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MARY C. MORGAN.

SPALDING’S ATHLETIC LIBRARY
Group X No. 69R
Girls and Athletics
Giving a brief summary of the activity, rules and
method of administration of the following games
in girls’ schools and colleges, women’s clubs, etc.
ARCHERY, BASKET BALL, CRICKET, FENCING,
FIELD DAY, FIELD HOCKEY, GYMNASTICS, GOLF,
HAND BALL, ICE HOCKEY, INDOOR BASE BALL,
ROWING, SOCCER, SKATING, SWIMMING, TENNIS,
TRACK ATHLETICS, VOLLEY BALL, WALKING,
WATER POLO, WATER BASKET BALL
EDITED BY
MARY C. MORGAN
of Lansdowne Country Club
Philadelphia
(A Member of the Class of 1915, Bryn Mawr College)
PUBLISHED BY
AMERICAN SPORTS PUBLISHING COMPANY
21 WARREN STREET, NEW YORK

Copyright, 1917
by
American Sports Publishing Company
New York

Contents

Publishers’ Note

Miss Mary C. Morgan, who has been chosen to edit the volume, “Girls and Athletics” is an all-around athlete of remarkable ability. As a student at Friends Central School, Philadelphia, and at Bryn Mawr College Miss Morgan played on basket ball, track, water polo, and field hockey teams and participated in the gymnastic events. At Bryn Mawr she held the individual cup in 1913 and 1914 for the highest number of points in the Interclass Track and Field meet. On the track she shares the world’s record for women of 12 seconds in the 100-yard dash and she holds the world’s record of 15-2/5 seconds in the 100-yard hurdle race of eight hurdles each 2 feet 6 inches high. Both of these records were made on cinder track with rubber-soled shoes in the cumbersome bloomer and jumper costume (cumbersome as compared to the scanty attire of male track and field athletes). Miss Morgan also shares the Bryn Mawr College record of 6-1/5 seconds for the 50-yard dash and holds the college record for the standing broad jump—7 feet 9 inches.

American Sports Publishing Co.

Acknowledgments

The editor is very much indebted to the following persons for their kind interest and assistance: Miss Harriet Ballintine, Director of Physical Training at Vassar College; Mr. Philip Bishop, Instructor in Gymnastics at the Haverford School and Advisory Swimming Coach at Bryn Mawr College; Dr. Frances Boynton of the New Haven Normal School of Physical Training; Miss Elizabeth Burchenal, Executive Secretary of the Girls’ Branch of the Public Schools Athletic League, New York, and to the committee of the League: Dr. Florence Gilman of Smith College; Miss Josephine Katzenstein, a member of the Lansdowne Country Club and the All-Philadelphia Hockey teams; Miss Lorena L. Parrish, Physical Director of Howard Payne College; Miss Lillian Schoedler, Honorary President of the Intercollegiate Alumnæ Athletic League; Miss Dorothy Wooster of Smith College, and Mr. A. M. Gillam.

The editor also wishes to thank the schools, colleges and country clubs who so kindly replied to the questionaire sent out.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Spalding’s Official Athletic Handbooks (American Sports Publishing Company, New York).

Official Handbook of the Girls’ Branch of the Public Schools Athletic League, New York. Handbook of Athletic Games (Bancroft and Pulvermacher; Macmillan, New York). A Survey of Track Athletics for Women (Reprinted from the American Physical Education Review, January, 1916). Dr. Harry E. Stewart, Physical Director New Haven (Conn.) Normal School of Gymnastics.

Girls and Athletics
By Mary C. Morgan.

In gathering information for this volume a questionaire was sent to some three hundred schools and colleges. Replies were received from two hundred and thirty-seven of these. Of this number only one school went on record as opposed to athletics for girls and women. All of the others make provision for athletics or some form of physical education. Some schools provide little or no supervision, it is true, but the great majority provide for or realize the necessity for provision of adequate control of this form of training.

The impression one receives from scanning the replies to the questionaire is undoubtedly that general athletics for girls are becoming more and more popular, and that development is slowly but surely broadening out to include eventually almost every form of athletics for almost every girl.

From the physical standpoint, any exercise under favorable circumstances is beneficial in that it develops and brings into play the muscles of the body and stimulates the whole system. But all forms of athletics should be carefully supervised, particularly for growing girls. Every participant should have a thorough physical examination and if any limitations are placed upon her athletics, the reasons for such restrictions should be carefully explained. It is natural that some people are more delicate than others—absolutely unfit for some of the more strenuous games—but there are always less strenuous exercises which may be indulged in.

The physical condition being assured, the girl should be watched so that she does not enter into the sports or games with too much intensity. It is a common tendency of the average American girl to throw her whole soul into the particular matter at hand. If it happens to be athletics, often her enthusiasm helped out by a thoroughly admirable spirit and by quite a lot of “grit”—as her brothers term it—keeps her playing when she is really tired out physically. This is the time where a coach—or if there is no coach, friendly advice—will show the girl that she is not getting any benefit out of the exercise, and she is running the risk of injuring herself.

This excess is as wrong in athletics as it is in anything else. Be temperate.

My advice to every girl is: Know your physical condition; use common sense and gauge the amount of exercise you take by your physical condition and stamina.

Athletics as a builder of character are just as important as a builder of physical strength. Fair play and good sportsmanship are the two maxims kept constantly before the eye. A girl who has won the reputation of being a clean, square player is happy herself and is admired by all with whom she comes in contact. There is no higher compliment than to be called a “good sportswoman.” A girl who can lose and smile, or win and not exult over her opponent’s defeat, is quite apt to get something bigger than mere physical development out of her athletics.

Training

A few girls have asked me, “How can I learn to play this or that game well?” Athletics are just like almost every phase of life; it requires practice and experience before one becomes skilled. If, then, a girl wishes to be successful it is best to make a thorough study of the branch of sport she is going to take up and practice, assimilating each detail carefully. The amount of time it takes to become proficient depends upon the natural ability of the person—some people are much more talented in athletics than others.

The best advice I can give is to know your game thoroughly, so that you may play with your head as well as your body. Practice until you have confidence in your ability. Do not practice so constantly and continually that you become “stale.” A little practice taken regularly is often more beneficial than a lot of practice which tires you out so that you are unfit for more the next day. Do a little bit, so that you are not tired, increasing the practice slowly.

Some people believe in set training rules; others do not. It is best to be in good physical condition all the time if it is possible; it stands to reason, however, that for especial speed and endurance the physical condition should be nearly perfect. Sleep is a very necessary factor; therefore, every athlete should have a long and sound sleep every night. As for diet, there is a difference of opinion. It seems reasonable that no heavy food, nor rich food that is indigestible, should be eaten. In particular, just before a contest, a light meal should be eaten with the proper time for digestion allowed before playing. Some people make the mistake of eating heavily and then playing immediately afterward. The most sensible training seems to be, eat the most nourishing and easily digested food.

What to Wear

Dress sensibly. For track and field games, basket ball and other games that require speed, agility and the freest play of all muscles, by all means wear bloomers and a middy blouse. For tennis, golf and the other less strenuous games, wear shirtwaist or middy blouse and a skirt wide enough and short enough to give the most play of the leg muscles. For instance, there is nothing so ridiculous as to see a girl athlete togged with more regard for the impression she is making on the male part of the gallery than for getting the most physical benefit out of her game. I have great sympathy for every girl who takes pride in her appearance at all times. I maintain that it is both possible to present a neat and an agreeable appearance and at the same time to dress sensibly for the business at hand. In each of the following chapters on the various forms of sports I have endeavored to say a word about dress specifically for that sport, unless it is evident what costume is suitable. Back of it all I will repeat this fundamental: Dress sensibly.

Field Hockey

Field hockey, next to basket ball, is the most popular team game played by girls; and it is a comparatively new game here, as it has been played in America only since 1901. Miss Harriet Ballintine, Director of Physical Training at Vassar College, in her pamphlet, “The History of Physical Training at Vassar College,” gives an account of the beginning of hockey in America: “Until 1901, English field hockey was comparatively unknown in this country. Before this it had been played by men at the Springfield Training School, and to some extent at Mount Holyoke College. Dr. J. H. McCurdy of the Springfield School in writing of the game says: ‘The men at Springfield first played the game of field hockey in 1897. Regarding where field hockey was first played in this country (by girls), the girls at Mount Holyoke College had begun playing the game, I think, before Miss Applebee’s arrival in this country. They had been down to a number of our championship games. Arrangements had been made for some of our students to coach the Mount Holyoke girls in hockey, when I found Miss Applebee was in this country and recommended their getting her.’”

Many hockey players owe their interest in the game to Miss Applebee, notable for her inspiring coaching and the knowledge of hockey that she has imparted to her pupils.

To the devotees of this game, there is no other sport that quite comes up to it. In a game of hockey there is a spirit of freedom, of exhilaration, of gladness that comes from a true love of sport. And it has other advantages—absence of roughness, plenty of vigorous exercise in the open air, and yet not extraordinarily violent. It is a game that may be played by all types; a game that is played by a large number on each team.

The Game.

Hockey is played on a level field of turf similar to a football or lacrosse field. There are eleven players on each team, thus there are twenty-two players on the field at one time. Each player is equipped with a stick with a curved head. A cricket ball is used. The eleven players are divided into groups: forwards, halfbacks, fullbacks and goal. Each group calls for a different type of player. The teams line up (according to illustration) in the center of the field. The forwards are the attackers, whose duty it is to advance the ball into their opponents’ territory and score a goal (Rule II). The halfbacks assist the forwards in attacking and with the fullbacks and goal keeper defend their own goal.

The umpire blows the whistle and the game begins with the two center forwards bullying. The ball has been placed in the middle of center line, the center forwards stand with one foot on each side of center line directly opposite each other, right shoulder toward their own goal. (See Rule for Bully.) After the bully is completed, the ball hit out, then play commences. The forwards of the team in possession of the ball rush it down toward the opponents’ goal and try to shoot a goal while the opposing defense tries to prevent any score. Each time the ball is fairly hit over the goal line, one point is made by team scoring goal. Two halves, length of which is agreed upon by captains, are played. The team scoring the greatest number of goals by the end of second half wins the game.

The Team as a Whole.

The main factor in hockey is team play. There may be one or two players of stellar ability on the team, but if the team does not play well together it is not well balanced. It is not an individual but eleven individuals welded together that form a team. Every girl should consider—when playing hockey—that her stick is her best friend; therefore it should be chosen carefully and with due consideration. There are three important qualities a stick should have: balance, weight and length. The balance should be even, not in the handle, but more in the curved head of stick; not too heavy there however. The weight of the stick should be 21 or 22 ounces for a forward, 23 or 24 for a halfback, 24 or 25 for a fullback or goal keeper. Never carry a stick that is too heavy. The stick should be just long enough for a comfortable grip. It should be neither too long nor too short.

How to Hold Stick.

The stick should be firmly held in both hands, with the left hand gripping the handle at the end (top) of stick with the fingers forward; the right hand grips the stick directly below the left hand, touching but not overlapping the left hand. The hands should never be separated because this tends to make a player stoop over, thus losing in strength of stroke. At the beginning of the stroke, the stick should be carried back toward the right (the right arm must be kept straight to avoid “sticks”—a foul, see Rule III) until the left arm is straight; then the stick should be carried forward, striking ball squarely. At the finish of the stroke, the right arm should still be kept straight and the end of stick turned in (i.e., toward body) and down to avoid making “sticks” at end of stroke.

While the stick is not in use or while player is running it should be carried in both hands horizontally at comfortable height, as long as it is below the shoulder.

Let us consider the forward line. It is made up of five positions: left wing, left inside, center forward, right inside, right wing. Players for these positions should be selected for the following qualifications: ability to run with average speed; ability to shoot hard, clean goals; endurance and wind necessary for constant sprints. It is up to the forwards to keep the ball in the opponents’ territory; for this, there are two ways of advancing the ball—passing and dribbling.

Passing.

Passing, since it is less individual and makes for more team play, should be ranked first. There are short and long passes. The short are generally quick passes between a forward and her nearest teammate, that is, between an inside and center or between an inside and wing. The long pass is across the center from the left side of the field to the right, or vice versa. All passes should be quick, clean and accurate. Here are a few things to avoid: Don’t pass the ball straight ahead so that it goes to one of opposing team. Don’t pass behind your own forward line. Don’t pass to a guarded player. Don’t wait to pass until you have been attacked, thus hurrying your pass. Don’t (especially when passing to the wings) put all your strength in the stroke, sending the hardest ball you can.

Dribbling.

Next to passing comes dribbling. Every forward should know how to dribble. In dribbling the ball, both hands should be kept close together at the top of the stick; the stick is sometimes turned so that the flat side is forward; the wrist and hands are adjusted to any position of the stick. Only a few players are skilled enough to dribble with one hand. The ball should be kept close to the stick, slightly in advance of the runner. The most common fault is that the dribbler follows the ball instead of sending the ball just where she desires. The player who is a good dribbler keeps the ball under control, no matter how speedily she is running. If the ball is sent ahead too far then the dribbler is apt to lose control, but if it is kept close to the stick and just barely touched each time it is easier to manage. The dribbler should remember: never crouch over the ball, but stand erect; never let the ball get too far ahead; never permit an opponent to get so close that you cannot pass the ball to a teammate quickly. Never keep the ball selfishly.

The Bully.

The forwards are called on frequently to bully—the start and twenty-five-yard bully (see Rule I)—so the bully should be practised until each forward is quick and accurate. There should be an understanding among the forwards and halfbacks as to which way the ball will be hit out on the bully so that some one is always ready for it. The right hand should grip almost three-quarters way down the stick, the player then must bend over the stick. The feet are wide apart, planted firmly on the ground. (See Rule for Bully.) After the three separate “grounds and sticks” the ball is hit out. It is here that quickness and skill count. The halfbacks—one from each team—always back up a bully to help their forwards.

Shooting Goals.

It is not necessary to say that it is most important for a forward to shoot goals. She should shoot as often, as hard and as accurately as she can, and she must follow her shots in. This is her main duty and no forward is up to the mark unless she can shoot goals.

Center Forward.

Center forward is the keystone position. Her duties are to bully off at the center (for start and after each goal), to keep the forwards in a straight line, to shoot goals, to distribute passes to the left and right sides evenly. If a center forward has a clear field it is all right for her to dribble, but, as a rule, she should play a passing game. She also has many opportunities to shoot.

Field Hockey—The bulley-off. The players are in position and the opposing center forwards are in the act of putting the ball in play.

Field Hockey—A corner. The defending team is lined up on the goal line. The attacking forwards are lined up along the striking circle, ready to return the hit and convert it into a goal.

Right Inside.

The right inside is governed by the same dribbling and passing rule as the center. She should be particular to receive the passes of the left wing. Also a lot of the shooting falls to her. Both insides should play close to the center if the center has the ball, or close to the wing if the wing has the ball.

Left Inside.

The left inside is a more difficult position to receive passes and to shoot from. It is often wiser for a left inside to allow a ball to go to another forward if she is not in a good position to receive it. As a rule, the best balls for her are from the right.

Right Wing.

The wings should be fast players. In particular, the right wing has a splendid opportunity for dribbling and passing. It is mainly the duty of the wings to advance the ball; if, however, the opportunity arises, they should shoot. The wing should be careful never to send the ball too far ahead; never to let a ball go outside the side lines if it is possible to stop it; never dribble farther than the twenty-five-yard line; always send the ball toward the center of the field.

Left Wing.

The left wing should be careful to dribble only when she has a clear field. In receiving a ball, the wing, if possible, should stand with her left shoulder toward the goal she is attacking. Three common faults of a left wing are: Letting the ball go out of bounds on her side too often, thus giving the other side a roll-in; getting into an off-side position; turning on the ball. (See Rules VII and IX.)

Halfbacks.

All of the halfback positions are extremely hard to play because they require great endurance, a moderate amount of speed, hard hitting, and a fighting spirit. The halfbacks are both attackers and defenders. First, in attacking they feed the forwards by passes to them. They should follow up the forward line closely and when the forwards are inside the circle should be ready to shoot if a chance comes. On the defensive they should stick to the opposing forwards closely. The fullbacks and halfbacks should work together on defense.

Center Halfback.

The center halfback backs up the bullies in the center of the field and she feeds primarily the center and insides. In defending she guards the opposing center forward and the insides if they are playing close to the center. The half should always watch to see which forwards are free. She should not send the ball to the spot from which it has just come, as that spot is apt to be guarded, but should change the direction.

Right Halfback.

The right halfback feeds the right wing and the right inside. If both of these are carefully guarded, then she should send ball to center or to the other side of field. In defense she guards the left wing or the left inside—if the inside is near the wing. She also backs up all the bullies on her side of the line.

Left Halfback.

The left halfback feeds the left wing and the left inside unless they are guarded, then she changes the direction of the ball. The left half should send very careful, well-placed balls to her wing and inside, balls that slant a little bit, not straight ahead. As the right wing is apt to dribble, the left half should be very quick and should be careful to avoid running in on the left. (Rule VIII.)

The halfbacks should remember: Never to give up; if your opponent gets away, run after her and stop her; never hit through the forward line, always hit the ball to somebody; never run out of position to tackle an opponent. Each half should stick closely to the girl she is guarding. Never interfere with the work of the fullback or the goal keeper.

Fullbacks.

The fullbacks are primarily defensive players although they have opportunities for long shots to the forwards. The fullbacks and the halfbacks should never mix up, by guarding the same girl. The fullbacks stay near their own goal. If the right half is guarding the left wing and the center half the center forward, then the left inside remains for the right fullback to guard. When one fullback is up the field, that is, near the fifty-yard line (she must never go beyond the fifty-yard line), the other fullback should be back toward the goal. The players on the defense should never be bunched in front of the goal, and in hitting the ball away from the goal, they should hit out toward the side lines—never across the center. In a corner or a bully the fullbacks should guard the goal closely.

Goal Keeper.

The goal keeper should be very cool—not get rattled if a goal is made by the opposing side. It is well for the goal keeper to watch the eyes of the opposing forward; often in that way she can tell where the forward is going to shoot. The goal keeper should never be drawn away from her goal line. She should stand about a foot in front, but no farther away. Above all, the goal keeper should have courage; she should not step back from any ball, afraid to stop it.

Not only should she rely on her stick, but she should remember that she may kick and stop the ball with her body. The main object is to keep the ball out of the goal and get it in less dangerous territory. This often requires quick, clear thinking on the part of the goal keeper. The fullbacks should never leave the goal keeper alone and unprotected; nor should they stand so close to her, nor so directly in front of her, that they impede her playing or obstruct her view of the play. The goal keeper must never lose sight of the ball.

There are a few general directions that might be given for playing. Keep your own position—don’t run out of your place to interfere in someone else’s. Use your head—flighty playing merely ends in wildness and nothing accomplished. Save your strength—do not use it up in the first mad rushes and terrific hits. It is the consistent, steady, dependable player who wins the game.

A great deal of time is wasted in the roll-in, that is, when the ball is put in play after going over the side line. The team taking the roll-in should have signals, that is, an understanding as to the line-up. The halfback generally takes the roll-in unless the point where roll-in occurs is near the goal line being defended, then the roll-in is taken by the fullback. The ball should be sent to the person best prepared to receive it the wing if she is free or the inside or halfback; sometimes it even may be rolled back toward the fullback.

The opponents never leave any player unguarded. As soon as the roll-in is called, it should be taken quickly.

Just as quickness is an advantage in taking the roll-in so it is in the free hit. The halfback in whose territory the foul occurred should take the free hit quickly, before her teammates may be guarded. Every delay means that the opponents have an opportunity to guard more closely. In taking the free hit, be careful to hit to an unguarded player. Make the free hit count.

In the corner play the hit should be carefully taken by the halfback, or sometimes it is taken by the wing. The attackers line up around the edge of the striking circle ready to stop the ball and shoot for the goal; the defenders are behind the line ready to rush out and get the ball away from dangerous territory. The player taking the free hit should be careful that the ball goes within the circle; that it is hit hard and cleanly—never send a ball that hops; that the ball is sent to a particular player, preferably the center forward or either of the insides. It is not often advisable for a wing to stop a ball hit in from the corner hit.

DIAGRAM OF FIELD WITH NECESSARY MARKINGS AND SHOWING THE PROPER LINE-UP OF TEAMS AT START OF GAME.

To decide a championship or the winner of a hockey tournament, it is advisable to play three games, the winner of two being the winner of the series. If one team wins the first two games it is unnecessary to play the third; if there are more than two teams contesting, it is advisable to have preliminary rounds, the winners meeting the winners, etc.

The Field of Play

The Field.

The dimensions of the field are: maximum length, 100 yards; minimum, 85 yards; maximum breadth, 60 yards; minimum, 55 yards. The field of play is marked by boundary lines; the end are “goal lines,” and the side, “side lines.” Flag posts, four feet in height, one yard outside the field of play, are placed at each of the four corners and at each end of the twenty-five-yard lines.

There are three lines across the field, i. e., parallel to the end lines, running from side line to side line—one in the center of field, the fifty-yard line; one at each end of the field, each twenty-five yards from the goal line.

The Goals.

The goals are marked by upright posts, equidistant from the corners of the goal lines, four yards apart, connected by a cross-bar seven feet from the ground. The space between the posts is known as the goal area. The maximum width of the posts and the cross-bars is two inches; the maximum depth, three inches. There is a goal at each end of the field.

The Striking Circle.

In front of each goal is a striking circle marked by the following lines: A line parallel to goal line, fifteen yards distant from, directly in front of the goal area, four yards in length. The ends of this line are joined to the goal line by a quarter circle fifteen yards in diameter measured from the nearest goal post.

A line parallel to the side line, five yards distant, is drawn the length of the field. This is called the alley.

It is important that the lines be distinctly marked in white. If there are nets behind the goal to catch balls, it aids the umpire in determining if a goal is scored. Goal posts and bar may be painted white. The ball is a leather cricket ball painted white.

Dress.

Bloomers and jumper are the most comfortable form of dress. If a skirt is worn it must be at least eight inches from the ground. Stopping the ball with the clothing is not good hockey. Light shoes with rubber soles, fitted for running, should be worn by the forwards and halves. Heavier shoes are worn by the fullbacks. The feet of the player ought to be well protected, in order that she may stop the ball with her feet. All players should wear shin-guards; the forwards and halves light ones, the fullbacks heavier. The goal keeper will find that the shin-guards used in cricket are not too heavy.

If a hat is worn, it should be without pins and must have a soft brim.

Many players prefer wearing gloves in order to protect their hands.

The Stick.

The stick should be a regulation stick, curved on one side, flat on the other. No stick must weigh more than 28 ounces.

Time.—The time of halves (usually 35 minutes) with the intermission should be determined by the captains.

Score.—Each goal made counts one point. Highest number of goals at end of game wins. There is no other score except by goals.

Officials.—There is an umpire, who makes all decisions of goals, fouls and disputes. She is responsible for the good conduct of the game. There may be an umpire for each half of the field. Also a scorer, a timekeeper and two linesmen, who call the ball out of bounds and give decisions when appealed to.

Each team has eleven players; for each side there is a captain, who tosses for choice of goal, protests to the umpire, governs the team on the field. They must notify the referee of any change of line-up.

Field Hockey Rules

I. Rules Governing Bully.

(a) The Bully is the method of putting the ball in play. A bully is played by two players, one from each team, who stand squarely opposite each other (each facing a side line), each with her right side toward her own goal. The ball is placed between them, each player having a foot on either side of the ball. Both first touch the ground on their right side of the ball, then they touch sticks. This is done alternately for three times, then either may touch the ball. After the ball is touched by either or both of the two players bullying it may be played by anyone.

(b) The game is started at the beginning of the first and second halves by a bully-off on the center line.

(c) After each goal is scored the ball is brought back to center line for bully-off, as in (b).

(d) The teams line up in a bully on the side nearest their goal line and never step over the line of the ball, i. e., an imaginary line, if ball is not on center or twenty-five-yard line drawn across field. This is known as standing behind the ball.

(e) After time-out is called, the ball is put in play again by bully on the spot where time-out is taken.

(f) If a foul is called on both teams, a bully is taken on the spot where the foul occurred.

(g) If any rules of bully are not observed, bully is taken over again.

(h) Penalty-Bully.—A penalty-bully can only occur when a defender inside the circle deliberately breaks a rule, thereby directly preventing a goal from being scored. The bully is played on the spot where foul occurred by goal keeper and a chosen player from the other team. All other players stand beyond the nearest twenty-five-yard line until the bully is completed. The bully is only completed when: First, a goal is scored; second, the ball is sent out of bounds by an attacker—if sent out by defender, penalty-bully is repeated; third, the ball is sent out of striking circle. In either of the first two cases the ball is put in play by a twenty-five-yard bully in the center of the nearest twenty-five-yard line. Any foul (except Rule I, a) by offender counts penalty goal or one point for opponents; any foul by attacker (except Rule I, a) the defender is given a free hit. The goal keeper in a penalty-bully may play only with the stick; she may not kick or stop ball with hands. If time is called, bully must first be completed.

II. Rules for Goal.

(a) To score a goal the ball must have been hit by or have touched the stick of an attacker within the striking circle.

(b) The ball must pass entirely over the goal line between the goal posts and under the cross-bar.

(c) If a ball, after touching the stick of an attacker within the circle, glances off the stick or person of a defender, it is a goal.

(d) If a ball hit fairly glances off a goal post across the goal line, it is a goal.

(e) The umpire must judge fairness of goal.

III. Rules for Sticks.

(a) The stick must never be raised above the shoulder in any part of the stroke while hitting the ball, nor may it be carried over shoulder. When this rule is broken within the striking circle by a defender, the penalty is a penalty-corner; if deliberately broken, it is a penalty-bully.

(b) The flat side, never the rounded, should be used in striking the ball.

(c) A player should never catch the curved part of her stick in that of her opponent’s, thereby hindering her opponent’s play. This is hooking.

(d) A player should never strike or hit her opponent’s stick.

(e) A player should never lift her opponent’s stick from the ground or in any such manner mar her stroke.

(f) A player should never trip an opponent with stick.

(g) No player without a stick may take part in play.

(h) For any infringement of rules, a free hit to opposing side where foul occurred is granted, unless referee deems the foul rough, thus liable to disqualification.

IV. Rules for Free Hit.

(a) When a team is accorded a free hit by an umpire, through a foul by opponents, the captain of the team shall designate the player (generally a halfback or fullback) who is to take the hit, and no other player may be nearer the player taking the hit than five yards. The ball must be hit squarely, not scooped. The free hit is taken again if this rule is not complied with.

(b) The player who has taken the free hit may not touch the ball again until it has been touched by another player.

(c) A foul by a defender in the striking circle upon taking a free hit is punished by a penalty-corner.

(d) If the player misses the ball entirely upon taking the free hit, she may hit it again.

(e) If there is any infringement of the rule, the free hit is given to the other side except when the ball is scooped by the defender inside the circle, when the penalty is a penalty-corner.

V. Rules for Out of Bounds.

(a) When the ball is sent over the side lines it shall be rolled in (by hand) by one of the team opposing the player who last touched it. In rolling in, the player taking the roll-in must stand—feet and stick—outside the side line at the point where ball went out. No player may stand inside the alley (or five-yard line) next to the side line over which it went out. The ball must be rolled, not thrown or bounced. It may be rolled in any direction, provided it touches within the five-yard space. The player who has taken the roll-in may not touch the ball until it has been touched by another player. The other players may step in the alley as soon as ball touches.

(b) First, if the ball is sent behind the goal line by an attacker; second, if a ball is unintentionally sent behind goal line by a defender more than twenty-five yards away from her goal line, it is a twenty-five-yard bully. The ball is placed on the twenty-five-yard line, exactly opposite the spot where it crossed the goal line.

(c) If a ball is unintentionally hit across the goal line by a defender or glances off her stick over the goal line, it is a corner. In a corner, the attackers line up around the outer edge of the striking circle—feet and sticks—behind the line, with one of their team hitting the ball to them from the corner of the field (on the side or back line not more than three yards away from the corner) on the side of the goal line where ball went out. The defenders must stand—feet and sticks—behind their goal line at least five yards away from the player taking the corner hit. The defenders may rush out as soon as the ball is hit. Before the attackers may hit the ball toward the goal, the ball must be stopped—not necessarily dead. The player taking the corner hit may not hit the ball again until touched by another. (Penalty, free hit for opposing side.) If an attacker shoots for goal before ball has been stopped, it is a free hit for opposite side. If the player taking the corner hit misses it entirely on the first stroke, she may hit it again.

(d) If a ball is deliberately hit over goal line by a defender, it is a penalty-corner. Both teams line up as in an ordinary corner. The hit is taken, however, from a point on the goal line at least ten yards from the nearest goal post and no opposing player may be nearer than five yards. Ball must be stopped before replayed by attacker teammate unless it has been touched by defender.

VI. Rules for Undercutting.

(a) The ball may not be so hit that it is lofted or raised intentionally above the shoulder.

(b) The ball may be “scooped” so that it may be raised moderately in air.

(c) Penalty for intentionally lofting is a free hit for opposing side.

VII. Rules for Offside.

(a) In the opponents’ territory, no player may receive a ball from one of her own team standing farther from the goal than she, the receiver, unless there are at least three of her opponents between her and the goal. Violation of this rule is called offside.

(b) A player is not penalized for offside if she does not touch the ball; if it was touched last by an opponent; if one of her own team nearer the opponents’ goal than she hits the ball; if she is in her own half of the territory.

(c) Penalty for offside is free hit for opposing side.

VIII. Running in on the Left.

No player shall run in on the left side of her opponent in order to gain possession of the ball so that any part of her person or stick touches any part of the person or the stick of the opponent. Penalty is free hit for opposing side.

IX. Turning on the Ball.

No player having possession of the ball shall interpose her person between the ball and an opponent, nor shall she turn around the ball in order to obtain a more favorable position for her stroke. Penalty is free hit.

X. Handling.

The ball may be caught or stopped by the hands, but must be immediately dropped perpendicularly to the ground so that no advance is made nor direction changed. It may not be picked up, carried or thrown. There shall be no shoving, pushing, or holding. If the ball stopped by goal keeper rebounds from her hand it is not a foul. Penalty is free hit.

XI. Kicking.

No player may kick the ball except the goal keeper within her own striking circle. The foot may be used to stop the ball, but must be withdrawn and not used to block opponent’s stroke at the ball. Penalty is a free hit.

XII. Rough Play.

There should be no charging (rushing or running into), shinning, tripping, personal handling, impeding progress, or hitting with stick. No player may obstruct, i. e., prevent opponent from reaching the ball or prevent opponent from attacking teammate. Penalty is free hit or disqualification if umpire decides the play is rough.

XIII. Time-out.

Time-out may be called by the umpire at the request of either captain only in case of injury or accident to clothing or stick. Time-out should be called by umpire in case of loss of ball or dispute in regard to decision.

Field Hockey—1, A scrimmage for possession of the ball. 2, Getting the ball out of scrimmage. 3, Passing the ball to a teammate and away from an opponent. 4, A goal! 5, A shot. The attack has “run” the ball down the field to the striking circle—once inside the shot will be gotten off.

Basket Ball—1, The referee tosses the ball up between the opposing centers to put it in play. 2, A free trial for goal. A foul has been made and the penalized team must stand and see their opponents try for a single point.

XIV. Umpire.

The umpire, or umpires, have control of the game, and are responsible for it. They must see that there is no rough play, and that the game is played according to rules. The umpires judge goals, roll-ins, bullies, corners. They also have the power to punish players for intentionally delaying the game. The ball is in play until umpire’s whistle blows.

Basket Ball

Basket ball needs no introduction. It is probably the most popular game played by girls. Through the work of the Executive Committee on Basket Ball Rules, headed by Mrs. Senda Berenson Abbott, chairman, the playing rules and the conditions under which the game may best be played have been thoroughly studied and set forth in the Spalding Official Basket Ball Guide for Women, No. 7A.

The game may be played either outdoors or indoors, depending upon conditions. When the circumstances permit it is always desirable to play out of doors. The writer is a firm believer in outdoor exercise wherever and whenever possible, but there is a decided need for a wholesome, interesting game for indoors during the long winter months. Basket ball undoubtedly fills this need.

The game is played by two teams consisting of either five, six, seven, or nine players each. If the teams play with five on a side, there are two forwards, a center and two guards each; if with six on a side, there are two centers each; if with seven, three centers; if with nine, three forwards, three centers and three guards.

The court (floor or field) is divided into three equal parts. The lines dividing the court are parallel to the end lines. They are known as field lines. The reason the court is thus divided is to define the space in which the various players may operate. Thus each set of players can operate only on their third of the court, so that the line game makes a minimum physical demand upon the player. That is, the forwards of Team A and the guards of Team B may run only in the third of the floor before the former’s basket; the centers of both teams in the space in middle, and the guards of Team A and the forwards of Team B in the third of the floor before the latter’s basket.

The three general positions call for three different kinds of skill. The forwards should possess a good eye, should have the knack of handling the ball well and should have agility and speed. The center should have height, ability to get possession of the ball and the knack of feeding well, that is, passing the ball to her forwards. The center rarely shoots for the basket in the line game. The guards, as their name implies, must prevent the opposing forwards from shooting a goal, so must be quick, active and able to jump well.

The game begins with each team in position. The referee puts the ball in play by tossing it up between the centers, who jump and bat it (they must not catch it). When once in play the ball must be passed from one player to another—not handled, nor rolled, nor kicked. Nor may any player carry it, but she may bounce it once, taking not more than two steps during the bounce. Thus the game is essentially one of team play, which calls for fast, clever, clean co-operation in playing. The play continues until a score is made, or a player fouls, or the ball goes out of bounds. A score is made when a player shoots the ball into the basket from the field, which counts two points for the score of her team. A foul is made when a player of one side transgresses a rule of the game—running with the ball, holding the ball more than three seconds, touching over the line with some part of person, guarding too closely, etc. When a player fouls, a free throw from a mark fifteen feet from and directly in front of the basket is allowed to a forward of the opposing side. When the ball passes through the basket, rim and net, one point is added to the score of the team.

When the ball goes over the boundary lines, the game is stopped and the ball is given to the nearest opponent of the girl who touched it last. She then passes the ball to one of her teammates, thus starting play again.

The winning of the game is determined by the scoring of the most points (both field goals and free throws) in a given time—usually fifteen-minute halves with a ten-minute intermission. Baskets are exchanged at the end of the first half.

From my own experience and observation I find the average player is weak in passing. One of the faults is inaccuracy. Every pass should count; but if the pass is wild, thrown at a teammate rather than to one, much strength and time is wasted. Throw directly to an unguarded player, or if she signals to send the pass to a certain spot, send the pass there. Think carefully what results come from a careless, inaccurate pass. It may end in fumbling, or the ball out of bounds, or the ball obtained by opponent, waste of time, delaying the game.

The passing is apt to be slow. Get the ball out of your hands as quickly as possible. To do this, every player must know the relative positions of all her teammates. She must decide the moment the ball touches her hands to whom she is going to pass, then pass quickly and carefully. By quickly I do not mean hurriedly; I mean the player should not hold the ball an undue length of time deciding what to do with it.

Many players have but one way of throwing the ball, always using the same pass. Vary your passing according to the need. If a high ball with a drop to it can be used, use it when your teammate is in a good position to receive. But do not use this style of pass exclusively. Try a short, swift pass. If when you are guarded for one pass, quickly change to another, such as, from an overhead pass—both arms holding ball high over head—to a low side pass—the arm held out toward the side, the palm of hand around the ball, which rests on the flexed hand and wrist. It takes a great deal of practice and team work to make the passing perfect, but remember always be wide awake and alert, ready to receive the ball.

Needless to say, the team work is the main factor. It is the way the team plays, not the way one player stars, that counts.

Each of the different players has a different duty to perform. The forwards have to shoot both field and foul goals. In shooting baskets, it is of prime importance to have some chosen point on basket or back board to aim at. Of course, there are many forwards who shoot at random; goals are made, but many more are missed. Once this spot for the aim is made definite—through much practice—the aim becomes surer.

Many a game has been lost through the inability to shoot foul goals. The feet should toe the 15-foot line, slightly apart, fixed firmly on the ground. The ball is held in both hands, palms flat on opposite sides of the ball; the lace is turned toward the basket. The knees are bent; the ball is carried forward and down, arms straight. Simultaneously the knees are straightened, the arms are carried forward and up, the ball leaves the hands. Just as the ball leaves the hands an “English” is put on it. That is, the ball is twirled as it leaves the hands. The advantage of the “English” lies in the fact that it serves to make the ball shoot through the basket instead of bounding out, as is often the case when it is tossed up a little off the true and without the spin.

Good passing is necessary for the forwards. The forward should remember never to shoot unless she is in a favorable position; one forward should always stick close to the basket. Always try to keep free; pass to your opponent whenever possible; never keep the ball selfishly in order to gain a shot for yourself.

The center should realize the importance of this position. Naturally the forwards cannot score goals unless the ball is sent to them. Thus, the center should be alert and quick, free to receive the pass from the guards and quick to send a good pass to her forwards, who should be dodging their guards, trying to get in a favorable position. Often the center can well make use of the bounce and step to get away from the opposing center.

The guard has to remember that every time the forward gets the ball, if she is good, she has a chance to get it in the basket. Thus, it should be the main object of the guard to get the ball away from her end of the field. Every guard should try to get the ball and send it out of dangerous territory. Then she should stick closely to her forward, guarding her as closely as the rules allow.

One fault of the guards is over-guarding. This is generally done through over-anxiety. The guards should watch carefully so as not to foul.

Jumper or middy blouse, bloomers and rubber-soled shoes make up the accepted costume.

Above all, the element of good sportsmanship and fair play should enter into every game, no matter how strenuous the playing, and the slogan of the whole team should be, “Put the ball in the basket.”

Basket Ball Games or Tournament.

An umpire who is competent and fair should have entire jurisdiction over the game. The game should be conducted in an orderly fashion, according to the rules.

For a series or tournament, a set number of games should be played, such as two out of three; the winner is then the champion. If more than two teams play, the winners should play the winners, etc. Let me impress the importance of set rules agreed to and known thoroughly by every player; this saves much dispute and sometimes bitter feeling.

Leagues of basket ball teams, such as are to be found in some cities, etc., organized for the purpose of clean sport and good fellowship, have been extremely successful. Each team may play a set number of games with every other team, the winner of the most games being the champion of the league.

Gymnastics

Gymnastics, or work in a gymnasium, indoors or out, is recognized the world over for its utility. The term gymnastics usually applies to a group or class drilled by an instructor or coach. Gymnastic exercises may be, however, adapted to fit an individual, prescribed for her by a competent authority (which may be herself).

The very great and growing popularity of gymnastic exercise is due to several facts. First of all, there is a general awakening to the need for organized exercise at most schools and colleges and within the ranks of many social organizations. Aside from walking, gymnastic exercises, as they have been developed by the Swedes and the Germans, are possibly the most obvious form of beneficial physical exercise. Then this form of physical training has the very decided advantage of being susceptible to the widest kind of application. It may be graded so as to be beneficial to various groups of individuals of varying physical development. It may be given in the most scientific quantities—more so than any other form of exercise save walking. It may be used as a drilling force to instill discipline—against fire, for instance—in great groups of persons, for ability and sufficient knowledge in handling one’s body quickly and efficiently in a crowd under abnormal conditions is quite an important and necessary accomplishment. In fact, everyone, no matter at what age, could do well by her or his body to indulge in some form of calisthenics or gymnastic exercise.

There are two main divisions of gymnastics—floor work and apparatus work.

The floor work consists mainly of tactics, calisthenics, drills with hand apparatus, such as wands, dumb bells, Indian clubs, etc., dancing and posturing exercises.

The tactics consist mainly of marching by ones, twos, threes, fours, etc., of flank marching, and of circle marching. Form in this counts for a great deal together with quick execution of commands and memory of the proper method by which the figure is to be executed. Perfect form in marching consists of the head erect, the eyes straight ahead, the shoulders back, the arms down straight at the sides, the palms of the hands turned toward the body, the fingers close together; the toes should be pointed and reach for the floor, so that the muscles of the leg and the thigh can feel the effort made. Also the marchers should observe carefully the space between each one and the straightness or regularity of the line. Watch the person ahead of you and beside you. This keeps the marching from being ragged.

In the calisthenics and drills—Indian clubs excepted—the most used exercises are: the arm stretching or raising upward, downward, sideward, forward; the bending of the head, trunk, arms, or legs; the bending of the knees; the stretching of the legs; the lunges sideward and forward; the raising and sinking on the toes. These are the fundamental exercises and may be combined to form the different drills. To attain perfect form in these, it is best to watch a competent gymnast; after so doing it is possible, by careful imitation, to attain good form yourself. These exercises may easily be practised in any sufficient space, in front of a mirror when possible. It is well to remember that form and grace are very important factors. Always keep in mind that the lines of the body should be kept symmetrical; that a lot of snap in executing the exercises is a help.

The Indian club drills consist of full arm swings, circles, dips, etc. These can best be taught by a teacher. Form is the all-important factor here also.

Dancing is divided into three separate groups: æsthetic, social, and folk dancing. The æsthetic develops the natural grace of the body; social dancing does this, too, but not to such a great extent. There are many girls who feel ungainly and unnatural in the æsthetic and social dances. For these are the folk dances. These dances are a natural expression of joy and good humor. The girl who is most unsuited to other types of dancing may enjoy and ultimately become very efficient in folk dancing.

Posturing may be added here. This is practising and attaining the correct poise and positions of the body.

Apparatus work consists of exercises on the following: stall bar, horizontal bar, parallel bar, trapeze, swinging rings, traveling rings, ropes, rope ladder, horizontal ladder, side horse, buck, etc.

The secret of success in apparatus work lies in the knowledge of muscular control and of the balance of the body. By muscular control, I mean the power to exert the proper amount of strength at the exact moment; by balance, I mean adapting the weight of the body to the strength. Apparatus work should be undertaken carefully—if possible, under the supervision of an instructor; mats should always be placed to break any fall. Too continued exercises tire even the best gymnast; sometimes the girl does not realize she is tired. Between exercises give yourself plenty of rest and relax your muscles.

As the subject is so extensive and so varied I can only mention a few exercises. The most popular pieces of apparatus seem to be the side horse, the parallel bars, and the swinging rings.

The Side Horse.—The most elementary exercises on the horse are the rests. The girl grasps the pommels of the horse and jumps to a straight-arm position; the body is straight, weight on the arms. Or she may jump to a kneeling position between the pommels; or she may jump to her toes. There are different ways of ending these exercises, either jumping back to the first position or jumping to the other side of horse. Another exercise is to run, grasp the pommels with both hands, arms straight, draw the legs up and shoot them between the pommels, landing on opposite side of the horse. The landing may be straight or by retaining a grip with one hand on the pommel, you can turn either to the left or the right, according to the hand on pommel.

Next comes the vaults. In vaulting you must remember always to jump from both feet from the center of the springboard. The best form in vaulting is gotten by keeping the arms as straight as possible; the body should be straight with toes pointing and together, the legs thrown high in the air. The different kinds of vaults which may be taken on either side are: The front vault; the face and front of the body are turned above the top of the horse, the landing is made facing the side. The flank or side vault; the side of the body is above the horse, the landing is made between the pommels with the back toward the horse. The back vault; the back of body is over the horse, the landing is the same as the side vault. The wolf vault; for the right side, the left leg passes through pommels, the right leg passes over the right pommel; as the right leg passes over the pommel, the right hand is taken away so that leg may pass; the hold is kept by the left hand. Same for left side, except leg and hand used are the left instead of the right.

Besides the vaults there are cuts, circles, dives, and inversions, which may be acquired by practice.

Parallel Bars.—As on the horse, the most elementary are the rest positions. Jumps to straight arm position at sides or ends accompanied by lifting of arms and legs, etc. It is important that every gymnast know how to swing and vault well on the bars. For the swing, the hands grasp the bars directly opposite each other. You then jump to a straight-arm position. To start to swing, the heels are drawn back, the legs brought forward and upward with free movement from the hips. The head should be held up, trunk kept erect, legs straight, toes pointed and together. For the front vault, the front of body faces the bar; for the back vault, the back of the body is over the bar.

On both the horse and the parallel bars are a multitude of cuts and circles combined with each other and with vaults.

Flying Rings.—The proper way to swing on the rings is to have the rings at such a height so that the arms are straight and the feet touch the ground comfortably. Then step backward, grasping the rings, one in each hand, until the tips of the toes just touch the ground; run forward, swing the legs forward and upward from the hips. As the body swings backward, touch the floor with both feet as if stepping; do the same on the forward swing. The legs in swinging should be kept straight both forward and backward, toes together. Another popular exercise on the rings is the inversion, that is, hanging head down, feet in air, the body straight.

There are many exercises on these three pieces of apparatus together with those on the other apparatus, for which there is not room in this book.

Gymnastic Meet or Exhibition.

An interesting event at many gymnasiums is a meet or exhibition—in case of school, college, or club, generally the results of the year’s work. If these events are competitive or non-competitive, it is, for the most part, the most carefully practised work by the most proficient girls.

If these events are judged, the judges, as a rule, have a certain mark, such as 10, for each event. If the performance of the event is perfect, then the number won for that event is 10; if nearly perfect, then 9 is given, etc. The judges consider entrance; general appearance, such as neatness, regularity of order, etc.; manner of executing the exercise, such as form, position, memory, rhythm, etc.; the finish or exit. All of these factors are taken into account by the judges in scoring.

Whether for individual or group prizes, it is advisable to have competent judges who have a decided system of marking. Usually there are three judges, each marking the score independently of the others. Comparisons are made at the end of each event. The scores of all judges for each performer are added together and divided by three (or as many times as there are judges) and the result is the score for the performer.

Track Athletics

Everybody knows that a certain amount of exercise is beneficial to all persons physically able to indulge. But there are still many protests against more active competitive exercise. In particular, track and field athletics for girls and women have been criticised. Of course, it is only reasonable to admit that for a girl physically unfit, over-indulgence in track work is a mistake. But in these days when the majority of schools and colleges have competent teachers for their athletic work, and when the girls are allowed to participate in events only after a thorough medical examination, the danger from track work seems to be rapidly diminishing.

Tennis, basket ball and battle ball were the first competitive sports to be widely participated in by the colleges. Miss Harriet Ballintine, Director of Physical Culture at Vassar College, thus tells of the beginning of track and field sports for women in her book, “The History of Physical Training at Vassar College”: “Following basket and battle ball a demand was made for other out-of-door activities. The students became interested in hurdling, running and jumping, etc. They organized an athletic association and in November, 1895, the first field day was held. This was the beginning of track and field sports for women. Before this time there was no record of girls taking part in such competitive events. In 1896 at the Harvard Summer School a course in athletic training was opened to women. This first class was composed principally of teachers from schools and colleges whose students had asked for instruction in athletics. After Vassar’s first field day many schools and colleges became interested in such contests. Previous to 1896 a course in athletics had been offered to women at the Chautauqua Summer School, but as there was no demand for it, the Harvard Summer School was, therefore, the first school to give systematic instruction to girls in track and field sports. This first class in athletics for women was in charge of Mr. James Lathrop, for many years athletic trainer at Harvard and instructor in the Theory and Practice of Athletics at the Summer School. He ordered for Miss Eva G. May, then an instructor in the gymnasium at Vassar, the first pair of spiked running shoes ever made for a woman. The Vassar College Athletic Association provided these running shoes for every student who entered field day.”

One of the main difficulties in track work at the present time is that there is no set standard for coaches and participants to use. A very creditable attempt has been made by Dr. Harry E. Stewart, Physical Director of the New Haven Normal School of Gymnastics, to collect the records made by girls and women. (See Spalding’s Athletic Almanac, published annually.) However, it is not the exceptional girl who is of the record-breaking ability that should be considered entirely. Track work should be first regarded from the point of view of exercise. The equipment for track work should be supervised carefully. The clothing worn should be the lightest and the least harmful to the limbs. Light shirt waist or middy blouse, bloomers, spiked or rubber-soled shoes should be adopted. The track itself should be level and smooth, the jumping pits soft so that there is no jar, and the throwing events should have plenty of room.

One of the hardest faults to overcome in shot putting is to stay within the circle. The girl in the picture does not get all of the ground in the circle that she might, nor is her left hand helping her get the shot “up” with her right.

The last relay! The runner on the outside gives a slight advantage to her teammate. Perhaps it is enough to counteract the advantage gained by the other team when they won the “pole.”

Over the bar in the high jump. In order to successfully complete her try this jumper will have to “scissors” her left foot over.

Field Day—An exciting hurdle race.

Track.

The track, if possible, should be a straight 100 yards. If the work is done inside it is necessary to work on the circular track or on the floor of the gymnasium. A cinder track is the most desirable if it can be procured. First the earth is dug up, then mixed with coarse ashes; the earth and coarse ashes are then packed down; fine ashes are mixed on the top layer. The whole track is then wet thoroughly and rolled until level and smooth. The track is generally divided into lanes, three feet six inches in width, and is made wide enough to have four lanes.

Distances.

There are a variety of distances from 25 yards to the 100 on the straight track, and the 220 and the 440 on the circular track. A few coaches still believe that the long sprints—220 and 440—are not injurious, while others contend that the half-mile is not so harmful. However, the 50, 75, and 100-yard dashes seem to be most common at different schools and colleges. According to the records collected by Mr. Stewart, 12 seconds is the best time for the 100-yard; 8-3/5 seconds for the 75-yard; 6 seconds for the 50-yard. The other dashes noted by him are the 25-yard, 3-4/5 seconds; 30-yard, 4-3/5 seconds; 40-yard, 5-1/5 seconds; 60-yard, 8 seconds; 80-yard, 11 seconds. Also the 220-yard, 30-3/5 seconds, and 440 yard, 1 minute and 16 seconds. There is also a short relay, 300 yards, four girls, each running 75 yards. This race is very popular at the colleges.

Hurdles.

As in the running races so in the hurdles there is a wide difference of opinion as to length and as to height of hurdles and number of hurdles. The 100-yard hurdle race seems very popular, 8 hurdles, varying from 1½, 2 or 2½ feet in height. There is also the 120-yard, 10 hurdles, 14 inches high; 90-yard, 7 hurdles, 1½ and 2½ feet in height; 80-yard, 6 hurdles, 2½ feet; 65-yard, 6 hurdles, 2½ feet; 60-yard, 4 hurdles, 2½ feet; 60-yard, 3 hurdles, 2½ feet; 50-yard, 4 hurdles, 2 feet; 40-yard, 5 hurdles, 2 feet; 40-yard, 4 hurdles, 1½ feet. There is a great variety of choice.

The hurdles should be arranged: First hurdle, 15 yards from start and each hurdle 10 yards apart, allowing 15 yards between last hurdle and finish line.

In a pamphlet reprinted from the American Physical Education Review, January, 1916, “A Survey of Track Athletics for Women,” Mr. Stewart has made the following selection in order to standardize track events.

Mr. Stewart also says: “Only the exceptional girl should pole vault, run the 220-yard race, or put the 12-pound shot. Hurl ball (Sargent), discus (free style), javelin throw, standing high jump, and many other events are good, but the above groups seem sufficient and best adapted to competitive work.”

Jumping.

While all jumping may be done in one pit, where the space is available it is better to have one pit for the high jumps, one for the running broad, one for hop, step and jump, another for the pole vault.

The pits should be soft. All pits are made the same way but differ in size. The earth should be dug up to a depth of at least a foot and a half. If ground is hard, pits should be deeper. This soft dug-up earth should be equally mixed with sand or sawdust or both. Pits should be kept well raked up and not allowed to become packed.

For the high jump the pit should be wide, at least eight feet in width and six or seven feet long. For high jumping, two adjustable standards and a bamboo or thin cross-bar are required. These standards are placed six feet apart, directly opposite each other in a straight line. The standards are perforated by little round holes into which the pegs (not more than 3 inches long) are inserted to hold the cross-bar. There should be a runway or approach of at least twenty yards. There is no take-off.

For the running broad jump there is a runway—cinder track, if possible—20 to 30 yards in length, 3 feet in width. A take-off is sunk, marking division between runway and pit. This is a planed joist, 5 inches wide, sunk into ground so that top is on a level with runway, and painted white. The pit should be at least 25 feet long and about 6 feet wide. This may also be used for standing broad. The pit for the hop, step and jump is constructed in the same way.

For the pole vault the uprights should be 10 feet apart, placed opposite each other. There is a runway—cinder track, if possible—about 20 or 25 yards long, 10 feet wide. Between the two uprights a plank 16 inches deep should be sunk, 2 inches of which should be above ground level. In front of plank, in center, a hole 5 or 6 inches deep should be dug.

Putting the Shot.

The contestant stands in a 7-foot circle and the put or throw must be made from within the circle. It is a foul for either foot to touch the ground outside until the shot has landed. A toe board raised 4 or 5 inches above the ground and sunk firmly into the earth should form about one-quarter of the circle. Spalding’s official 8 and 12-pound shots are used.

Sprinting.

From my own observation, I have seen few girls that really know how to run. One great trouble is that the instinct is to run as speedily as possible from the minute you get on the track. First of all you should learn to run well in good form. I shall try to give a few hints to the runner which may be helpful.

Head.—The head should be up, the eyes looking straight ahead and firmly fixed on the finish line.

Shoulders.—The shoulders should be kept straight up and back, not allowed to wiggle from side to side.

Body.—The whole trunk from waistline up, however, should be bent slightly forward.

Arms.—The arms should be held loosely in a bent position, the forearm at right angles with the upper arm. The movement of the arms should be controlled; they should be allowed to swing forward and backward in accordance with the motion of the rest of the body. Many runners do not control the swinging of the arms, letting them flap sideward, downward, thus wasting energy. Some runners use cork grips for the hands; personally, I prefer to run with my hands clenched into a fist.

Legs.—Many runners make the mistake in thinking the longer your stride, the better your form and the faster you run. If you have a long stride it is often apt to be very helpful, but the runner should not try to take an abnormally long stride. By that I mean take only as long a stride as you can manage without strain, or without appearing to be running in leaps and bounds. Neither should the knees be dashed high in front.

Feet.—A great deal in running depends upon the way the feet are placed. The toe of the foot should reach out for the ground; the toe should be pointed straight ahead and each foot should be put down on the ground directly in front of its former position. The runner should take care not to run heavily, and she should, whether in practice or competition, always stride well up on her toes.

In running you should always think of yourself as a unit, running with the smoothest possible action. Some runners are not units, but arms, legs, body and knees, all wobbling in different ways, giving the general appearance of falling apart. Yet you must not go too far the other way, that is, don’t run tensely. Be limber but not loose. Try to get all the spring and lightness possible. To do this get the balance over the feet; don’t run with balance too far forward or too far back.

The Start.—The crouch start is conceded to be the best. This should be practised until the runner learns to get away at the word “go,” to get the proper push with the rear leg, and to rise to an upright position gradually. There are three counts for the crouching start: “Get ready.” The fingers are placed just behind starting line; the arms should be carried straight down from the shoulders, thus making the hands shoulder width apart; the runners then kneel on one knee, either right or left, according to preference; the toe of the forward foot should be as close to starting line as is comfortable for runner; the knee of rear leg should be on a line with front leg, close up to it, with lower part of leg (that is, below the knee) reaching back as far as possible in a straight line from the knee. A hole should be dug for the toe of each foot. “Get set.” The rear knee is raised, the whole body tense ready for the spring; the weight is thrown over the front knee so that the toe of front foot feels the weight and can get a good push over; the head is up; the whole strength of the body seems concentrated in the muscles used in springing forward. “Go” (or the pistol shot). The sprinter springs forward with all the force possible from the front foot. But she should not assume an upright position at once, but gradually, after three or four strides have been taken. In other starts you stand upright with one leg back, other leg front. Front leg is slightly bent, weight of body is over front leg.

Hurdling.

In hurdling, the crouching start is very important. All the form of sprinting should be considered and also there should be perfect form over the hurdles. A girl may be a fast runner, but if she cannot take the hurdles well and quickly she will be defeated by a slower girl who can. Many hurdlers twist toward the side, or, in landing, land too far to one side of hurdle. First the approach from the start to the first hurdle should be carefully measured by strides. The runner should always take just this number of strides. The strides between each hurdle should be counted also. Then a mark should be made in front of each hurdle, from which point the hurdler should always rise to the hurdles. The long low stride is the best over the hurdles. There are two forms of hurdling, that of the leg bent sideways, usually recommended for girls, and the “straight-leg.” For the first, the front leg—leg first over the hurdle in the stride—is bent across the other leg; the arms are stretched out toward the side; the rear leg is trailed over the hurdle; the front foot reaches the ground first, the hurdler landing squarely on the ball of the foot, the toe pointed straight ahead. Personally, I prefer the “straight-leg” hurdle to the “side-leg” style. In the latter the rise over the hurdle is greater, the upright position of the trunk meets more resistance from the air, the landing is made with more of a jar. In the “straight-leg” the stride over hurdle is long and as low as possible; the body is bent as far over the front leg as possible; the front leg shoots over the hurdle straight, for as great a distance as possible, the arm (on same side of body) is forward when leg is; the rear leg is trailed, extending slightly to the side from the thigh to the toe; the weight of body is as far forward as possible, thus enabling a longer stride; the front foot should land on ground, on the ball, toe pointed forward; the rear foot should be ready to shoot out for next stride. My advice is for hurdlers to practice until they are sure of themselves before running in a race. They must not hesitate before hurdles, thus forced to jump off both feet. The rise should be with the least possible effort; the landing should be light, the runner immediately resuming the stride. Never be afraid of a hurdle. Practice until you are perfect and sure of yourself, and sure of the hurdle. Confidence makes you successful.

Running Broad Jump.

There are two important parts to the running broad jump—the run and the jump. The run should not be so long as to tire the jumper. The first few strides are slow, then at a mark placed by the jumper the speed increases until the take-off is reached. The momentum gathered in this run aids in the jump greatly, thus it is important that a mark be made the proper number of strides away from the take-off. The foot which takes the jump from the take-off should always be the same one, therefore the strides before the take-off should be carefully observed.

A spring is made when the foot lands on the take-off. It is a foul to step over the take-off. After the jumper has given the best leap possible from the ball of the foot on the take-off, she tries to augment this leap by drawing her legs up under her, throwing her arms up and forward. When nearing ground the feet should shoot forward, the whole body thrown so that the balance is forward. This insures a better landing. The jump should be high. Many coaches teach the girls to jump over a bar, thus forming a habit of getting height. It is always well to fix your eye on a point about four feet high and beyond the distance you can jump. Fix your eye on this at the beginning of the run and keep it there until a landing is made.

Standing Broad Jump.

The jumper stands with both feet on the take-off, toes overlapping the outer edge to get a grip. Many jumpers like to rock back and forth on the toes, knees slightly bent; the arms also are swung gently backward and forward. When the jumper is ready to spring, the arms should be held above the head and brought back with a snap as the spring is made, with the knees bent forward and all the strength concentrated for the jump. As in the running broad, the jump should be high, thus the eyes should be fixed on a spot high and beyond the distance you expect to jump. While in the air, shoot the arms, legs and body as far forward as possible in order to gain distance.

Running Hop, Step and Jump.

The run is the same as in the running broad jump, except at the end instead of jumping you first take a hop, immediately followed by a step and then a jump. The hop ends on the same foot which landed on the take-off; then the step, the opposite foot landing on the ground; then the jump is taken from the foot then on the ground. The greatest effort should be in the jump; the other two should not take such a lot of effort that the speed is slowed up.

Running High Jump.

As in the running broad jump, the girl should have a mark by which she can tell the point where her speed should be increased. The same foot should always be brought to the same position for jumping; thus, the number of strides should be carefully taken from the mark to the bar every time. Some jumpers approach from the left, some from the right. The spring is taken from the ball of the foot nearest to the bar at a distance determined by practice, usually three to four feet. The nearer leg is thrown over the bar. As the nearer leg is thrown high, the far leg with a strong push leaves the ground; thus, as the near leg is coming down the far leg is going up and over the bar. It is often advisable to throw the body away from the bar.

It is bad form to touch or knock the cross-bar.

Standing High Jump.

The form of the standing high is the same, except that the jumper stands about a foot away from the bar, side turned toward it. As in the broad jump, she may gather speed by swinging the arms and rocking on the toes until strength is summoned for the spring. The feet must not leave the ground until the spring is made.

Pole Vault.

As in the jumps, the pole vaulter must determine her run to the point where the foot makes the spring. She should run slowly until the point for the faster run is marked, then she should gather speed and come to the spot from which spring is taken. The spring should always be taken from the same foot, and the run should always start with this foot.

The pole should be grasped with both hands, the palm of the lower hand facing inward and the top hand outward. The vaulter should grasp the pole at the height of the cross-bar, which she measures on pole at each increase of height and at each trial.

During the run the pole is held across the body, with the hands gripping the pole at proper spot; then the pole is placed in the hole in front of cross-bar and a spring is taken from the foot; the arm underneath should be straight, the one above bent; as the pole swings to a vertical position the body swings up, and if the vaulter is strong enough in the arms she should slide the lower hand up to the top one; an extra push is given to propel the body over the bar as the pole is released. While crossing the bar the body should be arched; in falling, the face should be downward. The landing should be easy and light.

Shot Put.

The competitor must stay within the circle and must not step over the toe board. If the shot is held in the right hand, the left side of the body is turned in the direction shot is going; the weight is on the right foot, the left foot and left arm are raised to help the balance of the body; the shot is carried in right hand, which is held up slightly above the shoulder, elbow of right arm bent and well back, and held as close as possible to the ribs. A quick hop forward is taken, the same position is retained; then the body is turned, the weight transferred to the left leg, and as this is done the shot is thrust forward, with the weight and entire strength of body behind the throw; the right foot comes forward to preserve the balance; the toe should be against the springboard.

It is important to learn the correct form in shot putting, thus it is advisable to practice with a light weight.

Basket Ball Throw.

This throw is similar to the shot put in form, the ball being held high over the body. It is a foul to step outside the circle, 6 feet in diameter. The ball also may be thrown from the flexed wrist position, that is, the ball rests in palm of hand and on the bent wrist. In both the throws the ball is thrown after a spring on the right foot is taken. It is better to throw the ball high.

Base Ball Throw.

As in the basket ball throw, the base ball throw should have height. The throw must be an overhand throw and the competitor must not step out of the circle. The ball is grasped by some people by the first two fingers and the thumb, the other two fingers are bent into the palm.

Hurl Ball Throw.

The regulation hurl ball has a short strap on it. This strap is grasped in one hand; the side of body is turned in direction the ball is going; the ball is carried high overhead and then down, describing a circle; a hop forward is taken, the ball released as it is starting up—this then insures height.