WORK” HANDBOOKS

HARNESS MAKING

HARNESS

MAKING

WITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS AND DIAGRAMS

EDITED BY

PAUL N. HASLUCK

EDITOR OF “WORK” AND “BUILDING WORLD,”
AUTHOR OF “HANDYBOOKS FOR HANDICRAFTS,” ETC. ETC.

CASSELL AND COMPANY, Limited

LONDON, PARIS, NEW YORK & MELBOURNE. MCMIV

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

PREFACE.

This Handbook contains, in form convenient for everyday use, a comprehensive digest of the knowledge of harness making, scattered over more than twenty thousand columns of Work—one of the weekly journals it is my fortune to edit—and supplies concise information on the details of the subjects of which it treats.

In preparing for publication in book form the mass of relevant matter contained in the volumes of Work, much had to be arranged anew. However, it may be stated that the greater part of the contents of this Handbook consists substantially of matter contributed by a working harness maker.

Readers who may desire additional information respecting special details of the matters dealt with in this Handbook, or instructions on kindred subjects, should address a question to Work, so that it may be answered in the columns of that journal.

P. N. HASLUCK.

La Belle Sauvage, London,
May, 1904.

CONTENTS.

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.

HARNESS MAKING.

CHAPTER I.
HARNESS-MAKERS’ TOOLS.

Harness making and repairing is a branch of leather work that can often be undertaken profitably by many persons, and the information given in the following pages has been adapted specially to the amateur’s requirements. Doubtless the readers of a companion handbook on “Boot Making and Mending” have wished to pursue further the subject of leather working, and will take up the making and repairing of harness with pleasure. Aspirants to more highly skilled work will find “Practical Saddlery” of the greatest possible use to them, whilst readers less ambitious may look to “Leather Working” for instructions on making a number of articles, such as bags, portmanteaus, and cases, for which there is general employment and a consequently great demand. The two books just mentioned are issued uniform in style and price with the present work.

In this handbook it is proposed to treat the subject of harness making so fully that anyone possessing tact and sense can make a set of harness from the instructions given, or, at any rate, keep harness in good repair. A start will be made by describing the tools that will be necessary. In the list given below, every essential tool is specified and its uses explained. The tools are very numerous, but the amateur may dispense with many of them; for though all of them may have to be employed by a tradesman in turning out finished work, an amateur may be content with a much smaller outfit. The tools are not bulky, however, and all that are necessary for making a double set of harness could be carried in a small handbag, excepting, of course, the mallet and collar-iron.

Fig. 1.—Paring Knife.

The tools are here classified as (a) cutting tools, (b) punches and tools of percussion, (c) tools for setting out, marking, and ornamenting, (d) awls and needles for perforating, (e) tools for gripping and holding work, (f) tools used in stuffing collars and saddles, and (g) miscellaneous. It may be remarked that saddlers’ tools, as well as harness-makers’, are included in this chapter.

Fig. 2.—Hand Knife.

With regard to cutting tools, a paring knife (Fig. 1) and a hand knife (Fig. 2) are used for cutting thread, paring down, and splicing, and are otherwise generally useful. The round knife (Fig. 3) is used by saddlers instead of the hand knife for cutting, splicing, and thinning leather; they can be had in different sizes, suited to light and heavy work; their chief use is in thinning the edges of leather, and for giving a rounded appearance to lined straps, such as nosebands, traces, breeching straps, etc. The head knife (Fig. 4) is used for cutting the holes for buckle tongues and cutting any circular shapes or holes in leather.

Fig. 5 is a cutting gauge made in iron or wood. A knife passes through the ruled stem, and is held firmly by a screw. It is adjusted by shifting the block, which is also held by a screw.

Fig. 3.—Round Knife.

Fig. 4.—Head Knife.

A plough or plough gauge (Fig. 6) is very useful when much strap or belt cutting has to be done. By means of it, straps can be cut from ¾ in. to 4 in. wide, by sliding the knife backwards or forwards along the marked gauge. Straps can be cut much more quickly by this machine than by hand, and it quite dispenses with the use of the round knife and compasses. A slightly different plough is illustrated by Figs. 7 and 8.

Fig. 5.—Cutting Gauge.

The slitting machine (Fig. 9) is useful for thinning straps which are to be drawn down to half or one-third their thickness. A saddler’s spokeshave (Fig. 10) may be used for the same purpose as the slitting machine. It is suitable for thinning light straps, and not only takes less time to adjust, but does the work more quickly than the slitter. The chief use of the spokeshave, however, is to trim and finish traces, backbands, etc. After a trace or backband or other lined strap is stitched, the uneven edges require to be rounded and smoothed; this is done by clamping the strap between the knees, holding the clamp a little straighter than when stitching, and using the spokeshave.

Fig. 6.—Plough, or Plough Gauge.

Fig. 7.—Side Elevation of Plough Gauge.

Edge trimmers (Fig. 11) are for running along the edges of straps of all kinds to take off the sharp edge and sides before dyeing. It is made in sizes 1 to 8. Sharp and strong scissors are necessary for cutting linings, basil, and other kinds of thin leather. The washer cutter (Fig. 12) is used for cutting round pieces of leather by rule; the knife can be set at all sizes up to 6 in.

Fig. 8.—End Elevation of Plough Gauge.

Fig. 9.—Slitting Machine.

Fig. 10.—Spokeshave

Fig. 11.—Edge Trimmer.

Fig. 12.—Washer Cutter.

Punches are indispensable, and half a dozen different sizes each of round (Fig. 13) and oval (Fig. 14) tools should be obtained. Round punches are made in sizes from No. 1, suitable only for very narrow straps, to No. 16, which make a hole ⅝ in. in diameter. Oval punches are numbered, according to size, from 17 to 32, and make a hole of similar dimensions to the round punches just mentioned. Punches of intermediate sizes, Nos. 3 to 13 or Nos. 19 to 29, will, however, answer for most repairing jobs. The ovals are preferable in most cases, as they make holes in the straps large enough for the purpose without impairing the strength so much as the round ones do. Buckle tongue punches, or crew punches (Fig. 15) are handy; these are made in three or four sizes, and they run from No. 33 to No. 43, and are used for making the holes that take the heel of the buckle tongue when the buckle is placed in its chape. This hole may also be made by punching two holes at a suitable distance from each other, and cutting between them, thus

. The strap has to be bent and a hole cut through the bent end, the piece between the holes for the tongue of the buckle being afterwards cut out. The punches shown by Figs. 16 to 18 may be used to cut saddle girth chapes, brace ends, etc.

Fig. 13.—Round
Punch.

Fig. 14.—Oval
Punch.

Fig. 15.—Buckle Tongue
or Crew, Punch.

Fig. 16.—Girth Chape Punch.

Fig. 17.—Brace End Punch.

A hand punch (Fig. 19) is useful for punching holes in small straps, or for making holes in harness whilst it is worn by a horse. Saddlers are sometimes called upon to do this, and without a hand punch the work is awkward, necessitating the use of mallet, punch, and lead. Fig. 20 shows a loose nipple which can be obtained in various sizes to screw in the handle.

Fig. 18.—Forepart of Brace End Punch.

Fig. 19.—Hand Punch.

Scalloping irons (Figs. 21 to 24), vandyke, round, straight, and half-moon are used for cutting any fancy or ornamental designs in American cloth or fancy leather. Rosette punches (Figs. 25 and 26) in sets of three or four, are useful for making rosettes in patent fancy coloured leather or for cutting out round scalloped edge pieces.

Fig. 20.—Hand
Punch
Nipple.

Figs. 21 to 24.—Scalloping Irons.

A lead piece (Fig. 27) for punching on should be from 6 in. to 8 in. square, and about 1½ in. thick. Lead is used because, being soft, it does not damage the points of the punches; but if lead is not handy, a block of wood 5 in. or 6 in. thick will do, if set up on end so that the punch does not cut across the grain.

Fig. 25.

Fig. 26.

Figs. 25 and 26.—Rosette Punches.

Fig. 27.—Lead Piece.

Fig. 28.—Wooden Mallet.

A wooden mallet (Fig. 28) for punching is also required, and a lignum-vitæ round mallet to work the forewales and shape the stuffed bodies of collars. Other useful mallets are shown by Figs. 29 and 30. Two hammers are necessary, one fairly light—the proper saddler’s hammer (Fig. 31)—and the other a heavy one for heavy work.

Figs. 29 and 30.—Useful Wooden Mallets.

Tools for marking and ornamenting leather may now be mentioned. Fig. 32 shows a tool used in stamping the lines preparatory to stitching. These tools vary in width from three teeth, which are used only for round points and scalloped work, to twenty-four teeth for straight lines. The teeth on each iron are cut to mark a certain number of stitches per inch, from six to sixteen, and these teeth are not at right angles to the flat part of the iron, but are cut on the slant as at B, thus making an impression on the leather which acts as a guide in forming a stitch perfect in shape as well as in length.

Fig. 31.

Fig. 32.

Fig. 33.

Fig. 34.

Fig. 31.—Saddlers’ Hammer. Fig. 32.—Pricking-iron.
Figs. 33 and 34.—Wheel Prickers.

Wheel prickers (Figs. 33 and 34) are used in sizes from seven or eight to sixteen teeth to the inch. They are round pieces of steel, having serrated edges and a hole in the centre, and are provided with a handle in which they are adjusted with a pin and nut. A change of stitch, say from fine to coarse, necessitates a change of wheel. The wheel is run along the stitching line, and in the holes made by the pricks the stitches are run.

The screw-race (Fig. 35) is a tool for grooving lines in any part where it is desired to sink the stitches below the surface. It is easily adjustable.

Fig. 35.

Fig. 36.

Fig. 37.

Fig. 35.—Screw-race. Fig. 36.—Single Crease. Fig. 37.—Screw-crease.

Single creases (Fig. 36) are for marking in places where neither the screw-crease nor the compasses can go, as for instance, in the centre of a large piece of leather or wide strap. They are also used to mark thick and heavy loops, for which purpose they are heated before using.

Two screw-creases must be obtained, one light and the other heavy (Fig. 37); one is used for light lines and the other for heavy lines along the edge of the leather, and for marking the lines for stitching. By means of the screw, the points are closed or opened, thus bringing the line nearer to the edge of the work or taking it farther away.

Fig. 38.—Checker.

Fig. 39.—Beveller.

Fig. 40.—Compasses.

Fig. 41.—Race Compasses.

Checkers (Fig. 38) are small double creases with two parallel edges, one of which marks the small ornamental checked lines on loops; one edge is run along the last line done, which thus serves as a guide for keeping the lines parallel. Sizes 1, 2, and 3 will be sufficient. A brass foot-rule, of course, must be obtained.

Fig. 42.—Awl Blade.

Bevellers (Fig. 39) resemble the single creases, but are much thicker and bevelled; they are used for the sole purpose of creasing or marking loops on portions that require ornamenting. In use, they are heated and then made to form a deep, wide groove on the loop, such as the straight cross lines on the front, and any fancy shapes worked on the outside of the loop.

Compasses (Fig. 40) should have a screw and regulator so that they may be set at different widths. They are used for marking the widths of straps to be cut and for marking distances, etc.

Race compasses (Fig. 41) are for the purpose of cutting a slight groove or line along the edges; they just take off a narrow strip of the grain and leave a faint line, which is blacked with the edges. It answers the same purpose as the line cut with the screw-crease, either ornamenting the straps or marking the line for the stitches.

Fig. 43.—Awl Blade.

With regard to perforating tools, a few awl blades (Figs. 42 and 43) and hafts may be obtained. Stitching blades vary in sizes from 1¼ in. to 3 in. long. Hold the blade fast in the vice, and with a few sharp blows of a light hammer drive the haft or handle on the awl, which is then ready for use. Fig. 44 shows a sewing awl. Strong thick awls will be required for coarse work, to stitch, say, a thread of seven, eight, or even more cords of hemp in one thread, and the thickness of the awl should diminish until the fine awl for stitching fine silk and cotton threads is obtained. Bent awls (Fig. 45) in one or two sizes, such as shoemakers use, are employed for putting in wire in saddle flabs for fastening the panel; they have other uses also.

Fig. 44.—Sewing Awl.

Half a dozen packets of harness needles (Figs. 46 and 47), varying in size from No. 2 to No. 6, will be necessary; the lowest number is the coarsest. These needles are for wax thread and all other stitching threads. Needles will also be required as follows:—2-in. or 3-in. needles for quilting saddle panels, etc.; pointed needles for thimble work in stitching linings to saddle panels, etc.; collar needles of different sizes, half-moon shape and straight with bent points; these are from 3 in. to 6 in. long, the longest being for heavy cart collar work and the lightest for patent and light harness collars.

Fig. 45.—Bent Awl.

The seat-awl (two shapes are shown by Figs. 48 and 49) is for easing and levelling stuffing in collars, saddles, and other stuffed or padded articles. It is also useful for levelling thread; this is turned once around the round awl, which is then drawn sharply backwards and forwards, the lumps thus being taken out of the thread.

Fig. 46.

Fig. 47.

Fig. 48.

Fig. 49.

Figs. 46 and 47.—Harness Needles. Figs. 48 and 49.—Seat Awls.

The hand-or palm-iron (Figs. 50 and 51) is a kind of thimble used on the palm of the hand when driving collar needles through leather. A shallow honeycombed well is formed in the hand part, which prevents the needle from slipping, however great the pressure may be; and at the end or point a hole is bored lengthwise, about ⅛ in. deep, to take the eve end of the needle and force it closer to the leather when the broad part of the iron is not available.

Fig. 50.

Fig. 51.

Figs. 50 and 51.—Hand-irons or Palm-irons.

Fig. 52.—Clamp or Clams.

Fig. 54.—Home-made Clamp Holding Work.

Fig. 53.—Clamp for Sewing Shaft-tugs.

Fig. 55.—Jaws of Clamp.

Holding and gripping tools include the clamp, known also as the pair of clams. Fig. 52 shows the ordinary type, while Fig. 53 is the kind used in sewing shaft-tugs. Held between the knees in a slightly slanting position, the clamp keeps the work firmly in position while the stitching is being done; it lies against the left knee, and by throwing the right leg over it the work is held fast between the gripping points. Note that the saddler has the clamp between his legs in a slanting direction, and not as the shoemaker, who has them straight up, almost against his nose, when bending over the work. One reason for this is that the work done by the saddler with the clamp requires more force to press the awl through than the work done by the shoemaker; consequently the saddler must set his clamp against some firm object (his left knee) so that it will not yield under the pressure. Another reason is that the saddler stitches with needles, while the shoemaker uses bristles, and must see the hole made by the awl, as the bristles cannot force their way, as the needles, to some slight extent, are able to do. The saddler feels for the hole with his needle and thus becomes accustomed to finding the hole without looking, and to getting his needle to follow the awl as the latter is drawn back; in fact, the needle is inserted in the unseen lower side with more accuracy than on the top side, which is in view.

Fig. 56.—Nail-claw.

Fig. 57.—Cutting Pliers.

A clamp can be made easily by the worker at home. The parts A and B (Fig. 54) are made from two oak cask or barrel staves. The lower portion C may be a sound piece of white deal, 20 in. by 3 in. by 3 in., and the only other requisites will be eight stout 2¼ in. screws. The staves should be cut 2 ft. long by at least 3 in. wide, the points of greatest convexity being in the centre; the more bent the staves are the more useful the clamp will be. Clean up the outside with a spokeshave, leaving one end the full thickness of the staves, or about 1 in., and thinning off gradually to about ¾ in. towards the upper ends, which are to form the jaws of the clamp (Fig. 55). Round off the outer corners, and clean up the inside surface flat, smoothing both sides with glass-paper. The dovetail-shaped tenon in the lower part C, should be at least 6 in. in length, and will require careful cutting, the depth of the shoulders and the width of the upper end depending upon the amount of curve in the staves which are to be attached to it. It should be borne in mind that the object is to embed the staves so firmly that their upper ends, or the jaws of the tool, press tightly together. With this object the tenon should be cut, so that energetic screwing will be required to bring the staves home into their final position. The screws should be countersunk flush with the surface of the staves.

Fig. 58.—Iron Collar Rod.

A small wrench and a medium-sized vice will often be found useful. A nail-claw (Fig. 56) is required for pulling out the nails used to keep the work together. Pincers, nippers, and cutting pliers (Fig. 57) will be found useful as occasion demands.

An iron collar rod (Fig. 58) for stuffing the forewale must be obtained, as well as a hardwood stick, about 2 ft. 6 in. long, and having a V-shaped point, for filling the body of collars with straw; the stick is flat towards the V-shaped end, and round at the other end, the corners being rounded off smooth.

Fig. 59.—Steel Seat-iron.

A steel seat-iron (Fig. 59) is used in putting flock into cart-saddle panels, but chiefly for stuffing the peak of riding saddles, as the tool bends nicely with the shape of the saddle without tearing the cover or stretching it immoderately.

Loop-sticks (Fig. 60) are made of hardwood in various sizes to suit the width and thickness of the straps. A set made of hard boxwood or iron, varying in width from ½ in. to 2 in., and in thickness from ⅛ in. to ½ in., should be obtained. Less room is wanted in shaping a loop for a single strap than when a strap of two or three thicknesses is required to go through a loop. (A loop is the piece of leather placed crosswise on straps having buckles, and it keeps the point of the strap in its proper position.) A loop stick must be obtained that is thick enough and wide enough for a trace 1¾ in. wide and proportionately thick; there must also be one sufficiently thin and narrow for a ½-in. strap; loop sticks for intermediate sizes are also necessary, and it is as well to get two each of some of the sizes. For instance, those things that are done in pairs, such as bridle-cheeks, shaft-tugs, etc., will require the use of two loop sticks of the same size. Good loop sticks are essential to turning out good work.

Fig. 60.—Loop-stick.

Fig. 61.—Rubber.

A rubber (Fig. 61) made of a piece of hard, close-grained wood or of thick glass about 6 in. square and V-shaped on one edge is used to smooth down two edges whipped together, or for flattening and levelling any two thin substances, such as leather and linen pasted or stitched together; it is also used to rub stitching on the underside of traces or any double straps, and for rubbing or stretching damped leather.

The straining fork (Fig. 62) is sometimes employed for stretching wet webbing or leather, one end of which is nailed down and the other end strained with the fork and secured until dry.

Fig. 62.—Straining Fork.

A coarse file or rasp may be necessary to file down wooden and cane driving whip-stocks, etc., when putting on thongs and in splicing whip-sticks to level the splice so that both of the parts may lie flat against each other. A small round file and a small square one, as well as two or three coarser ones, are sure to come in handy. Amongst their uses will be the filing down of the brass or ironwork of saddles, and the making of holes in saddle trees, etc.

CHAPTER II.
HARNESS-MAKERS’ MATERIALS.

It is now proposed to give some particulars of the materials used in saddle and harness making.

The threads used in the trade are many, but the principal is waxed thread, made by the saddler himself, and used to stitch harness and straps together. By waxed thread is generally meant thread dressed with black or cobbler’s wax, but the saddler also uses thread dressed with beeswax and sometimes with white wax. The linen thread used is in various colours, yellow, red, black, white, etc., and is on reels or in hanks. Silk threads of the same colours are used for best work, such as stitching best brown saddlery, riding bridles, martingales, etc. The white and black linen thread is used for whippingin lining in panels of both gig and riding saddles, and for stitching saving pads in any thin material for light work, and also in stitching along with the red and yellow thread in making riding bridles, and all kinds of brown light work. The hemp for wax threads, of various strengths, is to be had in black, yellow, green, and white. The white hemp is considered the best and toughest, though the coloured perhaps is a little cheaper. Fine No. 15 and coarse No. 3 will probably meet all requirements.

Beeswax, as already hinted, is used to make threads for work that is light as regards both colour and substance. Single linen threads of all colours are, before using, rubbed with beeswax, which does not deaden the colour. White wax is sometimes made for brown harness by melting together white-lead and white wax; instead of the latter, the wax from best white wax candles may be used. If the wax when cold is too soft, add more white wax; if too hard, add a little more white-lead.

Black cobbler’s wax is made by melting together ½ lb. each of resin and pitch. When thoroughly mixed, remove the pan from the fire, and add one pennyworth of boiled linseed oil, or less, according to the weather. Thoroughly mix this with the other ingredients and then pour a little into cold water to test it. Let it remain for a minute and then remove it from the water, taking care to well wet the hands in doing so, or in the subsequent working it will stick to them. If it cracks when working it in the hands, it is too hard; if it pulls out properly and sticks well together, it is all right. Put it back into the water, and pour in the rest of the stuff after it. It is important that the piece tested be not put back into the pan containing the rest of the wax, as the water absorbed will evaporate and make the hot wax frothy and spongy. Gather the wax together in the water without loss of time, remove it with wet hands, and pull it fast hand over hand as quickly as possible till it attains a light golden colour. Pull off a small piece with the hands, or cut it off with wet scissors, and throw it into the water. If it floats on the surface it has been pulled enough; if it sinks, the wax requires more working. If not pulled enough, the wax is brittle, becoming tougher and better the more it is pulled. In making the wax it must be remembered that only half as much oil is required in summer as in winter. The colder the atmosphere the more oil will be required.

The quantities of ingredients mentioned will make about thirty handy lumps of wax, and as a rule a pennyworth of oil is enough in the coldest weather. If, after working it, the wax is too hard, melt it again and add more oil; if too soft, add more pitch and resin. Hard wax may be used in a way that avoids re-melting. The thread, previous to being dressed with the wax, is rubbed with tallow, over which the wax will run smooth. Cut the wax into lumps the size of a large pigeon’s egg and keep it in water.

Directions will now be given for making wax threads. So that the hemp may be kept tidy and not mixed up with the tools on the bench, place the ball of hemp in a wooden or tin box having a small hole in the centre of its lid, through which the hemp can pass. Take hold of the end of the hemp with the left hand, twist it once around the fingers, and draw it through the right hand. When a sufficient quantity has been drawn out, break the thread by rubbing it on the knee to take out the twist, at the same time giving it a sharp pull; the strands thus loosen and break in a ragged end. Throw the hemp over a nail or hook in the bench, pull it until the sides are each about 2 ft. 9 in. long, keep the hemp tight with the end in the left hand, and with the right hand spin or rub it on the knee as before to untwist the strands; then pull it sharply to break it. The more ragged the broken end is the better will be the point on the finished thread. There is now one strand 2 ft. 9 in. long and pointed; with the right hand put the points together in the left hand, and draw the hemp again over the hook, spinning and cutting it as before, and repeating the operation till the required number of strands is obtained. The number varies with the required strength, from three to sixteen.

In putting the ends of the cut hemp together, do not leave them exactly the same length; by leaving some shorter than others a nice pointed thread is obtained at the finish, fine enough to go into the eye of a needle. When the required number of strands is obtained, take a ball of wax in the right hand, and hold both ends of the thread separately in the left; draw the wax over the points two or three times to keep the ends together, taking care to keep the ends on the left of the hook twisted round the left hand, and holding them tight with the third and fourth fingers, leaving the thumb and forefinger loose to manipulate the other end in the process of twisting; the wax on the ends or points is a great help at this stage. Having an end between the thumb and finger of the left hand, set it on the knee, and spin or twist it as when cutting the hemp. The knee should be raised about 12 in. from the floor by placing the foot on a support. Continue spinning with the palm of the right hand until the thread is twisted enough. If twisted too much, it will work into knots when used in stitching. Then put the twisted side round the left hand, kept firm by the third and fourth fingers as before; and take the other side between the thumb and forefinger of the left hand, and spin it to the proper twist with the palm of the right hand as the other side was done. If the thread is required very smooth, twist both of the sides of the thread once round the seat-awl and draw the latter sharply backwards and forwards along the thread, all unevenness being thus smoothed away. For coarse work and repairs this is not necessary, but for best and new work the thread should always be smoothed.

To wax the thread, hold the two ends of the thread firmly in the left hand, and with the ball of wax held in the palm of the right hand, rub all along the thread, pulling the thread from around the hook into the open to enable that portion to be waxed also. Pull back the thread into its former position, and, with a piece of soft leather or the bare hand, rub the thread sharply from end to end to smooth the wax and make it even all along. The thread is then ready for use.

Yellow or white hemp thread is made with either beeswax or white wax in exactly the same manner, but the point of the thread is not dressed with white wax, being left unwaxed until the rest of the thread is finished. The end has to be pointed with black wax, which will not stick over beeswax or white wax. Black wax is the only kind that will keep the thread fast to the needles.

Nails are extensively used both in putting materials together for working and as ornaments. The nails used in putting work together are generally cut tacks, ranging in length from ⅝ in. to 1 in. Neat wire nails can now be had, however, much cheaper than the tacks, and are to be preferred, as they are of uniform size and leave a much smaller hole when withdrawn. Clumsy nails spoil good work, as the holes made by them are larger than the awl used in stitching. Very fine nails do not spoil the work, and can be obtained in sizes suitable for heavier and clumsier work; and they may be used over and over again if care is taken in pulling them out with the nail-claw. Cut tacks are used in putting gig saddles together, in nailing the leather to the tree, in adjusting panels in the gullet and behind, between the two prongs of the crupper staples, for nailing seats in riding saddles, etc. Cut tacks can be obtained as small as ⅜ in. in length.

Saddlers’ tacks of different sizes from ½ in. to ¾ in. long are used in putting in cart-saddle and riding-saddle panels and flaps, and for many other purposes. Clout nails are used now and then in putting houses on cart saddles, and for nailing on straps and girths, etc. Clout nails and saddlers’ tacks are made of wrought iron. Round-headed and japanned nails may be used for nailing cart-saddle housings, and have a neater appearance than common iron clouts. Tough nails are used in making all kinds of saddles; they sometimes have heads covered with black patent leather, and sometimes japanned heads only. Others have heads of silver, nickel, or brass. They are used partly as ornaments and partly to hold the work together, and are in two sizes, cab and gig. There are usually four in a gig or cab saddle, one in each corner of the skirt in front and one on each side behind, holding down the binding that comes over the cantle of the saddle. The front ones are driven through, bent, and beaten close to the tree backwards, whilst the hind ones are cut to taper for about half their lengths to a point; they are driven into the tree.

In a riding saddle there is one nail in the front, one in each of the sides, one in the corner of the skirts driven through and bent, and one on each side just at the thin end of the skirt, driven inwards so as to catch the tree and be flattened close to it. There is also one in each flap under the skirt in a line with the stirrup fastener, driven through the tree on the outside of the plate running along the points from the gullet; these are bent and flattened underneath. Sometimes brass nails are used as ornaments, but brass beading has done away with their use to a great extent. Formerly country cart saddles were ornamented by nailing the housing to the tree with brass nails; the covers of van saddles, as well as the opening over the boards, were also fastened down with these nails.

Such pieces as loop leather, the edges of black straps, etc., often have to be dyed. The dye or stain is made by boiling together for half an hour 1 lb. logwood chips, 4 oz. crushed nutgalls, ½ lb. copperas, a little gum arabic, and 5 qt. of water. Keep a little in an old bottle hung in a handy position near the bench. The dye is applied by a stick having a piece of felt attached to its end. The ink can be thinned by the addition of water. In dyeing brown leather, it must first be coated with soda solution to kill the grease. The solution is made by dissolving a piece of washing soda the size of a pigeon’s egg in a quart of hot water. The black dye may then be applied. If it does not strike well, rub over it a coarse brush and again coat with dye. Rub it well and dry with a rag, afterwards well rubbing in a little tallow with either a rag or the bare hand. The tallow gives a finish and counteracts any injury the dye might do the hand, there being in the copperas a tendency to burn.

Flocks, both white and coloured, are extensively used in the trade, and can be bought at from 20s. to 50s. per hundredweight; the material can also be had in small quantities—even as low as a pound. Best white flock should be free from cotton, and should be tested by putting a small quantity in a candle flame; if cotton is present, it burns fiercely and with a big flame, but fine wool burns slowly and smoulders. The best flock is used for stuffing riding-saddle panels, etc., and the best drummed flock is used for collars, being put near the horse’s breast under the lining to make the collars easy for the shoulder.

The drummed flocks are in large sheets, and these are cut to the size and shape required, and, being of even thickness, will not be lumpy, an important consideration in making a collar. Coarser flock of a white, brown, or any dark colour will do for stuffing and restuffing gig-saddle panels. Curled horsehair is sometimes used for stuffing panels, and is found very cool for an animal with a tender back or shoulder; goat hair is very suitable for stuffing. Neither this nor horsehair is so liable to be clogged by sweating as sheep’s wool, though the latter, when dry, containing but very little oil and being well carded, is used extensively in country places.

All these materials before use should be put through the flock machine once or twice to loosen the fibre, and care should be taken when stuffing with a rod that the flock or wool is not put in lumpy or uneven. After stuffing, the work should be levelled with the seat-awl until it is as smooth as a board. The drummed flock, of course, is already level and even; it is not stuffed in, but laid on the inside of the collar lining before stuffing the collar with straw.

Thick felt is a good substitute for pads to ease collars and saddles, and can be bought in various thicknesses by the pound. Large cuttings and waste pieces can also be bought very cheaply, and two thicknesses can be put together if necessary, a strap and a buckle being on one side with a strap on the other to fasten to a saddle or collar. Felt is useful to put under cruppers and to line breechings when chafing, or under any strappings that chafe the horse’s skin. They can be fastened to the above by stitching them with a spot stitch, thus - - - - -, about ¾ in. apart, and slanting the awl underneath to make the stitch small there as well as on the top; or nails may be used when the felt is sufficiently thick. False collars, pads to be used like saddle cloths under gig or cab saddles and under cart-saddle panels, riding-saddle cloths, and many other articles are made of felt.

The harness maker and saddler uses many different kinds of leather, and, unless the worker possesses some knowledge of the particular purpose of each variety, much waste is likely to result. Stuff too light or too heavy, too thick or too thin, spoils a job, and of course entails loss.

In Fig. 63, which is a diagram showing a cut hide, A A show the sides of a harness hide with belly on; C C, backs of harness hide with belly off; B B B B, bellies of hide; D D, middlings; E, shoulder; and F, uncut middling.

Harness leather can be bought in hides (A A) cut only along the back, having the belly part attached, at the rate of from 1s. 2d. to 1s. 11d. per lb. The best part can be used for harness and cart gear; the belly will come in well for repairs, linings, and fillings. Harness backs (C C) are half hides from which the belly (B B) has been cut off; these have all pure firm leather suitable for making all kinds of harness. The price is from 1s. 9d. to 2s. 5d. per pound.

Trace backs (C C) resemble the above, but are picked and more carefully dressed, and are made of the finest and best grown hides. They cost from 1s. l0d. to 2s. 7d. per pound.

Rein hides have the bellies attached but are dressed and of picked quality and thickness and uniform strength; they are suitable for making into driving reins. For the best part can also be made any good light single straps, where strength and durability are required. The best part of the belly can be cut up into small straps of any kind and into linings. These hides cost from 56s. to 72s. each. Rein backs resemble the above, but have the belly cut off; the price is from 40s. to 70s. each.

Black strap butts (D D) are the best part of the hide from which the belly and shoulder have been cut. They are from 4 ft. 6 in. to 4 ft. 9 in. long, and are suitable for any kind of good single strap. The price is from 56s. to 72s. a pair.

Black spur shoulders (E) are light shoulders dressed and flattened; from them are made spur and similar straps, garters, wrist straps, etc. The price is from 8s. 6d. to 10s. each. Japanned horse hides for patent harness collars cost from 40s. to 46s. each. Cow hides, japanned for the same purpose, cost from 38s. to 44s. each. Japanned cow-backs for collars, etc., cost from 30s. to 39s. per pair. Japanned flap hides for making gig, cab, or brougham harness saddle flaps are priced at from 2s. 3d. to 2s. 6d. per pound. The middlings cost from 2s. to 2s. 6d. per pound.

Winker hides, japanned for making bridle winkers, cost 54s. to 56s. each, and the middlings (F) for the same purpose cost from 32s. to 36s. per pair. Japanned welting seals for making welts for gig saddles, etc., are priced at from 7s. 6d. to 8s. 6d. each. Japanned and enamelled hides for making military belts, etc., cost from 54s. to 60s. each, and middlings for the same purpose from 40s. to 42s. per pair.

There is great variety in brown or stained leather. Bridle hides for all sorts of riding bridles cost from 50s. to 56s. each. Backs (C C) from the above cost 45s. to 50s. each, whilst the butts cost 32s. to 40s.; these are in varying qualities and prices.

Brown shoulders (E) dressed for coat straps, garters, braces, or small straps in general can be bought at from 6s. 6d. to 10s. each, and driving-rein brown hides at from 56s. to 72s. each. The backs cost from 56s. to 66s. a pair, and the butts for handparts of reins 38s. to 42s. a pair.

Fig. 63.—Cutting up Hide.

Double-rein hides—that is, brown leather specially selected and dressed for making reins of double thickness stitched together, cost from 44s. to 50s. each. The backs cost from 40s. to 48s. per pair. Head-collar rein backs for making head-collars, stallion bridles, etc., can be bought at from 2s. 6d. to 2s. 11d. per pound.

Stirrup hides for making stirrup straps cost from 2s. 6d. to 2s. 9d. per pound; there are also inferior qualities. Butts for stirrup straps cost from 3s. 6d. to 4s. per pound. Brown harness hides cost from 1s. 6d. to 1s. 11d. per pound. The backs cost from 1s. 8d. to 2s. 2d. per pound. Skirt hides for making ladies’ and gents’ saddle skirts and flaps are priced at from 1s. 10d. to 2s. 2d. per pound. Skirt backs are from 2s. to 2s. 4d. per pound, and shoulders, 1s. 5d. to 1s. 10d. per pound.

Hog-skins suitable for all purposes, but chiefly used for saddles, can be bought at from £9 to £12 per dozen; they can be bought singly, and there are also inferior qualities.

Sheep-skins in imitation of hog-skins can be bought at from 30s. to 60s. per dozen, or copper plates for printing basils and a printing press for the purpose can be bought instead. Basils for gig-saddle panel pads and repairing collars, and cart-saddle cheek pads, etc., can be bought at from 10s. to 30s. per dozen. The common ones are good enough for repairs and cheap work.

Specially dressed hides for making braces or any light straps can be bought at from 36s. to 40s. each; the shoulders (E) or bellies (B) dressed for the same purpose can be had apart from the hide. Purse and pocket-book hides are also specially dressed, and cost from 30s. to 40s. each. Calf-skins dressed for the same purpose cost from 9s. to 10s. 6d. each. The brace and pocket-book and purse leather can be obtained stained in various colours, red, brown, yellow, orange, etc. The brown harness leather also can be had natural or tallow colour or stained fawn, nut brown, yellow, or orange. Brown gear hides for cart work are from 1s. 3d. to 2s. per pound, the backs from 1s. 7d. to 2s. 3d. per pound, and bellies from 10d. to 1s. 4d. per pound.

Mill bands for making driving belts cost from 1s. 6d. to 2s. 2d. per pound. Engine butts for making strong engine belts, either single or double, cost from 2s. to 2s. 6d. per pound.

Fancy coloured leather for bridle fronts and rosettes cost from 40s. to 42s. each middling. Striped patent frontings leather costs from 1s. 6d. to 2s. 9d. per square foot. White buff hides for hunting-crop keepers, razor strops, belts, etc., cost about 5s. per pound. White bleached buff middling is about 5s. per pound.

A country saddler is often called upon to work in coach-builders’ leather; leathers for this purpose are not included in the above list, but, as a rule, they can be obtained at the same place as harness leather.

Enamelled cow, ox, and bull hides for carriage tops, etc., are sold whole, and not slit along the middle, at from 40s. to 70s. each. Coach hides and backs for dashes and wings cost from 26s. to 40s. each. Seal-skins for the same purpose cost from 7s. 6d. to 12s. each. Hides for window straps, enamelled and prepared, cost from 56s. to 60s. each. All coloured carriage cushion hides for making carriage cushions cost from 40s. to 60s. each. Dyed and enamelled leather for cushions is sold by the square foot.

It is scarcely necessary to state that all the above prices fluctuate with the market. A great quantity of harness leather, nowadays, is prepared by the quick tanning process, but it is inferior stuff. The best leather is that which has been through a pure oak tan. It is very hard, however, to tell when the inferior process has been used, but as a rule the colour, smell, and even taste of the leather decide the question; soft, mellow leather that has not a hard feeling to the touch is as a rule good leather, especially if it has a close grain and a light yellow colour when cut. The inferior quality feels and looks dry and hard: it has a dull grey colour and an uneven grain facing. A good test is to bend it, poor and badly dressed leather cracking in the bend, and the grain giving way; these defects show that either chemicals or excessive heats have been used in the finishing and tanning. Well tanned and dressed leather stands the bending test well.

A few rules on cutting up hides may now be given. When cutting a strap from a hide, do not cut down lower than the width of the strap required, so as not to interfere with the next cut into the hide. All possible care should be taken to prevent waste, and pieces of particular shape should be cut from a pattern. It is sheer waste to cut off a piece of stuff larger than is required and then to trim it down. In cutting up a hide, lay it on the bench with the back part against the worker; use a straightedge at least 8 ft. long, and mark with a blunt-pointed awl or the seat-awl, using the straightedge as a guide. Take care not to cut the grain of the leather with the point of the awl, as in the case of the straightedge being shifted an indelible mark may be left.

If the strap is to be cut with the round knife, set the compass to the right width, and put one point in position to run along the edge of the leather, and the other on the leather so that it marks the width to be cut; pull the compass towards the worker, pressing it so that it leaves a plain line. With the round knife begin cutting at the right-hand end, keeping the leather steady in its place on the cutting-board with the left hand. A cutting-board ought always to be employed, as nails on the top of the bench would interfere with the work. Push the knife along the marked line steadily, taking care that the knife does not slip; if it does, it may make a bad slit and spoil the work. Straps are always cut along the hide and not across it, the hide being much stronger lengthways.

The first cutting from the hide is suitable for reins, and then in order come traces, back-bands, bridging-straps, hip-straps, and hip-strap tugs; then crupper billet, shaft tugs, name tugs, bellyband, bridle head-strap, cheeks, etc.; and from the belly part or third quality in side of hide may be cut linings and layers for folds. In making cart harness, cut bridge-band, crupper, and bridge-band carrier or hip-straps and bearers, and then cart-saddle bellybands and bridle; the best part of the belly, with the top well lined, will do for side pieces of collar, unless this can be cut from a specially dressed piece.

Specially curried leather must be obtained for cart-saddle housings and winkers, as the harness leather is not firm enough and contains too much oil. The special leather also must be got for the saddle flaps, the pieces lying against the ribs of the horse under the ridgworth.

A leather that is cheapest in first cost is not always the cheapest to use. That leather is the best from which the greatest weight of firm straps can be made, and which will continue firm for the greatest length down towards the belly part.

The compass and round knife only were mentioned in the description of cutting straps, but the plough is very useful for cutting straps varying from ½ in. to 5½ in. in width. The plough does away with the use of both compass and round knife, and cuts much more evenly and straight than it is possible to do by hand. Its use effects a great saving of time, the knife merely requiring to be adjusted on the gauge and made fast by the thumb-screw. Hold the leather firm and flat on the board with the left hand, and press it forward to the plough, keeping the guard close and tight to the edge all along. The uses of the head knife in cutting will be fully explained later.

Brown harness work, as small straps, traces, back-band, and breechings, may be finished with a thin solution of gum and water, and should be well rubbed with a smooth bone until polished. Machines for trimming the edges are made, but their work is incomplete, because all lengthy straps have parts in which the fibres are less close than at others. A good method is to knock the edges all along, consolidate them as much as possible, and then trim them round and level with the spokeshave; afterwards run a glass scraper over them and sandpaper. Finally, a good rubbing with brown paper and bone, after gumming, will give a fine polished edge to all brown work.

Black straps and harness are prepared in the same way for polishing; black dye them, then rub dry with a rag, and polish with brown paper and bone. Sometimes, after blacking and rubbing, a coat of liquid blacking is applied, and rubbed until dry. Again, some harness-makers employ black-ball and a burnisher to finish after blacking, rubbing down well; this is recommended for the best harness. It should be understood that whenever the word finishing used here in connection with best harness this process is referred to for black and brown harness and single straps.

Common harness and cart gear, especially in country places, are usually finished by levelling the edges, scraping with glass, blacking, rubbing with a rag, and finally, after passing a ball of hard tallow along the edges, rubbing with a bone or hard knife handle.

Webs are used for a variety of purposes by saddlers. Girth web for making saddle girths is sold in 15-yd. pieces. It can be had in cotton, union, or worsted. Race girth is a superior material for racing saddles; it is about 5 in. wide. Web for roller girth is from 4 in. to 6 in. wide and in 12½-yd. pieces; it is of cotton, union, or worsted. In the same material is made trace web in 18½-yd. pieces, 1½ in. to 2½ in. wide. Game-bag web is sometimes required, and is bought by the yard in different colours. Men’s body-belt web is to be had in 18-yd. pieces from 4 in. to 8 in. wide, and in seven or eight colours. Straining-web for saddle seats can be bought by the yard or in the piece. A country saddler finds diaper-web very useful; this is bought in 15-yd. pieces.

Other requisites, such as bits, spurs, stirrups, and harness furniture are described in Chapter X.

A few reliable recipes for some of the most necessary articles employed in harness making will now be given.

Iron Liquor for Dyeing.—(a) Green copperas, 2 lb.; vinegar, 2 qt.; pulverised nutgall, ¼ lb.; and water, 4 qt. Two weeks after mixing add another 2 qt. of water. (b) Bichromate of potash, ½ lb.; logwood extract, 1 lb.; copperas, 1 oz.; and water, 1 gal.

Saddlers’ Black Wax.—(a) Pitch, 2 lb.; resin, 2½ lb.; seal oil, one pennyworth. In winter add 2 lb. of resin instead of 2½ lb., and never more than ⅔ of the oil until the stiffness of the wax has been tested. (b) Pitch, 1 lb.; resin, 1 lb.; and linseed oil, one pennyworth.

The exact amount of oil to be used in both of the above recipes depends on the season and the weather. A little lampblack may be well mixed in when the wax is required very black. Always melt the pitch and resin together, and then add the oil. Afterwards pour the mixture into cold water, and knead and pull it until it floats. Try a small piece first to ascertain whether there is sufficient oil, and likewise after pulling to see whether it floats.

Brown Wax.—Beeswax, 1 lb.; pale resin, 3 oz.; and white-lead, 3 oz. The wax can be softened or hardened by adding more or less beeswax. Melt the mixture, stirring it, and then pour it into water and pull until it floats.

Flour Paste.—Water, 1 qt., and alum 3 oz. Heat until the alum has melted, and when cold add flour to the consistency of cream; then let the mixture boil, stirring it at the same time. By adding a little powdered resin and a clove or two before boiling, the paste will keep for a year and can be softened with water when dry.

Brown Stain.—Boil equal parts of pine and alder bark in six times their bulk of water until the colour is extracted, and when cold add a little alcohol.

Yellow Stain.—Boil some fustic berries in alum water and darken the shade by adding powdered brazil, which must be boiled with the berries.

Brown, Russet, and Yellow Stain.—Boil a given amount of saffron in water until the colour is extracted, cut a quantity of annatto, putting it into urine, and mix the urine and extract, the proportion of each determining the shade; the greater the amount of annatto the darker the colour.

Stain for Riding Saddles, etc.—Saffron, three pennyworth; annatto, one pennyworth; soft soap, one pennyworth; and boiling water, 1 qt. Mix and let the whole stand until ready.

Reviver for Patent Leather.—Mix warm linseed oil 1 pt., and cream 1 pt. Apply with a sponge and polish with a soft flannel or rag.

Harness Composition.—(a) Glue, 4 oz.; gum arabic, 3 oz.; water, ¾ pt. Dissolve all by heat and add 6 oz. of treacle and 5 oz. of very finely powdered ivory black, and slowly evaporate with constant trituration until the composition is of the proper consistency when cold. When nearly cold, bottle and cork; if necessary the bottle can be warmed before use. (b) Mutton suet 2 oz., and pure beeswax 6 oz. Melt this mixture and then add finely powdered sugar candy, 6 oz.; soft soap, 2 oz.; lampblack, 2 oz.; and finely powdered indigo, ½ oz. When perfectly incorporated add ¼ pt. of oil of turpentine. Keep the composition in pots or tins, (c) Beeswax, 1 lb.; soft soap, 6 oz.; ivory black, ¼ lb.; Prussian blue (ground in), 1 oz.; linseed oil, 2 oz.; and oil of turpentine, ½ pt. Mix well together and pot. Put a thin layer of one of the above on the leather and polish gently with a brush or rubber.

Harness Jet.—Molasses, 8 parts; lampblack, 1 part; sweet oil, 1 part; gum arabic, 1 part; isinglass, 1 part; and water, 32 parts. Mix well together and add 1 pt. of turpentine. Apply the mixture with a sponge. If it is hard, place the bottle in hot water to soften the mixture. One ounce of spirit of wine can also be added when cool.

Waterproof Paste for Carriage Harness.—(a) Dissolve three sticks of black sealing wax in ½ pt. of alcohol, or dissolve lac in alcohol and colour with sufficient lampblack. (b) Melt 2 oz. of black resin in a glazed vessel over the fire, and then add 3 oz. of beeswax, and as soon as all is melted remove from the fire and add ½ oz. of fine lampblack and ½ oz. of Prussian blue in powder. Stir all well and add enough turpentine to form a thin paste. Cool and apply with a sponge; polish with a soft brush.

Oil for Farm and Team Harness.—Melt 3 lb. of pure tallow without letting it boil, and gently add 1 lb. of pure neatsfoot oil. Stir continually until cold, so that it will be perfectly mixed, otherwise the tallow will harden in lumps. To colour, add a little bone black or lampblack.

Brass Polishing Paste.—(a) Dissolve 3 parts of oxalic acid in 40 of water, with 100 of pumicestone powdered, 2 of oil of turpentine, 12 of soft soap, and 12 of any fat oil. (b) Beat equal weights of soft soap and rottenstone into a paste.

Plate Powder.—Take as much sulphate of iron as will fill a clay pipe, keep it on the fire for a quarter of an hour, and mix with powdered chalk.

Leather Preserver.—To preserve harness from the effect of ammonia in stables add a little glycerine to the oil employed.

Leather Cement.—(a) Dissolve guttapercha in bisulphate of carbon until of the consistency of treacle. Shave well the parts to be cemented and then spread a little cement evenly over them. Warm them for about half a minute, apply one against the other quickly, and press hard. Keep the bottle well corked and in a cool place. (b) Melt guttapercha, 16 parts; pure rubber, 4 parts; yellow pitch, 2 parts; shellac, 1 part; and linseed oil, 2 parts, and apply as above. (c) Guttapercha, 1 lb.; indiarubber, 4 oz.; pitch, 1 oz.; shellac, 1 oz.; and linseed oil, 2 oz. Melt all together. The composition will harden when kept, and must be melted for use.

Bronzing for Leather.—A small amount of so-called insoluble aniline violet is dissolved in a little water and the solution brushed over the article; it will dry quickly. If the result is not satisfactory, repeat the process.

To Gild Calf- or Sheepskin.—Wet the leather with some egg albumen, and, when dry, rub it with the hands damped with a little olive oil. Then apply the gold leaf, and pass a hot iron over it.

CHAPTER III.
STRAP MAKING AND STITCHING.

Instructions have been given on making threads and cutting leather, and now a simple exercise in stitching may be given in the putting together of small straps.

In making a box strap, cut with the round knife or plough from the back of the hide a good piece of leather, which should be 6 ft. long, and 1½ in. wide. Turn down about 2 in. of one end, cut a hole within about ¼ in. of the bend, and slit the part out with two cuts. Neatly shave down the point of the under piece with the round knife, and slant the other end a bit at each side to make a neat point to enter the buckle easily. Run the No. 1 edge tool along the sharp edges of the two sides and of the top and bottom; this takes a small strip off, rounds the edges, and produces a better finish. If brown leather is used, wipe the edges with a damp sponge; instead of pure water, a very thin solution of gum may be used. Then rub the edges with a rag or with a piece of brown paper until they are smooth and polished.

Adjust the screw-crease so that it marks a line about ⅛ in. inside the edges, warm the crease in a gas or candle flame, and rub it sharply all along the edge, guiding the crease mark on the strap by keeping the other side of the crease close up to the strap. Rub backwards and forwards until there is a deep polished mark on the strap, then mark across the point in the same way. This operation is known as creasing.

Two crease marks instead of one may be made after turning the thumb-screw to widen the points of the tool. Then cut a piece to form a loop about ¾ in. wide and long enough to go round any part of the strap and make the ends meet. Edge this in the same way as the strap, polish with dye or water according to colour, and then crease.

For a running loop—one that runs loosely along the strap—the leather about ½ in. longer than twice the width of the strap so as to overlap; shave one end on the top or grain side, and the other on the bottom or flesh side, so that when jointed the pieces will make an even thickness. Allow sufficient length for the two thicknesses of strap to go through, and mark where it is to overlap. Put one side of the doubled part in the clamp and stitch the side opposite, then reverse it and stitch the other; all running loops are made in this way except for very common straps, when the strips are simply brought end to end and a stitch or two is made from side of the doubled part in the clamp and stitch the buckle, put the tongue point of the latter through the hole made for it in the strap, and having marked the stitches eight or ten to the inch with the wheel-pricker on the short underpart, put the loop in between the two leathers deep enough for the stitches to hold firmly. Begin stitching by the buckle, putting a cross stitch downwards close to it. Stitch the straight row along the line of marks close to the buckle end, and have a stitch over; do not pull the thread up at the last stitch, but have both the ends underneath. Put two or three stitches in the centre at the point; here also the last stitch is downwards. Then begin stitching the other side. With the awl put the first hole close to the point and pull the thread through; make the next hole and put the other thread up and the top one down, and so on until the loop is reached. See that the loop is of the right length; if too long, cut a bit off. Put the point in between the two leathers, deep enough to catch the stitches, and put one or two stitches in the side next to the thread, slanting the awl a little outwards at the point. Put the upper needle through the loop so that the stitching will not be over it, and have a stitch or two in the side of the loop next to the worker; finish it up to the buckle. Put a cross stitch at the finish, the same as on the other side, and cut the thread. Put a loop stick of the same width and thickness as the strap through both loops, hammer them lightly to shape, and run the warm single crease along the edges. With a punch of the right size cut the required number of buckle holes, beginning about 5 in. from the point; make the distance between the holes a little more than the width of the strap. This is always the rule in punching single straps, such as garters, cart hame straps, dog muzzle straps, luggage straps, etc.

With regard to threading the needles, a properly made thread will have a nice point, which must be well waxed, and pulled between the finger and thumb two or three times to warm the wax so that it will stick. Pass the end through the eye of the needle for from 1 in. to 2 in., according to the fineness of the point, and holding the thread between the finger and the thumb of the left hand, spin it from you with the finger and thumb of the right hand. Afterwards draw the thread from the needle downwards at the point between the fingers so as to stick the point together well and make it smooth. Take care not to put it too far through the eye, or it will be too thick to go through the holes in the leather, while if it is not pulled through far enough the thread is liable to break. Be careful also to get needles of proper size; light thread for light work and strong thread for thick and heavy work; and a fine awl for fine thread, and a coarse and strong one for coarser thread, and so on.

In making the first hole in stitching, put the needle and thread up from underneath, and draw exactly half of the thread through. Put both needles together and adjust the lengths of the two portions of threads, and with the awl cut the second hole, and stitch on. Always put the lower thread in each hole first and draw it up about 3 in., then put the other needle in and pull, always keeping the thread from below lowest in the hole and the top thread above. This is managed by pulling with the upper hand a bit downwards, and with the hand at the back of the work a bit upwards, thus tending to keep the stitches in position. It may be noticed that the hole is not round, but square and elongated, and tends to help the manipulation of the thread. Do not make a practice of pushing the awl through the work at right angles to the face, but on the slant; the holes made by the wheel-pricker are all on the slant. The above instructions also apply to double-thread stitching, the kind mostly used in harness making, though many things, such as the straps, described above, are stitched with single thread.

In back stitching, use one thread only; begin by putting it up from below; put it down backwards in the next hole to the one last made, and then pull it tightly from below. There is not much difference on the top side, but the stitches on the underside are twice as long and cross each other in chain fashion. Sometimes it is convenient to adopt this method to use up waste points, etc., but such things as traces, surcingles, waist-belts of web, saddle girths, etc., are always stitched with single thread. When repairing inferior harness, single thread can sometimes be used without stitching backwards, by doing what is called spotting, that is, always going forward thus / / /, and only up and down forward, the stitching appearing like spots, and not as an unbroken chain.

Stitching with white lace in cart work is done in this manner:—Put the holes on the upper side very close together, but underneath; the distance apart may vary with the fineness of the work. This kind of lace stitching is not much in vogue now, but it looks well when across the end of breechings for cart purposes, across the openings in cart cruppers, etc. Lace needles and white skin will be necessary for this work.

Riding bridles and almost all light brown work are stitched single thread and backwards, with either white linen, cotton, or silk beeswaxed, or sometimes with yellow fine hemp thread beeswaxed.

Dog-collars are made in a similar way to the straps previously mentioned, only the bend is made a little longer underneath to allow sufficient lining under the D to which the chain may be fastened.

Fig. 64.—Plain Waist Belt.

Now that an insight into stitching has been obtained, the making of a waist-belt, Figs. 64 to 66, may be described. Cut the web so that its ends meet together round the waist, and also cut pieces of very thin belly brown leather or basil, for binding the ends; the latter should be about 1¼ in. wide, and as long as the webbing is wide. Turn down the binding along the centre lengthways, hammer it lightly, and with the screw-crease mark along one side; then slip it in both sides of the ends of the web, and either put a tack or two in it, to keep it in place, or paste it down. Allow the paste to dry before proceeding further. With the wheel-pricker along the crease mark the stitches, about ten to the inch, then put the web in the clamp, the latter being between the knees, and begin stitching at the end farthest from the worker. Use one yellow or white linen thread dressed with beeswax. On coming to the end, cut the thread; also cut the binding square with the edge of the web and stitch both ends across at some distance from the edge.

Prepare the pieces to be put over the straps and chapes; cut them about 3 in. wide, and straight on one side, making any fancy cut on the other; two of these pieces are wanted, one at each end. Then cut the straps and chapes, and use light tinned bridle buckles or brown covered buckles ⅞ in. wide. With the compasses set to the right width, mark out the straps on a close piece of brown shoulder or belly leather. Cut the straps about 6 in. long and the chapes about 2½ in. long. They may be cut in long strips, being afterwards divided into the required lengths. Form the strap, point one end a little, and shave the other end to go under the pieces above mentioned; rub the edges either with water or solution, and crease them about ¹/₁₆ in. from the edge. Then turn down the chapes for the buckles, shave down both ends thin, and let the lower one be a little shorter than the other. Punch a small hole about ¼ in. from the end, cut the hole clean out at the bend, and the piece is then ready for the buckle.

Fig. 65.—Fancy Waist Belt.

Use thin brown waste to make the loops; with the compasses mark a width of this about ⅜ in., cut to the right length; then rub and crease the chapes. Place the buckles in the leather, put in the loops about half the width of the chape between the two points of the chape, and close to the buckle, and put two or three stitches in each end. The pieces to hold up the belt firmly at the small of the back should be about 1 in. wide. Rub the edges and crease them as well as the two pieces for the front, and mark stitches with the pricker in all of them. Three of these back supports will be needed, one right across the centre of the belt and one on each side, 3 in. from the centre at the top and slanting inwards to within 1½ in. from the centre at the bottom.

Fig. 66.—Waist Belt with Pockets.

To determine which is the lower and which is the upper side of the belt, bear in mind that, when being worn, the buckles will be on the left-hand side and the straps on the right. Put one of the 3-in. wide pieces flat on the belt, within about 3 in. of the end, and either paste or tack it in its place from the lower side. Put the straps in about ¾ in., all three exactly alike, one in the centre, and the others one on each side within ⅛ in. of the edge. Place the other piece in the other end so near the edge that, in putting the buckle chapes up to the loops under the edge of the piece, the outer edge of the buckle is flush with the end of the belt. Fasten the chapes in position exactly opposite the straps in the other end. Then backstitch the pieces in each end all round, in the same way as the binding was treated. Put a second row of stitches farther in than the first, through the strap ends and through the end of the chapes; leave about ½ in. between two rows, and then lay on the back straps. Having pricked them, stitch them in the same way as the others. If pasted on, they can be kept more easily in their place; if pasting is not convenient, pencil on their positions and keep them to the mark in stitching.

It is usual to put a piece of whalebone or good hard cane inside these to keep them up; thin the bone or cane and push it in between the leather and webbing from one end, and then stitch both ends across. Put four or six holes in the straps and see that they work easily in the loops, when the belt is finished.

CHAPTER IV.
LOOPING.

Some hints on looping will be given in this chapter. The loops are pieces of leather placed crosswise on all straps, which have buckles, to keep the point of the strap in its proper position. Sometimes also loops are employed merely to hold the straps in place, as for example in the case of shaft tugs. Loops are common to all kinds of straps in general and to harness and cart gear in particular.

Straps made to exact length with only one hole are cut long enough beyond the hole to go through the loop, and so give the work a neat finish. When the unused part of the strap varies considerably in length, the part run through the buckle being sometimes 6 in. long and sometimes 3 ft. long, a runner loop must be made to hold the point of the strap.

A runner is a loop which runs loosely along the strap to any required part. To make it, one end is laid on the other, overlapping it more or less according to the size of the loop, and the material is then stitched; it must be made loose enough for two thicknesses of the strap to pass easily.

The width of the loops, except in the case of pipe or box loops (defined later) must always be in proportion with that of the strap; the broader the strap, the broader is the loop. Taste and a due sense of proportion are necessary here as elsewhere. The loop must never be placed too near the buckle, particularly when the strap running through is stiff. Both ends of the loop should be placed so that they can be firmly stitched; the first end is stitched easily, but the second requires more practice. The ends of the loop should be made to meet in the centre of the strap, care being taken to catch it at the first stitch, for then it will not easily slip from its place. Two stitches on each side may suffice, but a very wide loop will need four or five on both sides of the ends. Slant the awl with every stitch, using the end of the awl to drive the loop a little out of the way.

It must not be taken for granted that a firm hold of the loop has been obtained until it is completely stitched; but make sure of the work at the first stitch, as otherwise it may be necessary to unstitch the work and do it again. Care must be taken also to ascertain that the loop is straight in its place at the first stitch, and that one side of the same end is not farther in than the other. A crooked loop spoils the appearance of the whole of the work.

Fig. 67.—Box Creased Loop.

Box loops (Figs. 67 to 70) or, as they are styled, pipe loops, are long loops like those on bridle cheeks, bearers of gig breechings, hame tugs, etc. To make them, measure the length and width of the loop required; for example, a bridle cheek ¾ in. wide and 8 in. long will need a loop 1⅜ in. wide and 7¼ in. long.

Before making the loop, crease a line along the place to be stitched, about ⅛ in. from the edge, and cut a groove along the line to about half the depth; then open the groove well with the blunt point of a compass, passing it backwards and forwards. The stitching is done along this groove, which is finally closed.

Fig. 68.—Box Creased Loops.

The groove is necessary on account of the coarse stitches, about four to the inch, which are thus kept out of sight and prevented from being worn away by friction. Another method is to slit the leather about ³/₁₆ in. from the side; then to raise it and stitch under it. When finished, apply a little paste or gum to hold it firm, and smooth it down over the stitches.

Mark a line on the loop at about half the width of the strap and run a writing pen along it to keep the mark visible; the loop, being of brown leather, will retain the mark of the ink, whereas the compass mark alone would be obliterated by damping. This mark is essential as a guide in fixing the loop and stitching. Mark the inside of the loop first time and the outer side the second. Damp the loop well first. Stitch the first side with black wax three-cord thread about ¼ in. apart; this is an easy job, the difficult point being the blind-stitching. Put the loop between the winker and the cheek as far as the mark and put a tack in each end and one in the centre.