalem is surrounded by high mountains. On Mount Sion are the sepulchres of the house of David, and those of the kings who reigned after him. In consequence of the following circumstance, however, this place is at present hardly to be recognised. Fifteen years ago, one of the walls of the place of worship on Mount Sion fell down, and the patriarch commanded the priest to repair it. He ordered stones to be taken from the original wall of Sion for that purpose, and twenty workmen were hired at stated wages, who broke stones from the very foundation of the walls of Sion. Two of these labourers, who were intimate friends, upon a certain day treated one another, and repaired to their work after their friendly meal. The overseer accused them of dilatoriness, but they answered that they would still perform their day's work, and would employ thereupon the time while their fellow labourers were at meals. They then continued to break out stones, until, happening to meet with one which formed the mouth of a cavern, they agreed to enter it in search of treasure, and they proceeded until they reached a large hall, supported by pillars of marble, encrusted with gold and silver, and before which stood a table, with a golden sceptre and crown. This was the sepulchre of David, king of Israel, to the left of which they saw that of Solomon in a similar state, and so on the sepulchres of all the kings of Juda, who were buried there. They further saw chests locked up, the contents of which nobody knew, and were on the point of entering the hall, when a blast of wind like a storm issued forth from the mouth of the cavern so strong that it threw them down almost lifeless on the ground. There they lay until evening, when another wind rushed forth, from which they heard a voice like that of a man calling aloud, "Get up, and go forth from this place." The men rushed out full of fear, and proceeded to the patriarch to report what had happened to them. This ecclesiastic summoned into his presence R. Abraham el Constantini, a pious ascetic, one of the mourners of the downfall of Jerusalem[181], and caused the two labourers to repeat what they had previously reported. R. Abraham thereupon informed the patriarch that they had discovered the sepulchres of the house of David and of the kings of Juda. The following morning the labourers were sent for again, but they were found stretched on their beds and still full of fear; they declared that they would not attempt to go again to the cave, as it was not God's will to discover it to any one. The patriarch ordered the place to be walled up, so as to hide it effectually from every one unto the present day. The above-mentioned R. Abraham told me all this.

Two parasangs from Jerusalem is Bethlehem of Judea, called Beth-lehem; and within half a mile of it, where several roads meet[182], stands the monument which points out the grave of Rachel. This monument is constructed of eleven stones, equal to the number of the children of Jacob. It is covered by a cupola, which rests upon four pillars; and every Jew who passes there inscribes his name on the stones of the monument. Twelve Jews, dyers by profession[183], live at Bethlehem. The country abounds with rivulets, wells, and springs of water. Six parasangs further is Hebron. The ancient city of that name was situated on the hill, and lies in ruins at present; whereas the modern town stands in the valley, even in the field of Machpelah[184]. Here is the large place of worship called St. Abraham, which during the time of the Mohammedans was a synagogue. The Gentiles have erected six sepulchres in this place, which they pretend to be those of Abraham and Sarah, of Isaac and Rebecca, and of Jacob and Leah; the pilgrims are told that they are the sepulchres of the fathers, and money is extorted from them. But if any Jew come, who gives an additional fee to the keeper of the cave, an iron door is opened, which dates from the times of our forefathers who rest in peace, and with a burning candle in his hands, the visitor descends into a first cave, which is empty, traverses a second in the same state, and at last reaches a third, which contains six sepulchres, those of Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob, and of Sarah, Rebecca, and Leah, one opposite the other. All these sepulchres bear inscriptions, the letters being engraved: thus, upon that of Abraham, we read, "This is the sepulchre of our father Abraham, upon whom be peace;" and so on that of Isaac and upon all the other sepulchres. A lamp burns in the cave and upon the sepulchres continually, both night and day; and you there see tubs filled with the bones of Israelites, for unto this day it is a custom of the house of Israel to bring thither the bones of their relicts and of their forefathers, and to leave them there. On the confines of the field of Machpelah stands the house of our father Abraham[185], who rests in peace; before which house there is a spring, and, out of respect to Abraham, nobody is allowed to construct any building on that site.

It is five parasangs hence to Beit Jaberim, the ancient Mareshah[186], where there are but three Jewish inhabitants. Five parasangs further bring us to Toron de los Caballeros, which is Shunem[187], inhabited by three hundred Jews. We then proceed three parasangs to St. Samuel of Shiloh, the ancient Shiloh, within two parasangs of Jerusalem. When the Christians took Ramleh, which is Ramah, from the Mohammedans, they discovered the sepulchre of Samuel the Ramathi[188] near the Jewish synagogue, and removed his remains to Shiloh, where they erected a large place of worship over them, called St. Samuel of Shiloh to the present day. Hence it is three parasangs to Pesipua, which is Gibeah of Saul, or Geba of Benjamin; it contains no Jews. Three parasangs to Beith Nubi, which is Nob, the city of the priests. In the middle of the road are the two rocks of Jonathan[189], the name of one of which is Botsets, and of the other Séné. The two Jews who live here are dyers.

It is three parasangs hence to Ramleh, which is Harama, where you still find walls erected by our forefathers, as is evident from the inscriptions upon the stones. The city contains about three Jews; but it was formerly very considerable, for a Jewish cemetery in its vicinity is two miles in extent. Five parasangs hence to Jaffa, the Japho of Scripture, on the coast; one Jew only, a dyer by profession, lives here. Three parasangs to Ibelin, the ancient Jabneh[190], where the site of the schools may still be traced; it contains no Jews. Here was the frontier of the tribe of Ephraim. Two parasangs to Palmis, or Asdoud[191], formerly a city of the Philistines, at present in ruins, and containing no Jews. Two parasangs to Ascalon, which is in fact the New Ascalon, built on the coast by Esra the priest, of blessed memory, and originally called Benebra, distant about four parasangs from ancient Ascalon, which lies in ruins. This city is very large and handsome; and merchants from all parts resort to it, on account of its convenient situation on the confines of Egypt. There are here about two hundred rabbanite Jews, of whom the principal are R. Tsemach, R. Aaron, and R. Solomon, besides about forty Caraites, and about three hundred Cutheans or Samaritans. In the city is a fountain called Bir Ibrahim-al-Khahil, which was dug in the time of the Philistines. From hence back to St. George, which is Lydda, and in one day and a half to Serain, the Jezreel of Scripture[192], a city containing a remarkably large fountain. It has one Jewish inhabitant, a dyer. Three parasangs to Sufurieh, the Tsippori of antiquity[193]. The sepulchres of Rabenu Hakkadosh, of R. Chija, who came back from Babylon, and of Jonah the son of Amittai the prophet, are shown here; they are buried in the mountain, which also contains numerous other sepulchres.

From hence it is five parasangs to Tiberias, a city situated on the Jordan, which here bears the name of the Sea of Chinnereth[194], or Lake of Tiberias. Here are the falls of the Jordan, in consequence of which the place bears also the name of Ashdoth-Pisga[195], which means "the place where the rapid rivers have their fall:" the Jordan afterwards empties itself into Lake Asphaltes, or the Dead Sea. Tiberias contains about fifty Jews, the principal of whom are R. Abraham the astronomer[196], R. Muchthar, and R. Isaac. The hot waters, which spout forth from under ground, are called the warm baths of Tiberias. In the vicinity is the synagogue of Khaleb, son of Jepuneh; and among numerous other Jewish sepulchres are those of R. Jochanan, son of Zakhai[197], and of R. Jonathan, son of Levi. These are all in Lower Galilee. Two parasangs bring us to Tebnin, the Thimnatha of Scripture[198], where you find the sepulchre of Samuel (Simeon) the Just, and many other sepulchres of Israelites. It is hence one day to Gish, which is Gush Chaleb, and contains about twenty Jewish inhabitants. We go hence six parasangs to Meroon, which is Maron[199]; in a cave near this place are the sepulchres of Hillel and Shamai, and of twenty of their disciples, as well as those of R. Benjamin, son of Jephet, and of R. Juda, son of Bethera. Six parasangs to Alma, which contains fifty Jewish inhabitants, and a large cemetery of the Israelites. Half a day brings you to Kades, which is Kadesh Naphthali, on the banks of the Jordan. Here are the sepulchres of R. Eleasar, son of Arach, of R. Eleasar, son of Asariah, of Chuni Hamaagal, of R. Simeon, son of Gamaliel, of R. Jose Hagelili, and of Barak the son of Abinoam[200]. This place contains no Jews.

A day's journey brings us to Belinas[201], the ancient Dan[202], where the traveller may see a cave, from which the Jordan issues, and three miles hence this river unites its waters with those of the Arnon, a rivulet of the ancient land of Moab. In front of the cave you may still trace vestiges of the altar of the image of Micha, which was adored by the children of Dan in ancient times. Here also is the site of the altar erected by Jeroboam, son of Nebat, in honour of the golden calf; and here were the confines of the land of Israel toward the uttermost sea[203].

Two days from this place brings you to Damascus, a large city and the frontier town of the empire of Noureddin[204], king of the Thogarmim, or Turks. This city is very large and handsome, and is inclosed with a wall and surrounded by a beautiful country, which in a circuit of fifteen miles presents the richest gardens and orchards, in such numbers and beauty as to be without equal upon earth. The rivers Amana[205] and Parpar[206], the sources of which are on Mount Hermon (on which the city leans), run down here; the Amana follows its course through Damascus, and its waters are carried by means of pipes into the houses of the principal inhabitants, as well as into the streets and markets. A considerable trade is carried on here by merchants of all countries. The Parpar runs between the gardens and orchards in the outskirts, and supplies them copiously with water. Damascus contains a Mohammedan mosque, called "the Synagogue of Damascus," a building of unequalled magnificence. They say that it was the palace of Ben-Hadad[207], and that one wall of it is framed of glass by enchantment. This wall contains as many openings as there are days in the solar year, and the sun in gradual succession throws its light into the openings, which are divided into twelve degrees, equal to the number of the hours of the day, so that by this contrivance every body may know what time it is. The palace contains vessels richly ornamented with gold and silver, formed like tubs, and of a size to allow three persons to bathe in them at once. In this building is also preserved the rib of a giant, which measures nine spans in length, and two in breadth, and which belonged to an ancient giant king named Abchamas, whose name was found engraved upon a stone of his tomb, and it was further stated in the inscription that he reigned over the whole world.

This city contains three thousand Jews, many of whom are learned and rich men; it is the residence of the president of the university of Palestine, named R. Esra, whose brother, Sar Shalom, is the principal of the Jewish court of law. The other distinguished Jews are R. Joseph, who ranges fifth in the university, R. Matsliach, the lecturer and master of the schools, R. Meir, a flower of the learned, R. Joseph Ibn Pilath, who may be called the prop of the university, R. Heman the elder, and R. Zadok the physician. The city contains also two hundred Caraites and about four hundred Samaritans, sects which here live upon friendly terms, but they do not intermarry.

It is one day's journey thence to Jelaad, which is Gilead; it contains about sixty Jews, the principal of whom is R. Zadok. The city is large, well watered, and surrounded by gardens and orchards. Half a day's journey further stands Salkhat, the city of Salcah of Scripture. From thence to Baalbec is half a day's journey. This is the city mentioned in Scripture as Baalath in the valley of Lebanon, which Solomon built for the daughter of Pharaoh. The palace is constructed of stones of enormous size, measuring twenty spans in length and twelve in breadth; no binding material holds these stones together, and people pretend that the building could have been erected only by the help of Ashmodai. A copious spring takes its rise at the upper side of the city, through which its waters rush like those of a considerable river. They are employed in the working of several mills within the city, which also incloses numerous gardens and orchards.

Tadmor in the desert was also built by Solomon of equally large stones; this city is surrounded by a wall, and stands in the desert, far from any inhabited place, being four days' journey distant from the above-mentioned Baalath. It contains two thousand warlike Jews, who are at war with the Christians and with the Arabian subjects of Noureddin, and assist their neighbours the Mohammedans. Their chiefs are R. Isaac Hajevani, R. Nathan, and R. Usiel. Half a day brings us to Cariyatin, which is Kirjathaim; one Jew only, a dyer by profession, lives there. One day hence is Hamah, the Hamath of Scripture, on the Orontes, under Mount Lebanon. Some time ago this city was visited by an earthquake, in consequence of which fifteen thousand men died in one day, leaving only seventy survivors[208]. The principals of the Jews here are R. Ulah Hacohen, the sheikh Abu al Galeb, and Muktar. Half a day to Reiha, which is Hazor. Three parasangs to Lamdin, from whence it is a journey of two days to Aleppo, the Aram Zoba of Scripture. This city is the residence of king Noureddin, and contains his palace, a building fortified by an extraordinarily high wall. There being neither spring nor river, the inhabitants are obliged to drink rain-water, which is collected in every house in a cistern called in Arabic, Algub. The principal of the fifteen hundred Jews who live in Aleppo are R. Moses el-Constandini, R. Israel, and R. Seth.

To Bales, which is Pethor[209] on the Euphrates, two days. Even at this day you there still find remains of the tower of Balaam the son of Beor (may the name of the wicked rot!) which he built in accordance with the hours of the day. This place contains about ten Jews. Half a day hence we come to Kala Jiaber[210], which is Sela Midbarah. This city remained in the power of the Arabs even at the time when the Thogarmim (or Turks) took their country and dispersed them in the desert. It contains about two thousand Jews, of whom R. Zedekiah, R. Chia, and R. Solomon are the principal. One day brings us to Racca, which is Calneh of Scripture[211], on the confines of Mesopotamia, being the frontier town between that country and the empire of the Thogarmim (or Turks); it contains about seven hundred Jewish inhabitants, the principal of whom are R. Sakhai, R. Nadib, who is blind, and R. Joseph. One of the synagogues was built by Esra the scribe, when he returned to Jerusalem from Babylon. It is one day hence to the ancient place of Haran[212], which contains twenty Jewish inhabitants, who also possess a synagogue erected by Esra. Nobody is allowed to construct any building on the spot where the house of our father Abraham was situated; even the Mohammedans pay respect to the place, and resort thither to pray. Two days' journey from thence is ...[213] at the mouth of the El-Khabur, the Habor of Scripture. This river takes its course through Media, and loses itself in the Kizil Ozein. About two hundred Jews dwell near this place. Two days to Nisibin, a large city plentifully watered, and containing about one thousand Jews. Two days to Jezireh Ben Omar, an island in the Tigris, at the foot of Mount Ararat[214], and four miles distant from the spot where the ark of Noah rested; Omar Ben al-Khatab removed the ark from the summit of the two mountains and made a mosque of it. There still exists in the vicinity of the ark a synagogue of Esra the scribe, which is visited by the Jews of the city on the 9th of Ab[215]. The city of Jezireh Omar Ben al-Khatab contains about four thousand Jews, the principals of whom are R. Mubchar, R. Joseph, and R. Chiia.

Two days from thence stands Mosul, mentioned in Scripture as Ashur the great, which contains about seven thousand Jews, the principal of whom are R. Sakhai, the prince, a descendant of King David, and R. Joseph, surnamed Borhan-al-Phulkh, who is astronomer of Seifeddin, the brother of Noureddin, king of Damascus. This city, situated on the confines of Persia, is of great extent and very ancient; it stands on the banks of the Tigris, and is joined by a bridge to Nineveh. Although the latter lies in ruins, there are numerous inhabited villages and small towns on its site. Nineveh is on the Tigris, distant one parasang from the town of Arbil[216]. Mosul contains the synagogues of Obadiah, of Jonah, son of Amittai, and of Nahum the Elkoshite. It is three days hence to Rahabah, which is Rehoboth, by the river Euphrates, and contains about two thousand Jews, the principal of whom are R. Ezekiah, R. Ehud, and R. Isaac. The city is surrounded by a wall, it is very handsome, large, and well fortified; and the environs abound with gardens and orchards. One day to Karkisia[217], the Carchemish of Scripture, on the banks of the Euphrates, containing about five hundred Jewish inhabitants, of whom the principal are R. Isaac and R. Elchanan. Two days to Juba, which is Pumbeditha, in Nehardea; it contains about two thousand Jews, some of them eminent scholars. The rabbi R. Chen, R. Moses, and R. Eliakim are the principal. Here the traveller may see the sepulchres of R. Juda and R. Samuel, opposite two synagogues which they erected during their lives; as well as the sepulchres of R. Bosthenai, the prince of the captivity, of R. Nathan, and of R. Nachman, the son of Papa[218]. Five days to Hardah (or Hadrah), containing fifteen thousand Jews, of whom R. Saken, R. Joseph, and R. Nathaniel are the principal. Two days to Akbara, the city which was built by Jeconiah, king of Juda; it contains about ten thousand Jews, the principal of whom are R. Joshua and R. Nathan.

Two days from thence stands Bagdad, the large metropolis of the khalif Emir-al-Mumenin al Abassi, of the family of their prophet, who is the chief of the Mohammedan religion[219]. All Mohammedan kings acknowledge him, and he holds the same dignity over them which the pope enjoys over the Christians. The palace of the khalif at Bagdad is three miles in extent. It contains a large park filled with all sorts of trees, both useful and ornamental, and all kinds of beasts, as well as a pond of water carried thither from the river Tigris; and whenever the khalif desires to enjoy himself and to sport and carouse, birds, beasts, and fishes are prepared for him and for his courtiers, whom he invites to his palace. This great Abasside is extremely friendly towards the Jews, many of his officers being of that nation; he understands all languages, is well versed in the Mosaic law, and reads and writes the Hebrew tongue. He enjoys nothing but what he earns by the labour of his own hands, and therefore manufactures coverlets, which he stamps with his seal, and which his officers sell in the public market; these articles are purchased by the nobles of the land, and from their produce his necessaries are provided. The khalif is an excellent man, trustworthy and kind-hearted towards every one, but generally invisible to the Mohammedans. The pilgrims, who come hither from distant countries on their way to Mecca in Yemen, desire to be presented to him, and thus address him from the palace: "Our lord, light of the Mohammedans and splendour of our religion, show us the brightness of thy countenance;" but he heeds not their words. His servants and officers then approach and pray: "O lord, manifest thy peace to these men who come from distant lands and desire shelter in the shadow of thy glory." After this petition, he rises and puts one corner of his garment out of the window, which the pilgrims eagerly kiss. One of the lords then addresses them thus: "Go in peace, for our lord, the light of the Mohammedans, is well pleased and gives you his blessing." This prince being esteemed by them equal to their prophet, they proceed on their way, full of joy at the words addressed to them by the lord who communicated the message of peace. All the brothers and other members of the khalif's family are accustomed to kiss his garments. Every one of them possesses a palace within that of the khalif, but they are all bound with chains of iron, and a special officer is appointed over each household to prevent their rising in rebellion against the great king. These measures are taken in consequence of what occurred some time ago, when the brothers rebelled and elected a king among themselves; to prevent which in future it was decreed, that all the members of the khalif's family should be chained, in order to prevent their rebellious intentions. Every one of them, however, resides in his palace, and is there much honoured; and they possess villages and towns, the rents of which are collected for them by their stewards. They eat and drink, and lead a merry life. The palace of the great king contains large buildings, pillars of gold and silver, and treasures of precious stones.

The khalif leaves his palace but once every year, viz. at the time of the feast called Ramadan; on which occasion many visitors assemble from distant parts, in order to have an opportunity of beholding his countenance. He then bestrides the royal mule, dressed in kingly robes, which are composed of gold and silver cloth. On his head he wears a turban, ornamented with precious stones of inestimable value; but over this turban is thrown a black veil, as a sign of humility, and as much as to say: "See all this worldly honour will be converted into darkness on the day of death." He is accompanied by a numerous retinue of Mohammedan nobles, arrayed in rich dresses and riding upon horses, princes of Arabia, of Media, of Persia, and even of Tibet, a country distant three months' journey from Arabia. The procession goes from the palace to the mosque at the Bozra gate, which is the metropolitan mosque. All who walk in procession, both men and women, are dressed in silk and purple. The streets and squares are enlivened with singing and rejoicing, and by parties who dance before the great king, called khalif. He is saluted loudly by the assembled crowd, who cry: "Blessed art thou, our lord and king." He thereupon kisses his garment, and by holding it in his hand, acknowledges and returns the compliment. The procession moves on into the court of the mosque, where the khalif mounts a wooden pulpit and expounds their law unto them. The learned Mohammedans rise, pray for him, and praise his great kindness and piety; upon which the whole assembly answer, "Amen!" The khalif then pronounces his blessing, and kills a camel, which is led thither for that purpose, and this is their offering. It is distributed to the nobles, who send portions of it to their friends, who are eager to taste of the meat killed by the hands of their holy king, and are much rejoiced therewith. The khalif, after this ceremony, leaves the mosque, and returns alone, along the banks of the Tigris, to his palace, the noble Mohammedans accompanying him in boats, until he enters this building. He never returns by the way he came; and the path on the bank of the river is carefully guarded all the year round, so as to prevent any one treading in his footsteps. The khalif never leaves his palace again for a whole year. He is a pious and benevolent man, and has erected buildings on the other side of the river, on the banks of an arm of the Euphrates, which runs on one side of the city. These buildings include many large houses, streets, and hostelries for the sick poor, who resort thither in order to be cured. There are about sixty medical warehouses here, all well provided from the king's stores with spices and other necessaries; and every patient who claims assistance is fed at the king's expense, until his cure is completed.

There is further a large building, called Dar-al-Maraphtan[220], in which are confined all the insane persons who are met with, particularly during the hot season, every one of whom is secured by iron chains until his reason returns, when he is allowed to return to his home. For this purpose they are regularly examined once a month by officers appointed by the king for that purpose; and when they are found to be possessed of reason they are immediately liberated. All this is done by the king in pure charity towards all who come to Bagdad, either ill or insane; for the king is a pious man, and his intention is excellent in this respect.

Bagdad contains about one thousand Jews, who enjoy peace, comfort, and much honour under the government of the great king. Among them are very wise men and presidents of the colleges, whose occupation is the study of the Mosaic law. The city contains ten colleges. The principal of the great college is the rabbi R. Samuel, the son of Eli, principal of the college Geon Jacob; the provost of the Levites is the president of the second; R. Daniel, the master of the third college; R. Eleasar, the fellow, presides over the fourth; R. Eleasar, the son of Tsemach, is chief of the fifth college; he is master of the studies, and possesses a pedigree of his descent from the prophet Samuel, who rests in peace, and he and his brothers know the melodies that were sung in the temple during its existence; R. Chasadiah, principal fellow, is the master of the sixth, R. Chagai, the prince, the principal of the seventh, and R. Esra, the president of the eighth college; R. Abraham, called Abu Tahir, presides over the ninth, and R. Zakhai, son of Bosthenai, master of the studies, is president of the tenth college. All these are called Batlanim, i. e. the Idle: because their sole occupation consists in the discharge of public business. During every day of the week they dispense justice to all the Jewish inhabitants of the country, except Monday, which is set aside for assemblies under the presidency of the rabbi Samuel, master of the college Geon Jacob, who on that day dispenses justice to every applicant, and is assisted therein by the other Batlanim, presidents of the colleges.

The principal of all these, however, is R. Daniel, the son of Chisdai, who bears the titles of Prince of the Captivity and Lord, and who possesses a pedigree which proves his descent from king David. The Jews call him "Lord, Prince of the Captivity," and the Mohammedans entitle him Saidna Ben Daoud, noble descendant of David. He holds great command over all Jewish congregations under the authority of the Emir-al-Mumenin, the lord of the Mohammedans, who has commanded that he shall be respected, and has confirmed his power by granting him a seal of office. Every one of his subjects, whether he be Jew or Mohammedan or of any other faith, is commanded to rise in the presence of the prince of the captivity, and to salute him respectfully, under a penalty of one hundred stripes. Whenever he pays a visit to the king, he is escorted by numerous horsemen, both Jews and Gentiles, and a crier proclaims aloud: "Make way before our lord the son of David, as becomes his dignity;" in Arabic, Amilu tarik la-saidna ben-Daud. Upon these occasions he rides upon a horse, and his dress is composed of embroidered silk; on his head he wears a large turban covered with a white cloth, and surmounted by a chain (or diadem). The authority of the prince of the captivity extends over the countries of Mesopotamia, Persia, Khorassan, Seba, which is Yemen, Diarbekh, all Armenia and the land of Kota near Mount Ararat, over the country of the Alanians, which is shut in by mountains, and has no outlet except by the iron gates which were made by Alexander, over Sikbia and all the provinces of the Turkmans unto the Aspisian mountains, over the country of the Georgians unto the river Oxus (these are the Girgasim of Scripture, and believe in Christianity), and as far as the frontiers of the provinces and cities of Tibet and India. All the Jewish congregations of these different countries receive authority from the prince of captivity to elect rabbis and ministers, all of whom appear before him in order to receive consecration[221] and the permission to officiate, upon which occasions presents and valuable gifts are offered to him, even from the remotest countries. The prince of the captivity possesses hostelries, gardens, and orchards in Babylonia, and extensive landed property inherited from his forefathers, of which nobody can deprive him. He enjoys a certain yearly income from the Jewish hostelries, the markets, and the merchandise of the country, which is levied in form of a tax, over and above what is presented to him from foreign countries. He is very rich, an excellent scholar, and so hospitable, that numerous Israelites dine at his table every day. At the time of the installation of the prince of the captivity he expends considerable sums in presents to the king (or khalif), and to his princes and nobles. This ceremony is performed by the king or khalif, who lays his hands on the prince, after which the latter rides home from the king's abode to his own house, seated in a royal state carriage, and accompanied with the sound of various musical instruments; he afterwards lays his hands on the gentlemen of the university, to reinstal them. Many of the Jews of Bagdad are good scholars and very rich. The city contains twenty-eight Jewish synagogues, situated partly in Bagdad and partly in Al-Khorkh, on the other side of the river Tigris, which runs through and divides the city. The metropolitan synagogue of the prince of the captivity is ornamented with pillars of richly coloured marble, plated with gold and silver; on the pillars are inscribed verses of the Psalms in letters of gold. The ascent to the holy ark[222] is composed of ten marble steps, on the uppermost of which are the stalls set apart for the prince of the captivity and the other princes of the house of David.

The city of Bagdad is three miles in circumference; the country in which it is situated is rich in palm-trees, gardens, and orchards, so that nothing equals it in Mesopotamia. Merchants of all countries resort thither for purposes of trade, and it contains many wise philosophers, well skilled in sciences, and magicians proficient in all sorts of enchantment.

Two days from hence stands Gihiagin, or Ras-al-Ain, which is Resen, "the great city;"[223] it contains about five thousand Jews and a large synagogue. In a house near the synagogue is the sepulchre of[224] ...; and, in a cave below it, that of his twelve disciples. From hence it is one day to Babylon. This is the ancient Babel, and now lies in ruins; but the streets still extend thirty miles. The ruins of the palace of Nebuchadnezzar are still to be seen; but people are afraid to venture among them on account of the serpents and scorpions with which they are infested. Twenty thousand Jews live within about twenty miles from this place, and perform their worship in the synagogue of Daniel, who rests in peace. This synagogue is of remote antiquity, having been built by Daniel himself; it is constructed of solid stones and bricks. Here the traveller may also behold the palace of Nebuchadnezzar, with the burning fiery furnace into which were thrown Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah; it is a valley well known to every one[225]. Hillah, which is at a distance of five miles, contains about ten thousand Jews and four synagogues, one of which is that of R. Meier, whose sepulchre is in front of it; another is that of R. Seiri, son of Hama, and R. Miri[226]. Public worship is performed daily in these synagogues. Four miles from hence is the tower built by the dispersed generation[227]. It is constructed of bricks called al-ajurr; the base measures two miles, the breadth two hundred and forty yards, and the height about one hundred canna. A spiral passage, built into the tower (in stages of ten yards each), leads up to the summit, from which we have a prospect of twenty miles, the country being one wide plain and quite level. The heavenly fire, which struck the tower, split it to its very foundation.

Half a day from hence, at Napacha[228], which contains two hundred Jews, is the synagogue of R. Isaac Napacha, in front of which is his sepulchre. Three parasangs hence, on the banks of the Euphrates, stands the synagogue of the prophet Ezekiel, who rests in peace[229]. The place of the synagogue is fronted by sixty towers, the space between every two of which is also occupied by a synagogue; in the court of the largest stands the ark, and behind it is the sepulchre of Ezekiel, the son of Buzi the priest. This monument is covered with a large cupola, and the building is very handsome; it was erected by Jechoniah, king of Juda, and the thirty five thousand Jews who went along with him, when Evil-Merodach released him from the prison[230], which was situated between the river Chaboras and another river. The names of Jechoniah and of all those who came with him are inscribed on the wall, the king's name first, that of Ezekiel last. This place is considered holy even to the present day, and is one of those to which people resort from remote countries in order to pray, particularly at the season of new year and atonement day[231]. There are great rejoicings here at that time, which are attended even by the prince of the captivity and the presidents of the colleges of Bagdad. The assembly is so large, that their temporary abodes cover twenty-two miles of open ground, and attract many Arabian merchants, who keep a market or fair. On the day of atonement the proper lesson of the day is read from a very large manuscript Pentateuch in Ezekiel's own handwriting. A lamp burns night and day on the sepulchre of the prophet, and has always been kept burning since the day he lighted it himself; the oil and wicks are renewed as often as necessary. A large house belonging to the sanctuary contains a very numerous collection of books, some of them as ancient as the second, some even coeval with the first temple, it being the custom that whoever dies childless bequeaths his books to this sanctuary. The inhabitants of the country lead to the sepulchre all foreign Jews, who come from Media and Persia to visit it in fulfilment of vows. The noble Mohammedans also resort thither to pray, because they hold the prophet Ezekiel, on whom be peace! in great veneration, and they call this place Dar Melicha (the agreeable abode); the sepulchre is also visited by all devout Arabs. Within half a mile of the synagogue are the sepulchres of Hananiah, Mishael, and Azariah, each covered with a large cupola. Even in times of war, neither Jew nor Mohammedan ventures to despoil and profane the sepulchre of Ezekiel.

Three miles from hence stands the city of Al-Kotsonaath, containing three hundred Jewish inhabitants and the sepulchres of R. Papa, R. Huna, R. Joseph Sinai, and R. Joseph, the son of Hama, in front of each of which is a synagogue in which Jews daily pray. Three parasangs to Ain Japhata, which contains the sepulchre of the prophet Nahum the Elkoshite, who rests in peace. In a Persian village, a day from thence, are the sepulchres of R. Chisdai, R. Akiba, and R. Dossa; and in another village, half a day's distance in the desert, are those of R. David, R. Juda, R. Kubreh, R. Sechora, and R. Aba; and on the river Lega, a distance of one day, that of king Zedekiah[232], who rests in peace; the latter is ornamented by a large cupola[233]. It is one day hence to the city of Kufa, which contains about seventy thousand Jews; and in it is the sepulchre of king Jechoniah, which consists of a large building with a synagogue in front. One day and a half to Sura, the place called in the Talmud Matha-Mechasia, formerly the residence of the princes of the captivity and of the principals of the colleges. At Sura are the sepulchres of R. Shrira and his son Rabenu Hai, Rabenu Sadiah-al-Fajumi, R. Samuel, the son of Chophni the priest, and Zephaniah, the son of Khushi, the son of Gedaliah the prophet, and of many other princes of the captivity, descendants of the house of David, who formerly resided there before the city was ruined. Two days from thence is Shafjathib, where there is a synagogue, which the Israelites erected with earth and stones brought from Jerusalem, and which they called "the transplanted of Nehardea." One day and a half from thence is El Jubar, or Pombeditha, on the river Euphrates, containing about three thousand Jews, and the synagogues, sepulchres, and colleges of Rab and Samuel.

At twenty-one days' journey through the desert of Sheba, or Al-Yemen, from which Mesopotamia lies in a northerly direction, are the abodes of the Jews who are called Beni (children of) Rechab, men of Thema. The seat of their government is at Thema (or Tehama), where their prince and governor rabbi Chanan resides. This city is large, and the extent of their country is sixteen days' journey towards the northern mountain range. They possess large and strong cities and are not subject to any of the Gentiles, but undertake warlike expeditions into distant provinces with the Arabians, their neighbours and allies, to take the spoil and the prey. These Arabians are Bedouins, who live in tents in the deserts and have no fixed abode, and who are in the habit of undertaking marauding expeditions into the province of Yemen. The Jews are a terror to their neighbours. Their country being very extensive, some of them cultivate the land and rear cattle. A number of studious and learned men, who spend their lives in the study of the law, are maintained by the tithes of all produce, part of which is also employed towards sustaining the poor and the ascetics, called "Mourners of Sion" and "Mourners of Jerusalem." These eat no meat and abstain from wine, dress always in black, and live in caves or in low houses, and keep fasts all their lives except on Sabbaths and holy-days[234]. They continually implore the mercy of God for the Jews in exile, and devoutly pray that he may have compassion on them for the sake of his own great name; and they also include in their prayers all the Jews of Tehama and of Telmas. The latter contains about one hundred thousand Jews, who are governed by prince Salomon, who, as well as his brother, prince Chanan, are descendants of the royal house of David, who rests in peace, which is proved by their pedigrees. In doubtful cases they solicit the decisions of the prince of the captivity, and set aside forty days of every year, during which they go in rent clothes, and keep fasts, and pray for all the Jews who live in exile.

The province of which Thanaejm is the metropolis contains forty cities, two hundred villages, and one hundred small towns, and is inhabited by about three hundred thousand Jews. Thanaejm is a very strong city, fifteen square miles in extent, and large enough to allow agriculture to be carried on within its boundaries; within which are also situated the palace of prince Salomon, and many gardens and orchards. Telmas is also a city of considerable magnitude; it contains about one hundred thousand Jews, is strongly fortified, and situated between two very high mountains. Many of its inhabitants are well informed, wise, and rich. The distance from Telmas to Chaibar is three days' journey. It is reported that these Jews are of the tribes of Reuben, Gad, and half the tribe of Manasseh, who were led away captives by Shalmaneser, king of Ashur, and who repaired into these mountainous regions, where they erected the above-named large and strong cities. They carry on war with many kingdoms, and are not easily to be reached because of their situation, which requires a march of eighteen days through uninhabited deserts, and thus renders them difficult of access.

Chaibar is also a very large city, and contains among its fifty thousand Jewish inhabitants many learned scholars. The people of this city are valiant, and engaged in wars with the inhabitants of Mesopotamia, with those of the northern districts, and with those of Yemen, who live near them; the latter province borders on India. It is a distance of twenty-five days' journey from the country of these Jews to ...[235] on the river Virah, in Yemen, which place contains about three thousand Jews. Waset[236] is distant seven days, and contains about ten thousand Jews, among whom is R. Nedain. Five days hence bring us to Bassora on the Tigris, which contains two thousand Israelites, many of whom are learned and wealthy. From hence it is two days to ...[237] on the river Samarra, or Shat-el-Arab. This is the frontier of Persia, and contains fifteen hundred Jews. The sepulchre of Ezra the priest and scribe is in this place, where he died on his journey from Jerusalem to king Artaxerxes. In front of the sepulchre a large synagogue and a Mohammedan mosque have been erected, the latter as a mark of the veneration in which Ezra is held by the Mohammedans, who are very friendly towards the Jews, and resort thither to pray.

Four miles from thence begins Khuzistan, the Elam of Scripture, a large province, which, however, is but partially inhabited, a portion of it lying in ruins. Among the latter are the remains of Shushan[238], the metropolis and palace of king Ahasuerus, which still contains very large and handsome buildings of ancient date. It has seven thousand Jewish inhabitants, with fourteen synagogues; in front of one of which is the sepulchre of Daniel, who rests in peace. The river Ulai divides the city into two parts, which are connected by a bridge; that portion of it which is inhabited by the Jews contains the markets, to which all trade is confined, and there all the rich dwell; on the other side of the river they are poor, because they are deprived of the above-named advantages, and have even no gardens or orchards. These circumstances gave rise to jealousy, which was fostered by the belief that all honour and riches originated in the possession of the remains of the prophet Daniel, who rests in peace, and who was buried on the favoured side of the river. A request was made by the poor for permission to remove the sepulchre to the other side, but it was rejected; upon which a war arose, and was carried on between the two parties for a length of time; this strife lasted until "their souls become loath," and they came to a mutual agreement, by which it was arranged that the coffin which contained Daniel's bones should be deposited alternately every year on either side. Both parties faithfully adhered to this arrangement, until it was interrupted by the interference of Sanjar Shah ben Shah[239], who governs all Persia, and holds supreme power over forty-five of its kings. This prince is called in Arabic Sultan-al-Fars-al-Khabir (Supreme Commander of Persia), and his empire extends from the banks of the Shat-el-Arab to the city of Samarkand and the Kizil Ozein, inclosing the city of Nishapur, the cities of Media, and the Chaphton mountains, and reaches as far as Thibet, in the forests of which country that quadruped is found which yields the musk. The extent of his empire is four months and four days' journey. When this great emperor, Sanjar king of Persia, came to Shushan and saw that the coffin of Daniel was removed from one side to the other, he crossed the bridge with a very numerous retinue, accompanied by Jews and Mohammedans, and inquired into the reason of those proceedings. Upon being told what we have related, he declared it to be derogatory to the honour of Daniel, and commanded that the distance between the two banks should be exactly measured, that Daniel's coffin should be deposited in another coffin, made of glass, and that it should be suspended from the centre of the bridge by chains of iron. A place of public worship was erected on the spot, open to every one who desired to say his prayers, whether he be Jew or Gentile; and the coffin of Daniel is suspended from the bridge unto this very day. The king commanded that, in honour of Daniel, nobody should be allowed to fish in the river one mile on each side of the coffin.

It is three days hence to Rudbar, which contains twenty thousand Jews, among whom are many scholars and rich men, but they generally live under great oppression. Two days hence bring us to the river Holwan, near which you find the abodes of about four thousand Jews. Four days to the district of Mulehet[240], possessed by a sect who do not believe in the tenets of Mohammed, but live on the summit of high mountains, and pay obedience to the commands of the Old Man in the country of the Assassins. Four congregations of Jews dwell among them, and combine with them in their wars. They do not acknowledge the authority of the kings of Persia, but live on their mountains, whence they occasionally descend to make booty and to take spoil, with which they retire to their mountain fortresses, beyond the reach of their assailants. Some of the Jews who live in this country are excellent scholars, and all acknowledge the authority of the prince of the captivity, who resides at Bagdad in Babylonia.

Five days from hence is Amaria, which contains five-and-twenty thousand Jews. This congregation forms part of those who live in the mountains of Chaphton, and which amount to more than a hundred, extending to the frontiers of Media. These Jews are descendants of those who were originally led into captivity by king Shalmaneser; they speak the Syriac language, and among them are many excellent Talmudic scholars; they are neighbours to those of the city of Amaria, which is situated within one day's journey of the empire of Persia, to the king of which they are tributary. This tribute is collected by a deputy, and amounts here, as well as in all Mohammedan countries, to one amiri of gold, equal to one golden maravedi and one-third, for each male inhabitant of the age of fifteen and upwards.

Ten years ago[241] there rose a man of the name of David El-Roy, of the city of Amaria, who had studied under the prince of the captivity, Chisdai, and under Eli, the president of the college of Geon Jacob in the city of Bagdad, and who became an excellent scholar, being well versed in the Mosaic law, in the decisions of the rabbins, and in the Talmud; understanding also the profane sciences, the language and the writings of the Mohammedans, and the scriptures of the magicians and enchanters. He made up his mind to rise in rebellion against the king of Persia, to unite and collect the Jews who live in the mountains of Chaphton, and with them to engage in war with all Gentiles, making the conquest of Jerusalem his final object. He gave signs to the Jews by false miracles, and assured them, "the Lord has sent me to conquer Jerusalem, and to deliver you from the yoke of the Gentiles." Some of the Jews did believe in him, and called him Messiah. When the king of Persia became acquainted with these circumstances, he sent and summoned David into his presence. The latter went without fear, and when brought before the court he was asked, "Art thou the king of the Jews?" to which he made answer and said, "I am." Upon this the king immediately commanded that he should be secured and put into the prison where the captives are kept who are imprisoned for life, situated in the city of Dabaristan, on the banks of the Kizil Ozein, which is a broad river. After a lapse of three days, when the king sat in council to take the advice of his nobles and officers respecting the Jews who had rebelled against his authority, David appeared among them, having liberated himself from prison without human aid. When the king beheld him he inquired, "Who has brought thee hither, or who has set thee at liberty?" To which David made answer, "My own wisdom and subtility; for verily I fear neither thee nor thy servants." The king immediately commanded that he should be seized, but his servants answered and said, "We see him not, and are aware of his presence only by hearing the sound of his voice." The king was very much astonished at David's exceeding subtility, who thus addressed him: "I now go my own way;" and he went out, followed by the king and all his nobles and servants to the banks of the river, where he took his shawl, spread it upon the water, and crossed it thereupon. At that moment he became visible, and all the servants of the king saw him cross the river on his shawl. He was pursued by them in boats, but without success, and they all confessed that no magician upon earth could equal him. He that very day travelled to Amaria, a distance of ten days' journey, by the help of the Shem Hamphorash[242], and related to the astonished Jews all that had happened to him. The king of Persia afterwards sent to the Emir-el-Mumenin, the khalif of Bagdad, principal of the Mohammedans, to solicit the influence of the prince of the captivity, and of the presidents of the colleges, in order to check the proceedings of David El-Roy, and threatening to put to death all Jews who inhabited his empire. The congregations of Persia were very severely dealt with about that time, and sent letters to the prince of the captivity and the presidents of the colleges at Bagdad to the following purpose: "Why will you allow us to die, and all the congregations of this empire? Restrain the deeds of this man, and prevent thereby the shedding of innocent blood." The prince of the captivity and the president of the colleges hereupon addressed David in letters which run thus: "Be it known unto thee that the time of our redemption has not yet arrived, and that we have not yet seen the signs by which it is to manifest itself, and that by strength no man shall prevail. We therefore command thee to discontinue the course thou hast adopted, on pain of being excommunicated from all Israel." Copies of these letters were sent to Sakhai, the prince of the Jews in Mosul, and to R. Joseph the astronomer, who is called Borhan-al-Fulkh, and also resides there, with the request to forward them to David El-Roy. The last mentioned prince and the astronomer added letters of their own, in which they advised and exhorted him; but he nevertheless continued in his criminal career. This he carried on until a certain prince of the name of Sin-el-Din, a vassal of the king of Persia, and a Turk by birth, cut it short by sending for the father-in-law of David El-Roy, to whom he offered ten thousand florins if he would secretly kill David El-Roy. This agreement being concluded, he went to David's house while he slept, and killed him on his bed, thus destroying his plans and evil designs. Notwithstanding this, the wrath of the king of Persia still continued against the Jews who lived in the mountains and in his country, who in their turn craved the influence of the prince of the captivity with the king of Persia. Their petitions and humble prayers were supported by a present of one hundred talents of gold, in consideration of which the anger of the king of Persia was subdued, and the land was tranquillized.

From that mountain to Hamadan[243] is a journey of ten days; this was the metropolis of Media, and contains about fifty thousand Jews. In front of one of the synagogues is the sepulchre of Mordecai and Esther. Four days from thence stands Dabaristan[244], on the river Kizil Ozein; it contains about four thousand Jewish inhabitants. The city of Ispahan is distant seven days' journey; it is the metropolis of Persia, and residence of the king, being twelve miles in extent, and containing about fifteen thousand Jews. Sar Shalom, the rabbi of this city and of all other towns of the Persian empire, has been promoted to the dignity by the prince of the captivity.

Four days distant stands Shiraz, or Fars, a large city, containing about ten thousand Jews. It is seven days thence to Giva[245], a large city on the banks of the Oxus, containing about eight thousand Jews. Very extensive commerce is carried on in this place, to which traders of all countries and languages resort; the country about it is very flat. Five days from thence, on the frontiers of the kingdom, stands Samarkand, a city of considerable magnitude, which contains about fifty thousand Jews. The prince rabbi Obadiah is the governor of the community, which includes many wise and learned men. Four days from thence is the province of Tibet, in the forests of which country that beast is found which yields the musk. To the mountains of Khazvin, on the river Kizil Ozein, it is a journey of eight-and-twenty days. Jews of those parts, who live in Persia at present, report that the cities of Nisapour are inhabited by four tribes of Israel, viz., the tribe of Dan, that of Zebulon, and that of Naphthali, being part of the first exiles who were carried into captivity by Shalmaneser, king of Ashur, as reported in Scripture[246]. He banished them to Halah and Habor, the mountains of Gozan, and the mountains of Media. The extent of their country is twenty days' journey, and they possess many towns and cities in the mountains. The river Kizil Ozein forms their boundary on one side, and they are subject to no nation, but are governed by their own prince, who bears the name of rabbi Joseph Amarkhela Halevi[247]. Some of these Jews are excellent scholars; others carry on agriculture; and many of them are engaged in war with the country of Cuth, by way of the desert. They are in alliance with the Caphar Tarac, or infidel Turks[248], who adore the wind and live in the desert. This is a people who eat no bread and drink no wine, but devour the meat raw and quite unprepared; they have no noses, but draw breath through two small holes, and eat all sorts of meat, whether from clean or unclean beasts. They are on very friendly terms with the Jews.

About eighteen years ago this nation invaded Persia with a numerous host, and took the city of Rai, which they smote with the edge of the sword, carrying off the spoil to their deserts. Nothing similar had been seen before in the kingdom of Persia; and when the king of that country was made acquainted with this occurrence, his wrath was kindled, for, said he, "in the time of my predecessors no host like this ever issued from the desert; I will go and will extinguish their name from the earth." He raised the war-cry in the whole empire, collected all his troops, and made inquiry whether he could find any guide that would show him the place where his enemies pitched their tents. A man was met with, who spoke thus to the king: "I will show thee the place of their retreat, for I am one of them." The king promised to enrich him if he would fulfil his promise, and show him the way. Upon inquiry how many provisions would be necessary for this long march through the desert, the spy answered: "take with you bread and water for fifteen days, as you will find no provisions whatever before you reach their country." This advice being acted upon, they travelled fifteen days in the desert, and as they met with nothing that could serve for sustenance, they became extremely short of provisions, and men and beasts began to die. The king sent for the spy, and thus spoke to him: "What is become of thy promise to show us our enemy?" No other reply being made than "I have mistaken my way," the head of the spy was cut off by the king's command. Orders were issued that every one who had any provisions left should share them with his companion; but every thing eatable was consumed, even the beasts, and after travelling thirteen additional days in the desert, they at last reached the mountains of Khazvin, where the Jews dwell. They encamped in the gardens and orchards, and near the springs, which are in the vicinity of the river Kizil Ozein. It being the fruit season, they made free with it and destroyed much, but no living being came forward. They saw, however, cities and many towers on the mountains, and the king commanded two of his servants to go and inquire the name of the nation which inhabited these mountains, and to cross over to them, either in boats or by swimming the river. They at last discovered a large bridge, fortified by towers, and secured by a gate which was locked, and on the other side of the bridge a considerable city. They shouted on their side of the bridge until at last a man came forth to inquire what they wanted or to whom they belonged. They could not, however, make themselves understood, but brought an interpreter who spoke both languages; the questions being repeated, they replied: "We are the servants of the king of Persia, and have come to inquire who you are and whose subjects." The answer was: "We are Jews, we acknowledge no king or prince of the Gentiles, but are subjects of a Jewish prince." Upon inquiries after the Ghuzi, the Caphar Tarac or infidel Turks, the Jews made answer: "Verily they are our allies, and whoever seeks to harm them we consider our own enemy." The two men returned and reported this to the king of Persia, who became much afraid, and particularly so when, after a lapse of two days, the Jews sent a herald to offer him battle. The king said, "I am not come to make war against you, but against the Caphar Tarac, or infidel Turks, who are my enemies; and if you attack me I will certainly take my vengeance, and will destroy all the Jews in my own kingdom, for I am well aware of your superiority over me in my present position; but I entreat you to act kindly and not to harass me, but allow me to fight with the Caphar Tarac, my enemy, and also to sell me as much provision as I want for the maintenance of my host." The Jews took counsel among themselves, and determined to comply with the request of the king of Persia for the sake of his Jewish subjects. The king and all his host were consequently admitted into the country of the Jews, and during his stay of fifteen days he was treated with most honourable distinction and respect. The Jews, however, meanwhile sent information to their allies, the Caphar Tarac, and made them acquainted with the above-mentioned circumstances; these took possession of all the mountain passes, and assembled a considerable host, consisting of all the inhabitants of that desert and when the king of Persia went forth to give them battle, the Caphar Tarac conquered, killing and slaying so many of the Persians, that the king escaped to his country with only very few followers. One of the horsemen of the retinue of the king enticed a Jew of that country, named R. Moses, to go along with him; he carried this man with him into Persia, and there made him a slave. Upon a certain day, when the king was the spectator of sports carried on for his amusement, and consisting principally of the exercise of handling the bow, among all competitors none excelled this R. Moses. The king thereupon inquired after this man by means of an interpreter, and was told what had happened to him, and how he had been forcibly carried away from his country by the horseman; upon learning which the king not only immediately granted him his liberty, but gave him a dress of honour, composed of silk and fine linen, and many other presents. A proposal was also made to R. Moses, that if he would renounce his religion for that of the Persians, he should be treated with the utmost kindness, should gain considerable riches, and be made the king's steward; but he refused, and said, "I cannot make up my mind to any such step." The king, however, placed him in the house of the rabbi Sar Shalom, of the Ispahan congregation, who in the course of time became his father-in-law. This very R. Moses related all these things unto me.

From thence I returned to the country of Khuzistan, which lies on the Tigris. This river runs downward and falls into the Indian Sea (Persian Gulf), in the vicinity of an island called Kish. The extent of this island is six miles, and the inhabitants do not carry on any agriculture, for they have no rivers, nor more than one spring in the whole island, and are consequently obliged to drink rain water. It is, however, a considerable market, being the spot to which the Indian merchants and those of the islands bring their commodities. While the traders of Mesopotamia, Yemen, and Persia import all silk and purple cloths, flax, cotton, hemp, mash[249], wheat, barley, millet, rye, and all other sorts of comestibles and pulse, which articles form objects of exchange, those from India import great quantities of spices, and the inhabitants of the island live by what they gain in their capacity of brokers to both parties. The island contains about five hundred Jews. It is ten days passage by sea to El-Katif, a city with about five thousand Israelites. In this vicinity the pearls are found: about the twenty-fourth of the month of Nisan[250] large drops of rain are observed upon the surface of the water, which are swallowed by the reptiles, which thereupon close their shells and fall to the bottom of the sea; about the middle of the month of Thishri[251] people dive with the assistance of ropes, collect these reptiles from the bottom, and bring them up, after which they are opened and the pearls taken out.

Seven days from thence is Chulam[252], on the confines of the country of the sun-worshippers, who are descendants of Kush[253], are addicted to astrology, and are all black. This nation is very trustworthy in matters of trade; and whenever foreign merchants enter their port, three secretaries of the king immediately repair on board their vessels, write down their names, and report them to him. The king thereupon grants them security for their property, which they may even leave in the open fields without any guard. One of the king's officers sits in the market, and receives goods that may have been found any where, and which he returns to those applicants who can minutely describe them. This custom is observed in the whole empire of the king. From Easter to new year[254], during the whole of the summer, the heat is extreme. From the third hour of the day[255] people shut themselves up in their houses until the evening, at which time every body goes out. The streets and markets are lighted up, and the inhabitants employ all the night upon their business, which they are prevented from doing in the daytime by the excessive heat.

Pepper grows in this country; the trees which bear this fruit are planted in the fields, which surround the towns, and every one knows his plantation. The trees are small, and the pepper is originally white, but when they collect it they put it into basons and pour hot water upon it; it is then exposed to the heat of the sun, and dried, in order to make it hard and more substantial, in the course of which process it becomes of a black colour. Cinnamon, ginger, and many other kinds of spices also grow in this country. The inhabitants do not bury their dead, but embalm them with certain spices, put them upon stools, and cover them with cloths, every family keeping apart. The flesh dries upon the bones; and as these corpses resemble living beings, every body recognises his parents and all the members of his family for many years to come. These people worship the sun[256]. About half a mile from every town they have large places of worship, and every morning they run towards the rising sun; every place of worship contains a representation of that luminary, so constructed by enchantment that upon the rising of the sun it turns round with a great noise, at which moment both men and women take up their censors and burn incense in honour of this their deity. "This their way is their folly."[257] All the cities and countries inhabited by these people contain only about one hundred Jews, who are of black colour, as well as the other inhabitants. The Jews are good men, observers of the law, and possess the Pentateuch, the prophets, and some little knowledge of the Talmud and its decisions.

The island of Khandy[258] is distant twenty-two days' journey. The inhabitants are fire worshippers called Druzes, and twenty-three thousand Jews live among them. These Druzes have priests everywhere in the houses consecrated to their idols, and these priests are expert necromancers, the like of whom are to be met with nowhere. In front of the altar of their house of prayer is a deep ditch, in which a large fire is continually kept burning; this they call Elahuta, Deity. They pass their children through it, and into this ditch they also throw their dead. Some of the great of this country take a vow to burn themselves alive; and if any such devotee declares to his children and kindred his intention to do so, they all applaud him and say, "Happy shalt thou be, and it shall be well with thee." When the appointed day arrives, they prepare a sumptuous feast, place the devotee upon his horse, if he be rich, or lead him on foot, if he be poor, to the brink of the ditch. He then throws himself into the fire, and all his kindred manifest their joy by the playing of instruments until he is entirely consumed. Within three days of this ceremony two of the principal priests repair to his house, and thus address his children: "Prepare the house, for to-day you will be visited by your father, who will manifest his wishes unto you." Witnesses are selected among the inhabitants of the town, and lo! the devil appears in the image of the dead. The wife and children inquire after his state in the other world, and he answers: "I have met my companions, but they will not admit me into their company, before I have discharged my debts to my friends and neighbours;" he then makes a will, divides his goods among his children, and commands them to discharge all debts he owes and to receive what people owe him; this will is written down by the witnesses ...[259] to go his way, and he is not seen any more. In consequence of this falsehood and deceit, which the priests pass off by magic, they retain a strong hold upon the people, and make them believe that their equal is not to be met with upon earth.

From hence the passage to China[260] is effected in forty days. This country lies eastward, and some say that the star Orion predominates in the sea which bounds it, and which is called the Sea of Nikpha. Sometimes this sea is so stormy that no mariner can conduct his vessel; and whenever a storm throws a ship into this sea, it is impossible to govern it; the crew and the passengers consume their provisions, and then die miserably. Many vessels have been lost in this way; but people have learned how to save themselves from this fate by the following contrivance: they take bullocks' hides along with them, and whenever this storm arises and throws them into the Sea of Nikpha, they sow themselves up in the hides, taking care to have a knife in their hand, and being secured against the sea-water, they throw themselves into the ocean; here they are soon perceived by a large eagle called a griffin, which takes them for cattle, darts down, seizes them in his gripe, and carries them upon dry land, where he deposits his burden on a hill or in a dale, there to consume his prey. The man, however, now makes use of his knife to kill the bird, creeps forth from the hide, and tries to reach an inhabited country. Many people have been saved by this stratagem.

Gingaleh is but three days distant by land, whereas it requires a journey of fifteen days to reach it by sea; this place contains about one thousand Israelites. To Khulan, seven days by sea; no Jews live there. Twelve days from thence to Sebid, which contains but few Jews. Eight days from thence is Middle India[261], which is called Aden, and in Scripture Eden in Thelasar[262]. This country is very mountainous, and contains many independent Jews, who are not subject to the power of the Gentiles, but possess cities and fortresses on the summits of the mountains, from whence they descend into the country of Maatum, with which they are at war. Maatum, also called Nubia, is a Christian kingdom, and the inhabitants are called Nubians. The Jews generally take spoil and plunder from them, which they carry into their mountain fastnesses, the possession of which makes them almost unconquerable. Many of the Jews of Aden visit Egypt and Persia.

To the country of Assuan twenty days' journey, through the desert of Sheba, on the banks of the Nile (Pison), which comes down here from the country of the blacks. This country is governed by a king, whom they call Sultan-al-Habash, and some of the inhabitants resemble beasts in every respect. They eat the herbs which grow on the banks of the Nile, go naked in the fields, and have no notions like other men; for instance, they cohabit with their own sisters and with any body they find. The country is excessively hot; and when the people of Assuan invade their country, they carry wheat, raisins, and figs, which they throw out like bait, thereby alluring the natives. These are made captive, and sold in Egypt and in the adjoining countries, where they are known as black slaves, being the descendants of Ham.

From Assuan to Chaluah it is twelve days. This place contains about three hundred Jews, and is the starting point of the caravans which traverse the desert Al-Zahara in fifty days on their way to Zavila, the Havilah of Scripture[263], which is in the country of Ganah[264]. This desert contains mountains of sand; and, whenever a storm arises, the caravans are exposed to the imminent danger of being buried alive by the sand; those which escape, however, carry iron, copper, different sorts of fruits, pulse, and salt. Gold and precious stones are brought from thence in exchange. This country lies westward of Kush, or Abyssinia. Thirteen days' journey from Chaluah stands Kuts, a city on the frontiers of Egypt, containing thirty thousand Jewish inhabitants. To Fayuhm five days; this is Pithom[265]; it contains about twenty Jews, and has some remains of the buildings erected by our forefathers even to this day. Four days from thence brings us to Mizraim, or Memphis, commonly called Old Cairo. This large city stands on the banks of the Nile, called Al-Nil, and contains about two thousand Jews. Here are two synagogues, one of the congregation of Palestine, called the Syrian, the other of the Babylonian Jews (or those of Irac). They follow different customs regaining the division of the Pentateuch into Parashioth and Sedarim[266]. The Babylonians read one Parasha every week, as is the custom throughout Spain, and finish the whole of the Pentateuch every year, whereas the Syrians have the custom of dividing every Parasha into three Sedarim, and concluding the lecture of the whole once in three years. They keep, however, the long-established custom of assembling both congregations to perform public service together, as well on the day of the joy of the law as on that of the dispensation of the law[267]. Rabbi Nathaniel, the lord of lords, is the president of the Jewish university, and, in his capacity of primate of all the Jewish congregations of Egypt, exercises the right of electing Rabanim and ministers. He is one of the officers of the great king, who resides in the fortress of Zoan in the city of Mizraim, which is the metropolis of all those Arabians who obey the Emir-al-Mumenin[268] of the sect of Ali ben Abitaleb. All the inhabitants of his country are called rebels, because they rebelled against the Emir-al-Mumenin al-Abassi who resides at Bagdad, and there is continual hatred between them.

The residence of Zoan was selected for its convenience. The prince appears in public twice every year; once at the time of their great holiday, and the second time at the moment of the inundation of the Nile. Zoan is inclosed by a wall, whereas Mizraim is open, and the Nile washes one portion of it. The city is large, containing many markets and bazaars, and very wealthy Jewish inhabitants.

Rain, frost, and snow are almost unknown here, the climate being very warm. The river overflows once every year, in the month of Elul[269], and, inundating the whole country, irrigates it to the extent of fifteen days' journey. The water remains standing on the land during that and the following month, whereby it is moistened and made fit for agriculture. A marble pillar, constructed with great skill, has been erected in front of an island; twelve yards of this pillar protrude above the level of the river; and whenever the water rises to a height sufficient to cover the pillar, people know that it has inundated the whole land of Egypt to the extent of fifteen days' journey, whereas if one-half only of the pillar be covered, it shows that one-half of the country is yet dry. A certain officer measures the rise of the river every day, and makes proclamation in Zoan and in Mizraim in these words: "Praise God, for the river has risen so and so much!" The measurement and the proclamation is repeated every day. Whenever the water submerges the whole pillar, it produces great plenty in the whole land of Egypt. The river rises by degrees until the whole country is inundated to the extent of fifteen days' journey. The proprietors of land cause ditches to be dug along their fields, into which the fishes are swept with the rising waters; and when the river retires into its bed, the fish remaining in the trenches are collected by the proprietors and used for food. Others sell them to merchants, by whom they are cured, and sold in this state all over the country. The fat of these fishes, with which they abound, is used by the rich of the land instead of oil, and they light their lamps therewith. Those who eat of the fish, and drink Nile water after it, need not fear any bad consequences, the water being an excellent preventive. Persons who inquire the reason of the rise of the Nile are told by the Egyptians that it is caused by the heavy rains which fall in the country of Abyssinia, the Havilah of Scripture, which is elevated above the level of Egypt. This forces the river out of its bed, and inundates the whole country. Whenever the overflowing of the Nile is suspended, they can neither sow nor reap, "and the famine is sore in the land."[270] The time for sowing in Egypt is the month of Marcheshvan[271], after the river has retired into its usual bed; in Adar[272] they cut barley, and in Nissan[273] the wheat. In the same month the following fruits are ripe: a kind of acid plum called cherry, nuts, cucumbers, gourds, St. John's bread[274], beans, spelt-corn, chick-pease, as well as all sorts of herbs, such as purslain, asparagus (or fennel), grapes, lettuce, coriander, succory, cabbage, and wine. Upon the whole the country abounds with good things. The gardens and orchards are watered partly from wells and partly from the Nile.

Above Mizraim the Nile is divided into four arms, one of which proceeds to Damietta, which is Caphtor of Scripture, and there falls into the sea; a second flows towards Rashid (or Rosetta), which is near Alexandria, and there falls into the sea; the third takes the direction of Ashmun, the large city on the frontier of Egypt. The banks of these four arms are lined on both sides with cities, towns, and villages; and are enlivened by numerous travellers who journey both by river and by land. In fact, upon the whole earth there is no country so populous and well cultivated as Egypt, which is of ample territory and full of all sorts of good things.

From New to Old Mizraim is a distance of two parasangs. The latter lies in ruins, but the sites of the walls and the houses may still be traced at this day, as also the granaries of Joseph, of which there is a large number. The pyramids, which are seen here, are constructed by magic; and in no other country or other place is any thing equal to them. They are composed of stones and cement, and are very substantial. In the outskirts of the city is the very ancient synagogue of our great master Moses, upon whom be peace. An old and very learned man is the overseer and clerk of this place of public worship; he is called Al-Sheikh Abunasar. Old Mizraim is three miles in extent. From thence to the land of Goshen, eight parasangs. It is called Belbeis, is a large city, and contains about three thousand Jewish inhabitants. Half a day to Iskiil Ain-al-Shems, the ancient Raamses, which is in ruins. Here are remains of the buildings erected by our forefathers, and tower-like buildings constructed of bricks. One day's journey to Al-Boutidg; about two hundred Jews live here. Half a day to Sefita, which contains about two hundred Jews. To Damira, four parasangs; this place contains about seven hundred Jews. Five days to Mahaleh, which contains about five hundred Israelites[275]. Two days from thence stands Alexandria, which Alexander the Macedonian, who built this extremely strong and handsome city, called after his own name. In the outskirts of the city was the school of Aristotle, the preceptor of Alexander. The building is still very handsome and large, and is divided into many apartments by marble pillars. There are about twenty schools, to which people flocked from all parts of the world in order to study the Aristotelian philosophy. The city is built upon arches, which are hollow below. The streets are straight, and some of them are of such extent that the eye cannot overlook them at once; that which runs from the Rosetta to the sea-gate is a full mile in length. The port of Alexandria is formed partly by a pier, which extends a mile into the sea. Here is also a high tower, called lighthouse, in Arabic, Minar of Alexandria, on the summit of which was placed a glass mirror. All vessels which approached with hostile intentions, from Greece and from the western side, could be observed at fifty days' distance by means of this glass mirror, and precautions were taken against them. Many years after the death of Alexander there arrived a Grecian vessel commanded by a man of the name of Theodoros, who was extremely cunning. The Grecians were subject to the Egyptians at the time, and the above-named shipper brought a valuable present to the king of Egypt, consisting of silver, gold, and silk garments. He rode at anchor in view of the mirror, the customary station of all merchantmen who arrived, and the keeper of the lighthouse, as well as his servants, were invited every day by him, until they became very intimate and paid one another frequent visits. Upon a certain day the keeper and all his servants were invited to a sumptuous meal, and were plied so much with wine that both he and his servants became drunk and fell into a sound sleep. This opportunity was seized by the shipper and his crew to break the mirror, after which exploit they left the port the same night. From that time the Christians began to visit Alexandria with small and large vessels, and took the large island of Crete, as well as Cyprus, which are in possession of the Greeks unto this day; and the Egyptians have not been able to withstand the Greeks ever since[276]. The lighthouse is still a mark to all seafaring men. It is observed at the distance of one hundred miles by day, and at night bears a light which serves as a guide to all mariners.

The city is very mercantile, and affords an excellent market to all nations. People from all Christian kingdoms resort to Alexandria, from Valentia, Tuscany, Lombardy, Apulia, Amalfi, Sicilia, Rakuvia, Catalonia, Spain, Roussillon, Germany, Saxony, Denmark, England, Flandres, Hainault, Normandy, France, Poitou, Anjou, Burgundy, Mediana, Provence, Genoa, Pisa, Gascony, Arragon, and Navarre. From the west you meet Mohammedans from Andalusia, Algarve, Africa, and Arabia, as well as from the countries towards India, Savila, Abyssinia, Nubia, Yemen, Mesopotamia, and Syria, besides Greeks and Turks[277]. From India they import all sorts of spices, which are bought by Christian merchants. The city is full of bustle, and every nation has its own fonteccho (or hostelry) there.

On the sea-shore is a marble sepulchre, upon which are depicted all sorts of birds and beasts, all in very ancient characters, which nobody can decipher; but it is supposed that it is the tomb of a king of very ancient date, who reigned even before the flood. The length of the tomb is fifteen spans by six in breadth.