The [transcribers’ notes] follow the text.

FENCES, GATES
AND
BRIDGES.

A PRACTICAL MANUAL.

EDITED BY

GEORGE A. MARTIN.

THREE HUNDRED ILLUSTRATIONS.

NEW YORK:

ORANGE JUDD COMPANY,

1892.

Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1887, by the
O. JUDD CO.,
In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington.

PREFATORY

It is authoritatively stated that the building and maintenance of the farm fences in the United States have cost more than the construction of the farm buildings. Be this as it may, while large numbers of works have been written upon rural architecture we believe this is the first publication specially devoted to Fences, Gates and Bridges. It aims to be a practical work, showing the “evolution” of the fence from the road barrier of logs, brush or sods to the latest improved forms of barbed wire. The numerous illustrations are mainly representations of fences, gates, etc., in actual use. The chapter on fence law is necessarily condensed. The various judicial decisions upon the subject alone would fill a large volume.

This little work, the first and only one of its character, is given to the public in the confident hope that it will prove specially useful to farmers and village residents.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

FENCES, GATES AND BRIDGES.

CHAPTER I.
RAIL AND OTHER PRIMITIVE WOOD FENCES.

VIRGINIA RAIL FENCE.

Fig. 1.—Virginia Zigzag Fence Complete.

The zigzag rail fence was almost universally adopted by the settlers in the heavily timbered portions of the country, and countless thousands of miles of it still exist, though the increasing scarcity of timber has brought other styles of fencing largely into use. Properly built, of good material, on a clear, solid bed, kept free from bushes and other growth to shade it and cause it to rot, the rail fence is as cheap as any, and as effective and durable as can reasonably be desired. Good chestnut, oak, cedar, or juniper rails, or original growth heart pine, will last from fifty to a hundred years, so that material of this sort, once in hand, will serve one or two generations. This fence, ten rails high, and propped with two rails at each corner, requires twelve rails to the panel. If the fence bed is five feet wide, and the rails are eleven feet long, and are lapped about a foot at the locks, one panel will extend about eight feet in direct line. This takes seven thousand nine hundred and twenty rails, or about eight thousand rails to the mile. For a temporary fence, one that can be put up and taken down in a short time, for making stock pens and division fences, not intended to remain long in place, nothing is cheaper or better. The bed for a fence of this kind should not be less than five feet across, to enable it to stand before the wind. The rails are best cut eleven feet long, as this makes a lock neither too long nor too short; and the forward end of each rail should come under the next one that is laid. The corners, or locks, as they are called, should also be well propped with strong, whole rails, not with pieces of rails, as is often done. The props should be set firmly on the ground about two feet from the panel, and crossed at the lock so as to hold each other, and the top course of the fence firmly in place. They thus act as braces to the fence, supporting it against the wind. Both sides of the fence should be propped. The top course of rails should be the strongest and heaviest of any, for the double purpose of weighting the fence down, and to prevent breaking of rails by persons getting upon it. The four courses of rails nearest the ground should be of the smallest pieces, to prevent making the cracks, or spaces between the rails, too large. They should also be straight, and of nearly even sizes at both ends. This last precaution is only necessary where small pigs have to be fenced out or in, as the case may be. The fence, after it is finished, will have the appearance of [figure 1], will be six rails high, two props at each lock, and the worm will be crooked enough to stand any wind, that will not prostrate crops, fruit trees, etc. A straighter worm than this will be easy to blow down or push over. The stability of this sort of fence depends very largely on the manner of placing the props, both as to the distance of the foot of the prop rail from the fence panel, and the way it is locked at the corner.

LAYING A RAIL FENCE.

Fig. 2.

It is much better, both for good looks and economy, to have the corners of a rail fence on each side in line with each other. This may be accomplished by means of a very simple implement, shown in [figure 2]. It consists of a small pole, eight feet long, sharpened at the lower end. A horizontal arm of a length equal to half the width of the fence from extreme outside of corners, is fastened to the long pole at right angles, near the lower end. Sometimes a sapling may be found with a limb growing nearly at right angles, which will serve the purpose. Before beginning the fence, stakes are set at intervals along the middle of the line it is to occupy. To begin, the gauge, as shown in [figure 2], is set in line with the stakes, and the horizontal arm is swung outwardly at right angles to the line of fence. A stone or block to support the first corner is laid directly under the end of the horizontal arm, and the first rail laid with one end resting on the support. In the same way the next corner and all others are laid, the gauge being moved from corner to corner, set in the line of fence, and the arm swung alternately to the right and left.

Fig. 3.—The Fence Begun.

STAKING AND WIRING.

Fig. 4.—Stakes In “Lock.”

Fig. 5.—Stakes In Angles.

A neater and more substantial method of securing the corners of a worm fence is by vertical stakes and wires, as shown in the accompanying illustrations. When the lower three rails are laid, the stakes are driven in the angles close to the rails, and secured by a band of annealed wire. The work of laying the rails proceeds, and when within one rail of the top, a second wire band is put in place. Or the upper wire may be put on above the top rail. Annealed wire is plentiful and cheap.

A FENCE OF “STAKES AND RIDERS.”

Fig. 6.—A Stake And Rider Fence.

Fig. 7.—A Pole Fence.

A very common method with the “worm” or “Virginia” rail fence is to drive slanting stakes over the corner in saw-horse style, and lay the top rail into the angle thus formed. The stakes, resting on the rails and standing at angle, brace the fence firmly. But the feet of the stakes extending beyond the jagged corners formed by the ends of the rail are objectionable. This is remedied in part by putting the stakes over the middle of the panel—at considerable distance apart—and laying in them long poles horizontally. In this case the stakes should be set at such an angle as to prevent their moving sidewise along the top rail, which should be a strong one. These stakes and long riders are frequently used to raise the height of low stone walls. [Figure 6] shows a fence nearly all composed of stakes and riders, which is straight and requires fewer rails than a worm fence. First, crotched stakes, formed by the forks of a branching tree limb, a foot or more long, are driven a foot or so into the ground at a distance apart corresponding to the length of poles used. The bottom poles are laid into these, and two stakes, split or round poles, are driven over these and the next poles laid in. Then two more stakes and another pole, and so on as high as the fence is required. This will answer for larger animals, and be strong and not expensive. For swine, and other small livestock, the crotch stakes may be replaced by blocks or stones, and the lower poles be small and begin close to the ground.

A POLE FENCE.

Fig. 8.—Withe.

Fig. 9.—Withe in Place.

A fence which is cheaply constructed in a timbered region, and calls for no outlay whatever, besides labor, is illustrated at [figure 7]. The posts are set in a straight line, having previously been bored with an inch augur to receive the pins. When they are set, the pins are driven diagonally into the posts, and the poles laid in place. It would add much to its strength, if the poles were laid so as to “break joints.” A modification of this fence is sometimes made by using withes instead of pins to hold the poles in place. The withe is made of a young sapling or slender limb of beech, iron-wood, or similar tough fibrous wood, with the twigs left on. This is twisted upon itself, a strong loop made at the top, through which the butt is slipped. When in place, the butt end is tucked under the body of the withe.

FENCES FOR SOIL LIABLE TO HEAVE.

Fig. 10.—End View Of Fence.

Fig. 11.—Side View Of Fence.

The main point in such a fence is either to set the posts and place a pin through them near the bottom, so that the frost may not throw them out, or to so attach the boards that the posts may be re-driven, without splitting them, or removing the rails from the fence. The latter is, perhaps, the best plan, and may be accomplished in several ways, the most desirable of which is shown in [figures 10] and [11]. The post, h, is driven in the usual manner, when a strip of board, g, is fastened to it by three or four spikes, depending upon the hight of the fence. A space just sufficient to insert the ends of boards a, e, [figure 11], is left between the post and outside strip, the ends of the boards resting upon the spikes. Many miles of this fence are in use. It looks neat; besides any portion is easily removed, making a passage to and from the field. A new post is easily put in when required, and any may be re-driven when heaved by the frost.

Fig. 12.—Fence With Iron Hooks.

Where iron is cheap, a rod about three-eighths of an inch in diameter is cut in lengths of about seven and a half inches; one end is sharpened, while the opposite end, for three inches, is bent at right angles. After the boards are placed in position, the hooks should be driven in so that they will firmly grasp the boards and hold them in place. The general appearance of the finished fence is shown in [figure 12], and is one adapted to almost any locality.

Fig. 13.—Horizontal Section.

A much better method is to fasten the boards temporarily in place, and then bore a half inch hole through both boards and the post, into which a common screw bolt is then inserted and the nut screwed on firmly. The two ends should, however, be put on opposite sides of the post. One bolt thus holds the ends of both boards firmly to the post, as shown in [figure 13]. With this style of fence, old rails or round poles may be used instead of boards.

OTHER PRIMITIVE FENCES.

In the heavily timbered parts of the country, where the settlers a few years ago were making farms by felling and burning the huge pine trees, a fence was constructed like the one shown in [figure 14]. Sections of trees, about four and a half feet long and often as thick, were placed in line and morticed to receive from three to five rails. This style of fence could be used by the landscape gardener with fine effect for enclosing a park or shrubbery.

Fig. 14.—Log Posts.

In the same regions, when a farmer has pulled all the stumps from a pasture that slopes toward the highway, the stumps may be placed in line along the road with the top ends inside of the field. The gaps between where the stumps cannot be rolled close together, are filled with brushwood. A portion of this fence is shown in [figure 15].

Fig. 15.—Stump Fence.

Fig. 16.—Wicker Fence.

Where other material is costly, or not to be obtained, the wicker fence, constructed of stakes and willows, is much used. In the far West it is to be seen in every town, generally built on a small embankment of earth from one to two feet deep. In this climate, with occasional repairs, it lasts from ten to fifteen years. [Figure 16] shows the style of construction.

Fig. 17.—Brush Fence.

Throughout the forest regions is found the staked and ridered brush growing on the line where the fence is constructed. [Figure 17] illustrates a few rods of brush fence—such fencing being met with in our Southern States.

CHAPTER II.
STONE AND SOD FENCES.

HOW A STONE WALL SHOULD BE BUILT.

Fig. 18.—Well Laid Wall.

To build a stone wall, some skill is required. The foundation should be dug out a foot deep, and the earth thrown upon each side, which serves to turn water from the wall. Large stones are bedded in the trench, and long stones placed crosswise upon them. As many whole stones as possible should be used in this place. The stones are then arranged as shown in the engraving, breaking joints, and distributing the weight equally. Any small spaces should be filled with chips broken off in dressing the larger stones, so as to make them fit snugly. As it is a work that will last a century, it is worth doing well.

BUILDING A STONE FENCE.

Fig. 19.—Laying Up A Stone Fence.

A permanent stone fence should be built from four to five feet high, two feet wide at the base and one foot at the top, if the kind of stones available allow this construction. If a higher fence is desired, the width should be correspondingly increased. The surface of the soil along the line of the fence should be made smooth and as nearly level as possible. The hight will depend upon the situation, the animals, the smoothness of the wall (whether sheep can get foot-holds to climb over), and the character of the ground along each side. If the earth foundation be rounded up previously, sloping off to an open depression or gully, less hight will be needed. Such an elevation will furnish a dry base not heaved by frost like a wet one. Without this, or a drain alongside or under the wall, to keep the soil always dry, the base must be sunk deeply enough to be proof against heavy frosts, which will tilt and loosen the best laid wall on wet soil. The foundation stones should be the largest; smaller stones packed between them are necessary to firmness. The mistake is sometimes made of placing all the larger stones on the outside of the wall, filling the center with small ones. Long bind-stones placed at frequent intervals through the wall add greatly to its strength. The top of the fence is most secure when covered with larger close-fitting, flat stones. The engraving shows a wooden frame and cords used as a guide in building a substantial stone fence. Two men can work together with mutual advantage on opposite sides of the stone wall.

TRUCK FOR MOVING STONES.

Fig. 20.—Truck For Stone.

The small truck ([figure 20]) is not expensive, and may be made to save a great amount of hard lifting in building a stone wall. It is a low barrow, the side bars forming the handles like a wheel-barrow. It rests upon four low iron wheels. A broad plank, or two narrow ones, are laid with one end against the wall and the other resting on the ground. A groove is cut at the upper end for the wheels to rest in. The stone is loaded on the truck, moved to the place, and pushed up the plank until the wheels fall into the groove; when, by lifting on the handles, the stone is unloaded.

REINFORCING A STONE WALL.

Fig. 21.—Stone Wall Reinforced.

A stone wall which affords ample protection against sheep and hogs, may be quite insufficient for horses and cattle. The deficiency is cheaply supplied in the manner indicated by the illustration, [figure 21]. Round poles or rails are used, and if the work is properly performed, the fence is very effective.

A COMPOSITE FENCE.

Fig. 22.—Composite Fence.

The fence illustrated at [figure 22] is quite common in some parts of New England. A ridge is thrown up by back-furrowing with a plow, and both that and the ditches finished by hand with a shovel. Light posts are easily driven through the soft earth, and a board fence, only three boards high, made in the usual manner. Then the stones, as they are picked up in the field, are hauled to the fence and thrown upon the ridge. This clears the field, strengthens the ridge, prevents the growth of weeds, and assists in packing the earth firmly around the bottom of the posts.

A PRAIRIE SOD FENCE.

Fig. 23.—Sod Cutter.

Fig. 24.—The Sod Cut.

A sod fence, beside its other value, is a double barrier against the prairie fires which are so sweeping and destructive to new settlers, if unobstructed, for a wide strip is cleared of sods, the fence standing in the middle of it. A very convenient implement for cutting the sod is shown at [figure 23]. It is made of planks and scantling, the method of construction being clearly shown. The cutting disks are four wheel-coulters from common breaking plows, all attached to an iron shaft sixteen inches apart. They are set to cut three or four inches deep. This is run three times along the line of the fence, making nine cuts, the cutters being held down by a man riding on the rear of the apparatus. Then with a breaking plow one furrow is turned directly in the line of the fence, completely inverting the sod, the team turned to the right, and a second or back-furrow is inverted on top of the first. Additional furrows are cut, diminishing in width to five or six inches on the outer side, as shown in the diagram, [figure 24]. After the two inner sods are turned, the rest are carried by hand, wheel-barrow or a truck, ([figure 20]), and laid on the sod wall, care being used to “break joints” and to taper gradually to the top. If a more substantial fence is wanted, a strip thirty-two inches wide may be left as a part for the fence, the first two furrows inverted upon the uncut portion, so that their edges just touch. The sod fence is then continued to the summit just twice as thick as it would be by the process just described. After the fence is laid, a deep furrow should be run on each side, throwing the earth against the base of the fence. A very effective and cheap fence is made by laying up a sod “dyke,” as above described, three feet high, then driving light stakes along the summit, and stringing two strands of barbed wire to them.

CHAPTER III.
BOARD FENCES.

BUILDING BOARD FENCES.

Fig. 25.—Properly Constructed Board Fence.

In building a board fence, always start right, and it will be little trouble to continue in the same way. Much of the board fencing erected is put together very carelessly, and the result is a very insecure protection to the field or crops. A fence-post should be set two and a half or three feet in the ground, and the earth should be packed around it as firmly as possible. For packing the soil there is nothing better than a piece of oak, about three inches square on the lower end, and about six feet long, rounded off on the upper part to fit the hands easily. Properly used, this instrument will pack the soil around a post as it was before the hole was dug. In putting on fence boards, most builders use two nails on the ends of each board, and one in the middle. Each board should have at least three nails at the ends, and two in the middle, and these nails should never be less than ten-pennys. Smaller nails will hold the boards in place for awhile, but when they begin to warp, the nails are drawn out or loosened, and the boards drop off. This will rarely be the case where large nails are used, and a much stiffer fence is secured. Many fence builders do not cut off the tops of the posts evenly, but this should always be done, not only for the improvement that it makes in the looks of the fence; but also for the reason that there should always be a cap put on, and to do this, the posts must be evened. The joints should always be “broken,” as is shown in the engraving, [figure 25], so that in a four-board fence but two joints should come on each post. By this means more firmness and durability is secured, there being always two unbroken boards on each post to hold it in place, preventing sagging. On the face of the post immediately over where the rails have been nailed on, nail a flat piece of board the width of the post and extending from the upper part of the top rail to the ground.

Fig. 26.—A Durable Board Fence.

[Figure 26] shows a slight modification, which consists in setting the posts on alternate sides of the boards, securing additional stability. The posts are seven feet long, of well seasoned red cedar, white oak, chestnut, or black locust, preference being accorded to order named. The boards are sixteen feet long, fastened with ten-penny steel fence nails. The posts for a space of two and a half feet from the lower end are given a good coat of boiled linseed oil and pulverized charcoal, mixed to the consistency of ordinary paint, which is allowed to dry before they are set. When the materials are all ready, stretch a line eighteen inches above the ground, where it is proposed to build the fence. Dig the post holes, eight feet apart from centers, on alternate sides of the line. The posts are set with the faces inward, each half an inch from the line, to allow space for the boards. Having set the posts, the boards of the lower course are nailed on. Then, for the first length, the second board from the bottom and the top board are only eight feet long, reaching to the first post. For all the rest the boards are of the full length, sixteen feet. By this means they “break joints.” After the boards are nailed on, the top of the posts are sawed off slanting, capped, if desired, and the whole thing painted. A good coat of crude petroleum, applied before painting, will help preserve the fence, and save more than its cost in the paint needed.

Fig. 27.—A Neat Farm Fence.

We see another style of board fence now and then that is rather preferable to the ordinary one; it looks better than the old straight fence. It saves one board to each length; and by nailing on the two upper boards, as shown in the illustration, [figure 27], great extra strength is given. These boards not only act as braces, but ties also, and a fence built on well set posts, and thoroughly nailed, will never sag or get out of line until the posts rot off.

FENCES FOR LAND SUBJECT TO OVERFLOW.

Fig. 28.—Panel.

The fence illustrated in [figures 28], [29] and [30] has posts the usual distance apart, which are hewed on the front side, and on this are nailed three blocks, three by four inches thick and six inches long; the first one, with its top just level with the ground, the second one, ten inches in the clear above, and the third one, four inches less than the desired height of the fence, measuring from the top of the first block. After the panel is put in place, the rounded ends resting on the bottom blocks, nail a piece of board one and one-half by six inches on the blocks, as shown in the illustrations. This board must project four inches above the upper block, forming with it the rest and catch for the top framing piece of the panel. The panel is made of a top and bottom piece of three by four scantling, on which are nailed palings.

Fig 29.

Fig. 30.

Fig. 31.

The top piece is left square, and projects three inches on each side, but on the bottom piece the projections are cut round, so as to turn in the slot. The water will raise the panel up out of the upper catch, allowing it to fall down, as seen at [figure 30], so as to offer no obstruction to the water, nor will it catch drift, as fences hung from the top do. [Figures 31] to [35] represent a fence made somewhat like the trestle used for drying clothes. The posts are the usual distance apart, but only extend a few inches out of the ground, just sufficient to nail a hinge upon.

Fig. 32.

They must, however, be wide enough to admit of nailing two hinges on each post. The fence consists of two parts—E in [figure 31] represents a cross-section of the fence proper, two panels of which are seen in [figure 34]; D represents the back part of the fence, a section of which is shown in [figure 35]; a in [figure 31] is the post and b b the hinges. The panel, E, should always slope with the current of the stream, that the water rushing against it will place it in the position shown by [figure 33], lying flat on the ground, and out of the way of both water and drift. The hinges may be ordinary strap kind, which can be bought very cheap by the dozen, or they may be made of heavy iron hoop doubled, as shown at [figure 32], which can be made in any blacksmith shop.

Fig. 33.

Fig. 34.

Fig. 35.

A FENCE BOARD HOLDER.

Fig. 36.

Fig. 37.—Fence Board Holder.

[Figure 36] shows a contrivance for holding fence boards against the posts, at the right distances apart when nailing. A two and a half by two and a half inch piece of the desired length is taken for the upright, a. About its center is hinged the brace, c. A strap-hinge, b, or a stout piece of leather for a hinge, will answer. Blocks or stops, d, d, d, d, are nailed on the upright a, at the required distances, according to the space between the boards on the fence. The bottom boards of the fence are nailed on first. The bottom block of the board holder rests upon the bottom board, and is held in position by the brace c. The boards can be placed in the holder like putting up bars, and are guided to their places on the post by the blocks, d, d. The boards can now be nailed on the posts, and the holding devices moved for another length. When the boards are too long, they can be pulled forward a little, and the end sawed, and pushed back to place. One man using the contrivance, can nail on nearly as many boards in a day, as two persons with one to hold the boards in the old way. [Figure 37] shows the manner of using the fence board holders.

REINFORCING A BOARD FENCE.

Fig. 38.—Strengthening A Board Fence.

The old method of topping out a low board fence is shown at [figure 38]. Since barbed wire has become plenty, it is more usual to increase the height of the fence by stringing one or two strands of that on vertical slats nailed to the tops of the posts. Yet, in cases where there are plenty of sound rails left from some old fence, or plenty of straight saplings, the old method is still a very cheap and convenient one.

CHAPTER IV.
PICKET FENCES.

A GOOD GARDEN FENCE.

Fig. 39.—A Lath And Picket Fence.

The engraving, [figure 39], represents a good, substantial garden fence, that, while somewhat more serviceable than the ordinary kind, may be constructed at less cost. It does not materially differ from the common picket fence, further than that the pickets are put five inches apart, with strips of lath nailed between. The pickets give the necessary strength, while the lath, as a shield against poultry, or rabbits and other vermin, is equally as good at one-sixth the cost. An old picket fence surrounding a garden or yard, may be “lathed” in the manner here indicated at little expense.

A SOUTHERN PICKET FENCE.

Fig. 40.—Southern Picket Fence.

Fig. 41.—Bench For Sawing Pickets.

The picket fence in very general use in the Southern States, is shown in [figure 40]. It will be observed that the pickets, instead of terminating in an equal-sided point, have but one slanting side, while the other is straight. Such a fence looks quite as well as one with the other style of points, and is exceedingly neat and serviceable along the line of the street, or to mark the boundary between two estates. To facilitate the sawing of the pickets, the bench or horse represented in [figure 41] is employed. This has a stop at one end, while near the other end are two upright pieces to serve as guides in sawing. The edge of one of these is far enough in the rear of the other to give the desired slope. In sawing, the saw rests against these guides, as shown by the dotted lines. In a picket fence, the point where decay commences, is where the pickets cross the string pieces. Water enters between the two, and decay takes place which is unsuspected until the breaking of a picket reveals the state of affairs. The string pieces and the pickets, at least upon one side, should be painted before putting them together, and nailed while the paint is fresh.

FENCES OF SPLIT PICKETS.

Fig. 42.—A Fence Of Split Stuff.

Fig. 43.—Cheap Fence Of Split Timber.

In localities where sawed timber is expensive, and split timber is readily obtained, a very neat picket fence may be made with very little outlay, by using round posts, split stringers, and rived pickets, as shown in the engraving, [figure 42]. The stringers are eight to twelve feet in length, and usually one of the flat sides is sufficiently smooth for receiving the pickets. Let the stringers project a few inches beyond each post, adding strength to the fence, and should the posts decay, new ones may be driven in on either side, and the stringers readily attached by heavy nails or spikes. With timber that splits freely, a man can rive out five or six hundred pickets in a day. The construction of the fence is plainly shown in the above engraving.

[Figure 43] represents a fence made entirely of split timber, the only cash outlay being for nails. This may be made so as to turn, not only all kinds of stock, but rabbits, etc. The pickets are sharpened, and driven six or eight inches into the ground, and firmly nailed to a strong string-piece at top.

Fig. 44.—Common Picket Fence.

Another good substantial fence is represented by [figure 44], which, though somewhat expensive, is especially adapted for yard, orchard and vineyard enclosure. This needs no explanation. The posts should not be set further than eight feet apart; two by four-inch scantlings should be used to nail to, and split palings should be nailed on with annealed steel nails.

ORNAMENTAL PICKET FENCES.

Fig. 45.—Ornamental Picket Fence.

Fig. 46.

The fence shown in [figure 45] may be constructed with flat pickets, three inches wide and three feet five inches long. The notches in the pickets are easily made with a compass saw, or a foot-power scroll-saw. The top and bottom pieces between the pickets may be painted some other color than the fence, if so desired. Any carpenter should be able to construct it at a small advance over a fence made from plain pickets, making the pattern as in [figure 46].

A plainer, but still very neat form of picket fence is illustrated at [figure 47]. The intermediate pieces are notched at one end and square at the other.

Fig. 47.—A Plainer Picket Fence.

RUSTIC PICKET FENCES.

Fig. 48.—Rustic Sapling Fence.

Fig. 49.—Rustic Picket Fence.

When the farmers on the prairies prevent the spreading of the prairie fires, young oak and hickory saplings spring up as if by magic near all the wooded streams. These saplings come from huge roots whose tops have yearly been destroyed by fire. In that section farmers often construct a very neat rustic fence from two or three year old saplings, having the appearance of [figure 48]. The rustic pickets are trimmed so as to leave the branches projecting about two inches, and are nailed on with four-penny nails. A fence of this kind would not last long, unless the pickets, posts, and rails were free of bark, or saturated with crude petroleum.

A very neat and picturesque fence for a garden or a lawn is shown at [figure 49]. It is made of round poles, with the bark on, the posts being of similar material. Three horizontal bars are nailed to the posts at equal intervals, the slats or pickets woven into them and then nailed in place. One or two coats of crude petroleum, applied to this and other rustic work at first, and renewed every year, adds to its appearance and greatly increases its durability.

LIGHT PICKET FENCES.

Fig. 50.—Panel Of Picket Fence.

Fig. 51.—Frame For Making Fence.

For enclosing poultry yards, garden and grounds, a cheap fence with pickets of lath often serves a good purpose. If not very durable, the cost of repair or renewal is light. [Figure 50] shows one of this kind, which is sufficiently high for the Asiatic and other heavy and quiet fowls. The panels are sixteen feet long, and are composed of two pieces of ordinary six-inch fencing, for top and bottom rails, with lath nailed across two and a half inches apart; the top ends of the lath extending ten inches above the upper edge of the top rail. Posts, three or four inches through at the top end, are large enough, and, after sharpening well, can be driven into the ground by first thrusting a crow-bar down and wrenching it back and forth. A post is necessary at the middle of each panel. Both rails of the panel should be well nailed to the posts. These panels may be neatly and rapidly made in a frame, constructed for that purpose. This frame, shown in [figure 51], consists simply of three cross-pieces of six by six, four feet long, upon which are spiked two planks one foot wide and three feet apart, from outside to outside. Four inches from the inner edge of each plank is nailed a straight strip of inch stuff, to keep the rails of the panel in place while the lath are being nailed on. Against the projecting ends of the cross-pieces, spike two by six posts twelve inches long; on the inside of these posts nail a piece of six-inch fencing, to serve as a stop, for the top ends of the laths to touch, when nailing them to the rails. These panels can be made in the shop or on the barn floor at odd times, and piled away for future use. Nail a wide bottom board around on the inside of the enclosure after the fence is in position.

Fig. 52.

Fig. 53.

[Figures 52] and [53] show lath fences high enough for all kinds of poultry. The posts in [figure 52] are eight feet apart. A horizontal bar is nailed to the posts six inches above the ground, a second one eighteen inches, and a third four and a half feet. To two lower strips nail laths that have been cut to half length, first driving the lower part of the laths two inches into the ground. One advantage of this fence is, that the two strips near the bottom, being so close together, sustain pressure from dogs or outside intruders better than any other fence constructed of lath, and dispenses with a foot-wide board, so generally used.

The cheapest lath fence is made with the posts four feet apart, first sawing them in two lengthwise at a sawmill, and nailing the lath directly to the posts without the use of strips. The two upper laths have short vertical pieces fastened to them with cleat nails, and present points to prevent fowls alighting on the fence. Such a fence ([figure 53]) will cost, for four feet, one-half post, three cents; twenty laths, eight cents; and the nails, three cents, per running foot, six feet high, or one-half cent per square foot.

HAND-MADE WIRE AND PICKET FENCES.

Fig. 54.—Side View Of Bench.

Fig. 55.—Top View Of Bench.

Fig. 56.—Portion Of The Fence.

A very desirable and popular fence is made of pickets or slats woven into horizontal strands of plain wire. Several machines have been invented and patented for doing this work, but it can be done by hand with the aid of the bench illustrated herewith. The wire should be a little larger than that used on harvesting machines, and annealed like it. The bench, of which [figure 54] is a side view, and [figure 55] a top view, should be about sixteen feet long and have a screw at each corner for raising and lowering the holding bars. For the screws at the ends of the frame one-half to three-fourth-inch iron rod will answer. The wire is twisted close and tight to the slats, and given two or three twists between them. If the slats are of green stuff, fasten the wire to them with small staples, to prevent their slipping when they shrink. The fence is fastened to the post with common fence staples. When this style of fence is used on one side of a pasture or highway, its effectiveness may be increased by a single strand of barbed wire stapled to the posts above the pickets, and a strand of plain wire strung along the bottom to stiffen it. The fence will then be as in [figure 56]. Such a fence will last many years, and for most sections of the country is the best and cheapest combined cattle and hog fence that can be made. For a garden fence it is equal to the best picket, and at one third of the cost. By having the slats sawed about one-half inch thick, two inches wide, and five to six feet long, it makes an excellent fence for a chicken yard, as it can be readily taken down, moved, and put up again without injuring it in the least. For situations where appearances are secondary importance, round slats are equally as good as pickets. A farmer in Wisconsin planted a few white willow trees the year that he made some fences of this kind. When the fence began to need repairs, the willows had attained such a growth that their trimmings furnished all the material needed then and each year thereafter.

FENCE OF WIRE AND PICKETS.

Fig. 57.—Fence Of Wire And Pickets.

The fence shown in [figure 57] has been introduced in some sections, and is becoming more popular every year. The posts are set ten feet apart, and are so placed that they will come on the right and left side of the fence, alternately. The pickets are split from oak, or any other hard wood, and are four or five feet long, and an inch and a half or two inches wide. When the posts are set, brace the one at the end of the line, and fasten the ends of two number nine, unannealed wires to it. Stretch the wires along to the other end of the line, and a few feet beyond the last post. One pair is to be stretched near the top of the posts and one near the ground. When the wires are stretched taut, fasten them to some posts or other weight that will drag on the ground; the upper and lower wires should be fastened to separate weights, and these should be heavy enough to keep the wires at a great tension. Having done this, you are ready to commence building the fence. One man spreads the strands, while another places the picket between them; the other end of the picket is then raised up and placed between the upper wires, and then driven up with an axe or mallet. In inserting the pickets, the wires are to be crossed alternately, as shown in the engraving. The pickets should be dry and should be about three inches apart. It takes two persons to build this fence successfully, but it can be built more rapidly by three; one to spread the wires, one to place the picket in position, and one to drive it home. This is especially adapted, for a line or other fence which is not required to be often moved. It is fastened to the post by nailing one of the pickets to it with common fencing nails. Fences of this kind are also made with straight, round limbs of willow or other trees in place of the split pickets. Several different machines have been patented for making this style of fence.

CHAPTER V.
BARB-WIRE FENCE.

The invention of barb wire was the most important event in the solution of the fence problem. The question of providing fencing material had become serious, even in the timbered portions of the country, while the great prairie region was almost wholly without resource, save the slow and expensive process of hedging. At this juncture came barb wire, which was at once seen to make a cheap, effective, and durable fence, rapidly built and easily moved. The original patent for barb wire was taken out in 1868, but it was not until six years later that an attempt was made to introduce it into general use, and more than ten years elapsed before the industry attained any considerable magnitude. The rapidity and extent of its subsequent growth will be seen by the following table, showing the estimated amount of barb wire manufactured and in use during the years named, the estimated length being in miles of single strand:

Year.Tons.Miles.
Totals716,8051,433,610
1874510
1875300600
18761,5003,000
18777,00014,000
187813,00026,000
187925,00050,000
188040,00080,000
188160,000120,000
188280,000160,000
1883100,000200,000
1884125,000250,000
1885130,000260,000
1886135,000270,000

There are now fifty establishments engaged in the manufacture, and the output for 1887 is estimated at 140,000 tons.

Fig. 58.—The Kelly Barb Wire.

Barb wire is not without its drawbacks as a fencing material, the most common one being the liability of serious injury to valuable domestic animals coming in contact with the sharp barbs. Many means have been devised for overcoming this evil. Some of them are illustrated in the next chapter. The direct advantages of barb wire are: First—economy, not only in the comparative cheapness of its first cost, but also in the small amount of land covered by it. Second—effectiveness as a barrier against all kinds of stock, and a protection against dogs and wild beasts. Third—rapidity of construction and ease of moving. Fourth—freedom from harboring weeds, and creating snow drifts. Fifth—durability.

Fig. 59.—Horse-nail Barb.

Barb wire, like the harvester, the sowing machine, and most other valuable inventions, has attained its present form from very crude beginnings. The original barb wire consisted of double-pointed metallic discs, strung loosely upon plain wire. The next step was to twist this with another wire, as shown in [figure 58].

Fig. 60.—Crandall Barb Wire.

Fig. 61.—Sterling Barb Wire.

Another crude beginning was the “horse-nail barb,” which consisted of a common horseshoe nail bent around a plain wire, and the whole wrapped spirally with a smaller wire, as shown in [figure 59]. Various forms of two-pointed and four-pointed barb wire are manufactured, the principal difference being the shape of the barbs and the manner of coiling them around one or both of the strands. A few of the leading styles are illustrated herewith. [Figures 60] and [61] show two varieties of two-pointed barb wire.

Fig. 62.—Quadrated Barb Wire.

Fig. 63.—Iowa Four-pointed Barb Wire.

Of the numerous styles of four-pointed wire, three typical forms are illustrated in [figures 62], [63], and [64].

Fig. 64.—Lyman Barb Wire.

The Glidden patent steel barb wire is made in three styles, as shown in [figures 65], [66], and [67]. [Figure 65] shows the two-point wire, in which, like the others, the barb is twisted around only one of the wires. [Figure 66] shows the “thick-set” which has barbs like the other, but set closer together for such purposes as sheep folds, gardens, or other places, which require extra protection. The four-point barb wire, [figure 67], has barbs of the same form as the two other styles, that is a sharply pricking barb attached to one of the wires of the fence strand, upon which the other wire is twisted, holding the barb firmly in place. The barb is at right angles to the wire, and does not form a hook, but a straight short steel thorn. A sharp point which inflict an instantaneous prick repels an animal more safely than a longer and duller barb.

Fig. 65.—Glidden Patent Steel Two-point.

Fig. 66.—Glidden Patent Steel “Thick Set.”

Fig. 67.—Glidden Patent Four-point.

Barb wire of nearly, if not quite all the popular kinds, is shipped from the factory on strong spools, each holding one hundred pounds in weight, or eighty rods in length. These spools are bored through the center to admit a stick or bar, which can be used as an axle in unreeling the wire. The following table shows the weight of wire required for fencing the respective areas named:

AreaLength of
Boundary.		Weight of Wire.
1 Strand.
Lbs.		3 Strand.
Lbs.
1 Acre 60 Rods.67202
5 Acres⅜ Mile.167400
10 Acres½ Mile.183548
20 Acres¾ Mile.273820
40 Acres1 Mile.3651095
80 Acres1 ½ Mile.5471642
160 Acres2 Miles.7302190

Fig. 68.—Brinkerhoff Steel Strap and Barb.

It will be observed that the larger the area enclosed, the smaller is the amount of fence required per acre. The cost of fence complete can be estimated by adding to the amount of wire indicated in the last column, the cost of sixty posts, and three and three-quarter pounds of staples, for every sixty rods. To ascertain the weight of wire required for any desired number of strands, multiply the figures of the first column of “weight of wire” by the number of strands proposed to be used.

Fig. 69.—Allis Patent Barb.

Fig. 70.—Brinkerhoff Fencing Twisted.

There is a kind of barb fencing in which flat steel straps are employed instead of wire. In the form shown in [figure 68], the barbs are bent around a plain strap and the whole is then galvanized, which firmly fixes the barb. Another form shown at [figure 69] consists of a solid piece of steel, ribbed through the middle, and with barbs cut on both edges. These and similar forms are more expensive than wire, and are employed only in limited quantities for enclosing lawns, paddocks, etc. Still another form is like that shown in [figure 70], without barbs, and twisted. This is much used to enclose lawns and ornamental grounds. It is light, neat and strong, does not harbor weeds or make snow drifts, but is comparatively expensive, as five or six strands are required to make an effective fence.

Fig. 71.—Two Strand Twisted Wire Fencing.

Still another form of unarmed fencing is shown in [figure 71]. It is simply the ordinary wire without barbs, and is used in limited quantities for fencing ornamental grounds, barnyards, etc.

STEEL FENCE STAPLES.

Fig. 72.—1 ¼-inch Staple.

Fig. 73.—1 ¾-inch Staple.

Fig. 74.—Square Top Staple For Brinkerhoff Fencing.

For fastening barb-wires to the post nothing has been found so satisfactory as staples made for the purpose from No. 9 steel wire. They are cut with sharp points to drive easily into the posts, and are of different lengths, from one inch and a quarter to one and three-quarters. [Figures 72] and [73] show the usual staples for wire, and [figure 74] a staple made specially for strap fencing.

HOW TO SET BARB WIRE FENCE.

Fig. 75.—Well-braced Barb-wire Fence.

The timber for posts should be cut when the sap is dormant. Midwinter or August is a good time to cut post timber. They should be split and the bark taken off as soon as possible after cutting the timber. For end posts, select some of the best trees, about sixteen inches in diameter, from which take cuts eight and a half feet in length, splitting them in quarters for brace posts. They should be set three feet in the ground, which is easily done with a post-hole digger. When setting the brace posts, take a stone eighteen inches to two feet long, twelve inches wide, and six inches thick, which is put down against the post edgewise, on the opposite side to the brace, as seen in [figure 75], putting it down about even with the surface of the ground. This holds the post solid against the brace. A heart-rail, ten feet in length makes a good brace. Put one of the long posts every sixteen or twenty rods along the line of fence, as they help to strengthen it, and set lighter and shorter posts along the line about sixteen feet apart. After the posts are set, two or three furrows should be turned against them on each side, as it helps to keep stock from the wire. Such a fence should be built of a good height. It is better to buy an extra wire than have stock injured. There is no pulling over end-posts or sagging wire.

Fig. 76.—A Wire Fence Well Braced.

To make an extra solid wire fence, brace the posts, as shown in [figure 76], on both sides, in order to resist the tension in either direction. Every eighth post should be thus braced, and it makes a mark for measuring the length of the fence, for eight posts set one rod apart, make eight rods, or a fortieth of a mile for each braced post. The braces are notched into the top of the posts, just below the top wire, and a spike is driven through both the brace and the post. The braces abut upon large stones which give them great firmness.

UNREELING AND STRETCHING BARB WIRE.

Fig. 77.—Device For Unrolling Wire.

Fig. 78.—Fastening The Wire.

The general introduction of barb wire fencing has brought out a great variety of devices for handling the wire. One of these is shown in the illustrations. Two pieces of scantling are attached to the rear end of a wagon from which the box has been removed, as shown in [figure 77]. A slot near the end of each admits the round stick thrust through the reel of barb wire, to serve as an axle. The end of the barb wire is fastened to the fence post, the team in front of the wagon started up, and some three yards of wire unreeled. Then the hind axle of the wagon is made fast by a chain or rope to the nearest fence-post, the hind wheel nearest the fence lifted from the ground and held there by a wagon-jack or piece of board. One turn is then made in the barb wire, as shown at A, [figure 78], to which is attached one end of a piece of smooth wire, some ten feet long. The other end is placed between two screws, b b, in the end of the hub, as shown in the illustration. The wire thus fastened is coiled around the hub, and the operator can tighten it and the barb wire to which it is attached, by employing the leverage of the spokes and felloes.

Fig. 79.—A Sulky Wire-holder.

Fig. 80.—The Axle.

A lighter form of reel holder is shown at [figure 79]. It is made of two pieces of two by four scantlings fastened to the axle of a sulky corn plow. They must be placed far enough apart to allow the reel or spool to run between them. Make a square axle, [figure 80], of some hard tough wood, rounding it where it runs in the slots of the scantling; drive it through the hole in the spool, and attach the crank. In moving fence, place the spool on the frame; remove one end of the wire from the post, fasten it to the spool, and while one man holds the pole and steers and steadies the sulky—he will have to pull back a little—another turns the spool and winds up the wire. When a corner is reached, the wire is loosened, the sulky turned, and the winding continued. When the end of the wire is reached, it is carefully loosened from the post, and firmly fastened to the spool.

Fig. 81.—A Sled Wire-holder.

Fig. 82.—Another Sled For Wire.

It is best to have a separate spool for each wire, especially if they are of great length. The same contrivance may be used for unreeling the wire. Attach a gentle horse to the sulky, fasten the pole securely to the hames, and have a boy lead him slowly along the fence line. Once in fifty yards stop the horse, grasp the handle, move forward very slowly, and draw the wire straight and taut. If no sulky plow is at hand, a light “double-ended” sled, shown in [figure 81], may be used. A man holds the short pole extending from one end, steadying and pushing a little, while the other winds the reel. The sled is drawn forward by the wire as it is wound on the reel. To unreel, attach a slow horse to a chain or rope fastened to the opposite end of the sled. A man must walk behind the horse and hold the pole to steady the sled. Managed in this way, the removal of a barbed wire fence is not at all the formidable operation that has been supposed; it can be taken down and set up again, easily, safely, and quite rapidly. [Figure 82] shows another form of home-made sled, which is very useful for carrying rolls of wire for making a fence. The roll is supported on a rod, which has round ends to fit into the uprights, and which turns in the slots. When the wire is run out, the end is fastened to the clevis on the centre beam, and a notched stake, [figure 83], being put under the wire, the sled is drawn up to tighten the wire, which is then stapled. This sled is useful for many other purposes, and is large enough to carry five rolls of the wire, so that by going back and forth, the whole of the fence can be put up very quickly. It is drawn by one horse, the draft chain being fastened to the front beam.

Fig. 83.—Tightening The Wire.

WIRE STRETCHERS.

Fig. 84.—The Clark Stretcher.

For stretching barb wire there are various implements in the market, and other quite simple and effective devices can be made on the farm. [Figure 84] shows the Clark stretcher and the manner of using it. Another stretcher, called the “Come Along” stretcher, [figure 85], is used not only for tightening the wires, but also for handling it, in building or moving fences.

Fig. 85.—The “Come Along” Stretcher.