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ELEMENTARY TRAINING
VISUAL TRAINING
JUDGING DISTANCE
FIRE DISCIPLINE
RANGE PRACTICES
FIELD PRACTICES

Written by an Officer of the Regular Army
AND EDITED BY
E. JOHN SOLANO

LONDON
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET, W.
1915
All rights reserved.

THIS BOOK IS DEDICATED TO
BRIGADIER-GENERAL N. R. MACMAHON, D.S.O.
KILLED IN ACTION, FLANDERS,
November 11, 1914.

EDITOR’S NOTE

Object of the Book.—This book is intended to serve as an introduction to Musketry Regulations. The instruction contained in it is consistent in principle and method with that laid down in Musketry Regulations, Infantry Training (1914), and other official manuals. It is hoped that the book may prove useful to officers and men of the newly raised units of the Regular Army, Territorial Force, and the Military Forces of the dominions. As great care has been taken to explain the correct methods of carrying out musketry training, it is also hoped that it may prove useful to the Volunteer Training Corps, Officers’ Training Corps, and Cadet Corps. The Preface contains notes on experience gained at the front in the present campaign, signed by General Sir O’Moore Creagh, V.C., which will prove of great value to officers in training their commands.

Scope of Instruction.—The scope of instruction in the book is practically identical with that laid down in Musketry Regulations. It contains the conditions of the individual and collective field practices recently laid down for the training of the new armies on classification ranges. It also includes directions for carrying out a complete course of musketry instruction on miniature ranges with the aid of the Standard Target Equipment adopted for this purpose.[1] This instruction includes elementary training, and leads up by progressive stages to visual training, fire discipline, fire direction and control, and a variety of individual and collective field practices which can be fired under conditions approximating as closely as possible to those of service.

Acknowledgment.—The Editor desires to express his thanks and acknowledgments to the Military Authorities and to His Majesty’s Stationery Office for permission to reproduce illustrations and extracts from the Musketry Regulations and other official manuals. It is intended to keep each edition of this book abreast of the latest developments in the science with which it deals, and the changes made from time to time in the official training manuals.

E. JOHN SOLANO.

London, 1915.

PREFACE

NOTES ON EXPERIENCE GAINED AT THE FRONT

By General Sir O’Moore Creagh, V.C.

1. The experience gained at the front in the present campaign may be divided broadly under two heads: Firstly, the test under war conditions of the general principles upon which the British Army has been trained in peace. Secondly, knowledge concerning the tactics of the enemy and his method of employing various arms. With regard to the former of these two heads of information, it is important to note that the broad principles upon which the training of the British Army has been based are described by a General Officer as being sound, and that the need of paying strict attention to them in carrying out training is emphasized by him. On the other hand, valuable experience has been gained as to the best method of applying these general principles to the peculiar conditions which have so far prevailed in the present campaign, including the tactics adopted by the enemy. Information based on this experience, more especially so far as it concerns the employment of musketry in attack and defence, is included in these notes, as it may prove useful to officers in training their commands.

2. These notes, therefore, do not affect the general principles of training laid down in this book. They merely deal with the application of these principles to the peculiar conditions which have so far obtained in the course of the campaign. These conditions may at any time give place to others, for it must be remembered that in no two military operations is the situation exactly the same. Instructors, therefore, must avoid the mistake of training their men for any particular given conditions of warfare, and remember that general principles and broad rules alone are applicable to the leading of troops in war (Infantry Training, 1914).

3. German Musketry.[2]—(i) The Germans consider it unnecessary to teach men to fire at distances beyond 400 metres. Their plan of infantry attack (see diagram, p. ix) is devised to get within this range without opening fire. Accordingly, judging distance is practised by officers only, and no attention is devoted to the indication of targets, concentration of fire, or to fire direction and control generally, as practised in the British Army. To concentrate the fire of a platoon or company on one spot at 1,000 yards range was considered by Germans to be a waste of ammunition. Their training seems to have been limited to independent firing by battalions on large areas of ground.

(ii) Only some of their men were practised in rapid firing, which averaged eight or nine rounds a minute, as against the fifteen well-aimed shots a minute which British troops are trained to deliver in rapid firing. In this respect it may be mentioned that the straight bolt of the German rifle is not so easy to work as the bolt of the British rifle, nor is its clip so easy to put in. When put to the test of war, the musketry of the German infantry is characterized by British officers as poor and “lamentable.”

4. British Musketry.—On the other hand, the German officer referred to in the footnote below described British musketry under the test of war as “marvellous,” and, in doing so, expressed the views generally held in the German Army as the result of experience. He states that the Germans had counted on being able to rush the British troops by weight of numbers by the plan of attack described in the next paragraph; but they found themselves unable to do so because the British rifle fire was “so straight and so quick.” He added that “they had never had a chance against the British,” because, although they reckoned on their third line with their machine-guns being able to get within 400 yards of the enemy, they had never been able to do this over open ground against the British, because their first line was down too soon—sometimes at 800 to 1,000 yards. Again, on the Aisne, this German officer’s machine-gun battery came under the concentrated fire of British infantry at 1,000 yards, and though his men suffered heavily from it, they were unable to reply to the British, as they were unable to see them.

5. A German Plan of Infantry Attack.—(i) The diagram on page ix gives a rough idea of a German plan of infantry attack in close formations, as explained by a German officer. The first line is looked on as cover from bullets for the second and third lines, to enable these two lines to get close to the enemy with the minimum of loss. The Germans considered massed formations to be the only way to get up close to the enemy. Both ranks of each line in these formations are close together. When their third line is stopped, they have standing orders to dig in at once, and for this purpose the third line carries shovels and small picks. It has already been explained that, owing to the tremendous effect of British musketry fire, this German plan of attack has repeatedly failed after very heavy loss has been incurred.

(ii) As regards fire effect, the Germans had considered the machine-gun to be the most valuable method of discharging bullets, and an enormous amount of time, trouble, and ammunition has been expended on machine-gun training, as well as upon their artillery, upon which they relied largely in their plan of attack. Notes referring to German machine-guns will be found in Machine-Gun Training of this series.

6. German Night Attacks.—(i) The enemy’s night attacks are made without scouts or advanced parties, and the advance is made with great rapidity. Infantry in trenches must always be ready to open a burst of rapid fire at a few seconds’ notice; so long as this can be done, there will be no chance of a trench being rushed. Supports should be in the cover-trenches, and, when the firing-line is attacked, should not fire, but rely on the bayonet.

Diagram showing a German Plan of Infantry Attack in Close Formations.

(ii) The Germans usually attack about 3 p.m. (winter) or at dusk, and then entrench during the night within 200 yards of our lines. They also take advantage of fog in the early morning. They make a little progress in this way, but it is slow work, and they have lost enormously, as already stated. They shoot badly with the rifle, and the effect of their fire is chiefly obtained by artillery and machine-guns.

7. Flares to illuminate Foreground at Night.—(i) No fixed apparatus can be set in the field for the reliable lighting of foreground at night which will survive a prolonged bombardment and bad weather, or admit of renewal or attention in the close presence of the enemy. This does not apply to electric searchlights employed in carefully chosen and protected sites in connection with harbour and fortress defences, nor to flares or bonfires set for the purpose of providing a single illumination for a given purpose, such as a signal or landmark.

(ii) For the temporary illumination of foreground during an engagement with the enemy, the best method is to employ hand and rifle “illumination grenades,” which ignite on impact with the ground upon the same principle as in the detonation of the explosive or fighting grenades. By this means temporary illumination can be concentrated at the exact points at which it is most required. In siege warfare or trench fighting at close quarters there is special use for a combined incendiary and illumination bomb or grenade fired from a trench mortar. These bombs would be charged with inflammable material and liquid, such as cotton waste in petrol, together with a small charge of explosive, which would ignite and scatter the contents freely upon impact.

8. British Infantry Formations in Attack—(i) Advance under Rifle or Machine-Gun Fire.—Small columns in what are known as “artillery formations” should never be adhered to when there is a possibility of their coming under close or medium range fire of infantry or machine-guns. Troops have suffered severely from insufficient extension, and the adoption of rigid lines, and also from pushing forward in close formations without taking the proper military precautions. Loose elastic formations adapted to the ground, with men at eight or ten paces interval, are the least vulnerable.

(ii) Advance under Artillery Fire.—Several times it has been necessary to advance under unsubdued artillery fire. Small columns at 50 yards’ interval and 300 yards’ distance have been found to be the best method of avoiding casualties. The 19th Brigade lying in the open in this formation were shelled by two batteries for half an hour, and had only twenty-five casualties.

9. Cover and Fields of Fire.—(i) Owing to the effect of German artillery fire, cover from view has become more important than field of fire. It is better to have a field of fire of 100 yards and to be invisible than to have one of 600 yards and be an easy target for artillery. Owing to the enemy’s artillery fire by day, digging is nearly always done at night, and this requires much practice. Some sort of rough cover from shrapnel and head cover is made if time allows, and also if it can be made without making the trench conspicuous.

(ii) Defensive Positions and Sites of Trenches.—Whenever possible, trenches should be sited so that they are not under artillery observation. This point is regarded as of great importance, and an extensive field of fire is a secondary consideration. Trenches should therefore be sited having regard to possible observation stations on ground occupied by the enemy, and not solely with regard to the possible artillery positions of the enemy. In open country it is better to select a “back position,” behind the crest of a hill, with a field of fire of 300 or 400 yards. This compels the enemy to expose his infantry to rifle and shrapnel fire, and affords his artillery little opportunity of observation. Such positions were held on the Aisne, with slight loss to our troops and heavy loss to the enemy. A field of fire of 100 yards is regarded as satisfactory if it cannot be increased without loss of concealment from artillery observation.

10. Care of Rifles.—(i) The following directions are issued with regard to the care of rifles on service. New rifles are inclined to work somewhat stiffly at first, owing to slight roughness of the bearing surfaces of the bolt and bolt-way. This can be appreciably lessened by frequent and systematic manipulation of the bolt, the bearing surfaces being well oiled. Primary extraction—the first loosening of the fired cartridge in the chamber—can be improved by placing a fired case in the chamber, and working the bolt-lever up and down without drawing back the bolt.

(ii) Rifles must be kept clean and well oiled, and it has been found necessary to make an inspection daily or even oftener. Particular care must be taken to see that the chamber is scrupulously clean. If it is permitted to become dirty, great difficulty in extraction is likely to be experienced. It has also been found that cartridges get rusted into their clips, and that they should be moved at least weekly. Magazine springs may also become weak, if the magazine is continually kept loaded with ten instead of five rounds.

11. Conclusion.—(i) Up to the present the tactics of the enemy and the conditions of warfare of the campaign on the Continent have resulted as a rule in giving the infantryman fairly short fields of fire and more or less visible targets. This has accentuated the value of rapid, accurate fire within close range, to which particular attention should be paid in training men. On the other hand, when opportunity has afforded, the value of fire direction and control has been demonstrated by the effect of British rifle fire beyond close range.

(ii) The principles of training laid down in the Musketry Regulations and in this book as a whole should, therefore, be adhered to and carried out systematically. Above all, the sound principles that troops should be trained to make the best possible use of their weapons, not only at one but at all ranges of the battlefield, and that they should be trained to adapt their instruction to a variety of conditions, and not to any given conditions, should be observed faithfully. The correct application of general principles to the ever-varying circumstances of warfare should be the object of any sound system of military training.

(iii) The following subjects of training may be mentioned as being especially important in relation to the present campaign:

1. Rapid fire.

2. Entrenching, especially in the dark.

3. Cover from view of artillery for the trenches.

4. Bringing enfilade fire to bear on enemy’s trenches whenever possible.

5. Skilful use of machine-guns. Infantry must be careful when advancing that an enemy’s machine-gun is not hidden on the flank ready to open enfilade fire. Some regiments have lost very heavily from being caught in this way.

O’M. CREAGH.

London, 1915.

DEFINITIONS OF TECHNICAL TERMS AND MILITARY VOCABULARY

I. DEFINITIONS.

Aiming-Off.—Altering the point of aim laterally, so as to give deflection to the rifle-barrel without using the wind-gauge.

Aiming Point.—The point in any target at which aim is taken, forming the extremity of the line of sight.

Aiming Up and Down.—Altering the point of aim vertically so as to give more or less elevation to the rifle-barrel without altering the sight.

Angle of Descent.—Angle at which the bullet falls to the ground at the end of its flight (Figs. 4 and 5).

Application.—An elementary musketry practice, designed to illustrate methods of correcting aim or sighting in accordance with observation or signals from the butts.

Approximation of Scoring Rings.—Concentric rings marked on an instructional target and possessing various values which afford a simple means of comparing the shooting errors of individuals, but having no relation to the vulnerable surfaces of the ordinary service targets.

Axis of the Barrel.—The axis of the barrel is an imaginary line following the centre of the bore from breech to muzzle ([Fig. 2]).

Beaten Zone.—Area of ground beaten by a cone of fire ([Fig. 6]).

Bull’s Eye.—A circular aiming-mark of varying size used in elementary training for grouping practice, with the object of eliminating all sources of error other than that of bad holding.

Concentration of Fire.—The directing of fire on one particular portion of the enemy’s line. Its value lies in the demoralizing effect it produces owing to the heavy loss it inflicts at the point at which it is directed ([Fig. 48]).

Covered Approach.—Ground and natural or artificial cover which screens movement towards an objective from the enemy’s view.

Culminating Point.—The culminating point is the greatest height above the line of sight to which the bullet rises in its flight; this is reached at a point a little beyond half the distance to which the bullet travels.

Dangerous Space.—The dangerous space for any particular range is the distance between the first catch and the first graze ([Fig. 4]).

Dead Ground.—Any ground on which troops cannot be struck by missiles fired by defenders of a position owing to the formation of the intervening ground ([Fig. 10]).

Deflection.—The inclination of the rifle-barrel laterally with reference to the line of sight, counteracting the effect of wind, drift, or other influence which tends to force the bullet out of a straight path.

Description Points.—Ground and its natural or artificial features used for indication of targets (Figs. 49-51).

Distribution of Fire.—The method of directing fire so that it may be scattered over several objects ([Fig. 48]).

Elevation.—The inclination of the rifle-barrel vertically with reference to the line of sight, necessitated by the downward influence exercised on the bullet by the force of gravity.

Error of the Day.—A term used to include errors in shooting due to miscalculation of atmospheric influences, such as wind, temperature, etc.

Error of the Rifle.—Any error inherent in a rifle, independent of any error due to the want of skill of the firer.

Fire, Kinds of—

Collective Fire.—The fire of several rifles combined for a definite purpose under the orders of a fire-leader. Such fire skilfully directed and well controlled may produce good effect up to 1,400 yards.

Converging Fire.—Fire aimed at one target from different points.

Covering Fire.—Fire delivered from the rear or flank by a special body of troops to keep down the fire of the attacked during the advance of the attacking body. It also includes fire delivered by portions of a line with a view to assisting the advance of the remainder ([Fig. 48]).

Effective Fire.—Fire which has the desired result upon the target.

Enfilade Fire.—Fire which sweeps a line of troops or defences from a flank ([Fig. 48]).

Frontal Fire.—Fire which is delivered directly to the front.

Grazing Fire.—When the angle of the fall of the bullets (see Trajectory) is the same as the slope of the ground and the missiles sweep along its surface the fire is called grazing ([Fig. 9]).

Individual Fire.—Fire opened without orders from a fire-leader. On account of the difficulty of observation 600 yards may be taken as the limit of effective fire of this nature against small targets.

Indirect Fire.—Indirect fire is fire directed by means of auxiliary aiming-marks at an objective which is invisible to the firer ([Fig. 48]).

Masked Fire.—Troops (guns or rifles) in a position whence they could employ fire effectively against an enemy, but for the fear of causing casualties to their comrades, are said to have their fire masked by these latter troops.

Oblique Fire.—Fire directed on a target in a slanting direction—i.e. not directly to the front ([Fig. 48]).

Rapid Fire.—Fire delivered as quickly as the nature of the rifle admits.

Reverse Fire.—Fire so directed that the bullets strike the target in rear ([Fig. 48]).

Searching Fire.—Searching is the term applied to collective fire when the depth of its dispersion over a beaten zone is increased by the use of combined sights ([Fig. 7]).

Sweeping Fire.—Sweeping fire is fire distributed laterally ([Fig. 48]).

Unaimed Fire.—Unaimed fire is fire directed at a visible objective which strikes another objective to the rear of it ([Fig. 48]).

Fire Control.—Fire control is the duty of junior officers and non-commissioned officers, and consists in giving ranges to and pointing out targets to the fire-units, and seeing that their men adjust their sights to the range given. It further consists in regulating the volume of fire, the accurate passing of all orders and information, and in the cavalry and infantry the collecting of ammunition from casualties and its redistribution.

Fire Discipline.—The training of men so that they will instinctively carry out all orders of fire-unit commanders, and in the absence of orders adjust their sights and fire with due regard to the tactical situation.

Fire Effect.—The effect on the target resulting from the fire aimed at it.

Fire Fight.—The struggle for fire superiority.

Fire Position.—Positions from which fire is opened during the advance of an attacking force; during the early stages of the advance with a view to gaining ground, in the latter stages with a view to gaining a superiority of fire.

Fire-Unit.—A unit, the fire of which is controlled by one commander. The normal cavalry and infantry fire-unit is the troop and section respectively.

Firing-Line.—In extended formations the line of troops from which the main body of fire is delivered.

Firing-Position.—The position, standing, kneeling, lying, etc., adopted for firing, according to circumstances.

First Catch.—The first catch is that point where the bullet has descended sufficiently to strike the head of a man, whether mounted, standing, kneeling, lying, etc. ([Fig. 4], A).

First Graze.—The first graze is the point where the bullet, if not interfered with, will first strike the ground ([Fig. 4], B).

Group, Grouping, or Diagram of Group.—The pattern made on a vertical target by a series of shots fired by an individual or the pattern made on a horizontal surface by concentrated collective fire.

Grouping.—An elementary musketry practice designed to test and standardize holding and the accuracy of rifles, and to expose constant errors in aiming.

Holding.—The form of skill required in order to press the trigger without disturbing the aim.

Inclined Sights.—A common fault in aiming-failure to keep the sights upright.

Line of Departure.—The line of departure is the direction of the bullet on leaving the muzzle—i.e., the prolongation of the axis of the barrel ([Fig. 2]).

Line of Fire.—The line of fire is a line joining the muzzle of the rifle and the target ([Fig. 2]).

Line of Sight.—The line of sight is a straight line passing through the sights and the point aimed at ([Fig. 2]).

Marking Down.—Noting the exact position of an enemy seen to occupy ground or cover.

Mutual Support.—The fire of one unit directed at the enemy to cover and assist the movement of another unit ([Fig. 48]). Also individual soldiers working in pairs to assist each other in firing.

Observation.—Watching the effect of fire on the target with a view to correction or verification of sighting, either by watching for the dust thrown up by bullets or the behaviour of the enemy.

Permissible Error.—Error made in estimating range which does not render fire ineffective.

Ranges, Terms applied to.

Collective Fire.—The fire of several rifles combined for a definite purpose under the orders of a fire-leader. Such fire skilfully directed and well controlled may produce good effect up to 1,400 yards.

Converging Fire.—Fire aimed at one target from different points.

Covering Fire.—Fire delivered from the rear or flank by a special body of troops to keep down the fire of the attacked during the advance of the attacking body. It also includes fire delivered by portions of a line with a view to assisting the advance of the remainder ([Fig. 48]).

Effective Fire.—Fire which has the desired result upon the target.

Enfilade Fire.—Fire which sweeps a line of troops or defences from a flank ([Fig. 48]).

Frontal Fire.—Fire which is delivered directly to the front.

Grazing Fire.—When the angle of the fall of the bullets (see Trajectory) is the same as the slope of the ground and the missiles sweep along its surface the fire is called grazing ([Fig. 9]).

Individual Fire.—Fire opened without orders from a fire-leader. On account of the difficulty of observation 600 yards may be taken as the limit of effective fire of this nature against small targets.

Indirect Fire.—Indirect fire is fire directed by means of auxiliary aiming-marks at an objective which is invisible to the firer ([Fig. 48]).

Masked Fire.—Troops (guns or rifles) in a position whence they could employ fire effectively against an enemy, but for the fear of causing casualties to their comrades, are said to have their fire masked by these latter troops.

Oblique Fire.—Fire directed on a target in a slanting direction—i.e. not directly to the front ([Fig. 48]).

Rapid Fire.—Fire delivered as quickly as the nature of the rifle admits.

Reverse Fire.—Fire so directed that the bullets strike the target in rear ([Fig. 48]).

Searching Fire.—Searching is the term applied to collective fire when the depth of its dispersion over a beaten zone is increased by the use of combined sights ([Fig. 7]).

Sweeping Fire.—Sweeping fire is fire distributed laterally ([Fig. 48]).

Unaimed Fire.—Unaimed fire is fire directed at a visible objective which strikes another objective to the rear of it ([Fig. 48]).

Recruit (Musketry).—A man who has not completed Table A (the recruit’s course of musketry).

Sector.—A portion of frontage allotted to a fire-unit for the purposes of observation and fire action.

Snapshooting.—Firing the most accurate possible shot in the shortest possible time.

Superiority of Fire.—The means of pouring a more destructive fire into the enemy than he can bring to bear on you. Under ordinary conditions a necessity prior to the bayonet charge.

Target, Crossing.—A target moving across the front of the firer obliquely or at right angles.

Target, Service.—The various targets of battle.

Trained Soldier (Musketry).—A man who has completed Table A (the recruit’s course of musketry).

Trajectory.—The curved line a bullet or other projectile follows in its flight. This is dependent on the explosion of the charge which drives the bullet forward, gravity which draws the bullet towards the earth, and the resistance of the air which retards the velocity of the bullet ([Fig. 2]).

II. MILITARY VOCABULARY FOR INDICATION AND RECOGNITION OF TARGETS.

Arable Land.—Ground under cultivation other than pasture or grass land.

Brook.—A small stream.

Causeway.—A made road or path, raised by artificial means above the level of the surrounding country.

Clearing.—Where trees and undergrowth have been cut down in a wood, so as to make an open space.

Cliff.—A high, steep rock.

Col.—A gap or break in a ridge of hills, often traversed by a road, which thus avoids to a great extent the ascent and descent otherwise necessary in passing from one side of the ridge to the other. This term is also used to describe the narrow ridge often seen joining a hill to a main chain of hills.

Copse (or Coppice).—A small wood, composed of young trees and undergrowth for cutting.

Crest-Line.—Where the top of a hill or mountain appears to meet the sky.

Cross-Roads.—The point where one road crosses another.

Culvert.—A watercourse arched over with brickwork or masonry, generally under a road or railway.

Cutting.—An excavation through which a railway line runs.

Dense Hedge.—Growing closely together.

Donga.—A South African term, meaning a dry watercourse, bordered by steep and high banks.

Embankment.—Earth banked up above the natural height of the surrounding country, to preserve the level of a railway line.

Fenced.—Bounded by a fence, hedge, wall, etc.

Fencing.—A structure, enclosing a piece of land or separating it from another piece.

Ferry.—A place where a river or other piece of water may be crossed by means of a boat kept at the spot for the purpose.

Fold in Ground.—A slight hollow, caused by the regular lie of the ground being broken by a rise or depression.

Foliage.—The leaves of trees, shrubs, etc.

Ford.—A shallow place in a stream where it may be crossed by wading.

Gorge.—A rugged and deep ravine.

Hollow.—A depression in the ground.

Junction of Roads.—The point where two or more roads meet, but do not cross one another.

Knoll.—A low hill standing by itself.

Level Crossing.—Where a road or path crosses a railway-line at the same level.

Marshland.—Low-lying, wet land, covered usually with rushes and rank vegetation.

Moorland.—Waste land covered with heath, and having a poor, peaty soil.

Nullah.—An Indian term, meaning a dry watercourse bordered by steep and high banks.

Palings.—Narrow pieces of wood nailed closely together upon rails so as to form a fence.

Pastureland.—Grassland.

Plantation.—A small wood, composed of trees recently planted.

Ploughland.—Land which has recently been ploughed.

Posts and Rails.—A fence composed of posts, with one end sunk in the ground, connected by rails.

Quarry.—An excavation from which stone has been extracted.

Ravine.—A deep hollow in a hill or mountain side.

Ridge.—Anything shaped like the back of an animal. For instance, the highest part of a long range of hills or the angular top of the roof of a building.

Ridge and Furrow.—Land ploughed in such a manner that the ground lies alternately heaped up (ridge) and hollowed out (furrow).

River Bank, Right, Left.—The right or left bank of a river is the bank on the right or left of an observer facing down the stream.

Saddle.—A shallow, central dip in a ridge. The depression is less marked than a col.

Scrub.—Stunted trees and bushes growing closely together.

Shrub.—A small bushy tree.

Signal—Box or Cabin.—A small building adjoining a railway-line, from which a set of signals is controlled.

Sky-Line.—Where earth or sea appear to meet the sky.

Slope, Concave.—A slope is concave when the actual slope of a hill offers no obstruction to an observer standing on the crest from seeing the foot of the slope. In this case the upper slopes of the hill are steeper than the lower slopes.

Slope, Convex.—A slope is convex when an observer standing on the crest is unable, through the slope of the hill bulging out, to see the foot of the slope. It is caused by the lower slopes being of a steeper nature than the upper slopes, and is met with especially in chalk downs.

Slope, Forward.—One that falls away in the direction an observer is looking.

Slope, Gentle.—This term explains itself.

Slope, Reverse.—One that falls away behind the spot where the observer is standing.

Slope, Steep.—This term explains itself.

Spur.—A ridge running out from a hill or from range of hills.

Stream.— Any course of flowing water.

Sunken Road.—A road that has been cut below the level of the surrounding country.

Swamp.—Land so saturated with wet bog as to be useless for cultivation.

Thicket.—A small wood, composed of bushes and undergrowth.

Track.—An unmade path, which is marked by use.

Undergrowth.—Small trees, brambles, creepers, etc., in a wood.

Viaduct.—A road or railway carried by a series of arches over a valley, river, etc.

Note.—The figures at the hinges of pages refer to the Sections.

MUSKETRY

CHAPTER I
THE CARE AND CLEANING OF ARMS[3]

Section 1.—General Remarks.

1. Responsibility for Care of Arms.—Officers commanding companies are responsible for the condition of the arms in their charge, and for instructing their men in the use of the gauze, so that no unnecessary wear of the bore may result through its misuse.

2. Defects.—Commanding officers will report in the Regimental Annual Return any defects in the machine guns, rifles, or ammunition in their charge which have not been remedied satisfactorily.

3. Instruction in Care and Cleaning of Arms.—(i) The soldier’s training in musketry will commence with instruction, the object of which is to give him a thorough knowledge of the different parts of the weapon with which he is armed. Classes consisting of squads or small numbers will be formed for this purpose under a competent instructor. The construction of the rifle, the nature, function, and names of its different component parts, its action in loading, firing, unloading, and the use of the magazine, will be explained to men, both verbally and by practical demonstration. The parts of the rifle should be shown separately, and then assembled before the class to explain its construction. Instructors should ascertain, by asking the class questions on different points, that each man has thoroughly understood what he has been taught, and possesses a practical knowledge of his weapon. The illustrations in Appendix, I., show the various parts of the different service rifles, and give their names.

(ii) When he has attained this knowledge, the soldier will be taught by means of short lectures how to take care of his weapon, reduce the wear and tear to which it is subjected in ordinary use, and guard it from unnecessary wear and tear and damage from various causes. Finally, the soldier must be taught both by demonstration and practice how to clean his weapon properly without causing damage to it in doing so. Information on these points will be found in this chapter.

Section 2.—Wear and Fouling.

1. Wear.—(i) Wear in the bore of a rifle is due to three causes: (a) the friction of the bullet; (b) the heat generated when ammunition is fired; and (c) the friction of the pull-through gauze when the bore is being cleaned. When care is used in cleaning, 5,000 to 6,000 rounds can be fired from a rifle before it becomes unserviceable.

(ii) Undue Wear.—Undue wear is caused by improper and unnecessary use of the pull-through gauze, to prevent which it is most important that the instructions for cleaning be adhered to. It may be necessary to modify these instructions to suit local climatic conditions, or particular rifles which are in a bad state of preservation.

(iii) When a rifle barrel is new, the interior of the bore carries a high polish, and this is a great safeguard against rust and metallic fouling, but as the bore becomes worn, this polish will diminish. Efforts to restore it with wire gauze on the pull-through result in unnecessary wear. In a well-cared-for rifle, while the brilliancy of the polish will diminish, the lands of the bore should always be bright and free from all stain of rust or fouling.

2. Fouling.—(i) Fouling is of two kinds: (a) Internal, probably caused by the forcing of gas or harmful material into the pores of the metal; (b) Superficial, caused by the deposit in the bore of the solid products of combustion of the charge and of the cap composition. The result of neglect in either case is the formation of rust in the bore, and, as a consequence, corroded barrels, calling for the excessive use of wire gauze, or even more drastic treatment, thereby causing unnecessary wear.

(ii) Internal Fouling.—Internal fouling can be removed satisfactorily by the use of boiling water [Sec. 4, para. 6 (ii)]. If for any reason this method of cleaning cannot be used, the barrel will “sweat,” and a hard black crust of fouling will appear in the bore. This will turn to red rust if not removed, and the rifle will then require repeated cleaning with flannelette, and probably with gauze, for a time, which will vary according to climatic conditions and the state of the bore.

(iii) Superficial Fouling.—Superficial fouling is readily removed, when warm, by the use of a pull-through and flannelette, but if it is allowed to remain long in the barrel, it will become hard and will have a corrosive effect equal to that produced by internal fouling.

3. Nickelling.—The appearance of nickelling, or metallic fouling, should be watched for. It is caused by a portion of the cupro-nickel of the envelope of the bullet being left on the surface of the bore, and appears as a whitish streak on the lands, or as a slight roughness on the edge of the grooves. If it is deposited near the muzzle or the breech, it is visible to the eye when the bore is clean, but in the centre of the bore it can only be detected by the use of the gauge plug. It is a cause of inaccuracy, and if a rifle for no apparent reason shoots badly, its presence should be looked for as a possible explanation. The soldier will make no attempt to remove it himself, but will hand his rifle to the armourer, or other qualified person, to be cleaned.

Section 3.—Materials used for Cleaning Arms.

1. Pull-Through ([Fig. 1]).—(i) A pull-through fitted with a weight, and an oil-bottle to contain Russian petroleum, are carried in the recess in the butt of the rifle. The pull-through is made with three loops. The first—i.e., nearest the weight—is for the gauze when used; the second for the flannelette; the third is provided merely as a means of withdrawing the pull-through in case of a jamb. Neither flannelette nor gauze should be placed in this loop. When signs of wear appear, a new cord should be supplied, to avoid the risk of the pull-through breaking in the rifle. If a breakage does occur, the rifle must be at once taken to the armourer. No attempt should be made by the soldier to remove the obstruction.

(ii) Packing the Pull-Through.—The pull-through is packed above the oil-bottle as follows: Hold the pull-through (loop end) between the forefinger and thumb of the left hand, so that the end falls about 2 inches below the third finger; roll it loosely three times round the first three fingers. Slip the coil off the fingers, and lap it tightly with the remainder of the cord, leaving sufficient to allow the weight to drop easily into the recess in the butt. Push the cord into the trap, leaving the loop end uppermost, drop the weight into the recess, and drop the trap.

2. Use of the Pull-Through.—(i) Remove the bolt from the rifle, and in order to insure the gradual compression of the gauze, if used, and of the flannelette, drop the weight through the bore from breech to muzzle. The pull-through should be drawn through in one motion, otherwise the spot where the flannelette is allowed to rest while a fresh grip of the cord is being taken will not be properly cleaned. Very great care must be taken not to allow the cord to rub against the muzzle, otherwise a groove, technically known as cord wear, will be cut, which in course of time will destroy the accuracy of the rifle.

Wire Gauze folded

Section

Wire Gauze on Pull-through

Fig. 1.

(ii) Flannelette.—Only regulation flannelette is to be used. When cleaning or drying the bore after washing out with water, a piece of dry flannelette large enough to fit the bore tightly (about 4 inches by 2 inches) should be placed in the second loop of the pull-through. For oiling the bore, a slightly smaller piece of oily flannelette, which will fit the bore loosely, should be used. Care must be taken not to use too much oil, as it will be squeezed out of the flannelette at the entrance to the bore, and will run down into the bolt when the rifle is placed in the rack, and may then cause miss-fires.

(iii) Caution.—The use of two single pull-throughs attached to one another, so as to make a double one, is strictly forbidden, because this practice has been found to produce “cord-worn” barrels.

3. (i) Wire Gauze ([Fig. 1]).—Wire gauze in pieces 2½ inches by 1½ inches is supplied, and should be used for the removal of hard fouling or of rust. In attaching it to the pull-through, the following method should be adopted: Turn the shorter sides of the gauze towards the upper, so that the longer sides take the form of the letter S. Open the first loop of the pull-through, and put one side of it in each loop of the S. Then coil each half of the gauze tightly round that portion of the cord over which it is placed till the two rolls thus formed meet. The gauze must be oiled thoroughly before use to prevent its scratching the bore.

(ii) Object of Gauze.—The object of the gauze is mainly to scour out the grooves, and it should therefore fit the bore tightly. When it fails to do this, it should be unrolled partially, and packed with paper or flannelette to increase its bulk.

(iii) Use of Gauze.—Grit must be removed from the gauze and pull-through before use. Cleaning with gauze entails wear of the bore of the rifle. Gauze should not be pulled through the barrel more often than three or four times without sufficient cause. The surest way of preventing the necessity for the continued use of gauze is to keep the bore well oiled so as to prevent rust. A barrel which has become rusty will always be more liable to rust than one which has been kept in good condition. It will therefore require more attention and more frequent cleaning with gauze. Similarly, a barrel in which erosion has commenced will require more care than one of which the surface has not been attacked, for, the eroded portion being rough, moisture is more likely to collect on it and form rust. It is also more difficult to remove rust thoroughly from a rough surface than from a smooth one.

4. Oil.—No oil other than Russian petroleum should be allowed to remain in the bore. The function of this oil is to cover the bore with a waterproof film, and thus prevent moisture attacking the steel and forming rust. It must be well worked into the flannelette with the fingers, otherwise it will be scraped off by the breech end of the barrel. When paraffin has been used, all traces of it should be removed thoroughly, and the bore coated with Russian petroleum, for paraffin, though an efficient agent for removing rust, does not prevent its formation.

5. Caution.—No gritty or cutting material, such as emery powder or bath brick, is to be used for cleaning any part of the rifle.

Section 4.—Instructions for Cleaning Arms.

1. To Remove the Bolt.—Raise the knob as far as it will go, draw back the bolt-head to the resisting shoulder, and release it from the retaining spring. Raise the bolt-head as far as possible (in the short rifle, Marks I, I*, II, and II*, draw back the charger guide, then turn the bolt-head to the left), and remove the bolt.

2. To Replace the Bolt.—(i) See that the resisting lug and cocking-piece are in a straight line, and the bolt-head screwed home. Place the bolt in the body with the extractor upwards, and press it forward until the head is clear of the resisting shoulder (in the short rifle, Marks I, I*, II, and II*, turn the head to the right, then push the charger guide forward as far as possible). Turn the head downwards until it is caught by the retaining spring. Close the breech, and press the trigger.

(ii) In some rifles, the bolt can be replaced and closed with the bolt-head unscrewed a whole turn. It cannot, however, be closed with the bolt-head in this position if there is a cartridge in the chamber. The greatest care should therefore be taken to see that the bolt-head is screwed fully home before the bolt is placed in the rifle.

3. Daily Cleaning.—The outside of the rifle will be cleaned daily, and all parts of the action wiped with an oily rag. The bore of the rifle will always be left oily, but once a week this oil will be removed and the bore relubricated. In the case of rifles that have once become rusty, the bore will be wiped out with flannelette and reoiled daily, and it will, in addition, be cleaned once a week with the gauze on the pull-through. The gauze is to be packed as already stated, so as to fit the bore tightly.

4. Cleaning before Firing.—(i) The action will be wiped with an oily rag, and all traces of oil will be removed from the bore and chamber by the use of a pull-through which has no gauze on it.

(ii) Caution.—Neither the cartridge nor the chamber of the rifle are on any account to be oiled before loading, nor is any other form of lubricant to be used with a view to facilitate the extraction of the empty case. Such a procedure greatly increases the thrust on the bolt-head due to the explosion of the charge, and is liable to injure the rifle.

5. Cleaning after Firing.—(i) Arms will be cleaned immediately after firing. The fouling can be removed easily while it is still warm, and before it has had time to set hard; while the less the time allowed for the fouling to exercise its power of absorbing moisture from the air, the less chance is there of rust forming. If it is impossible to clean the rifle at once, an oily rag should be pulled through the bore, and the rifle should be cleaned at the earliest opportunity.

(ii) After firing Blank Ammunition.—After firing blank ammunition, special care should be taken that the cleaning is thorough, as, although there is no friction between bullet and bore, and so no internal fouling or “sweating,” there is greater accumulation of superficial fouling from blank than ball cartridge. This is due to the fact that there is no bullet in blank ammunition to scour the fouling left by the preceding round. The firing also is in most cases more prolonged, and a greater interval most usually elapse before the rifle can be cleaned thoroughly. When blank firing precedes practice with ball, the rifles will be cleaned carefully before ball practice commences.

6. Cleaning the Bore.—(i) The following method of cleaning the bore should be adopted. Thoroughly oil the gauze to prevent it scratching the surface of the metal. Drop the weight of the pull-through through the bore from the breech, and pull the gauze through three or four times. Then place a tightly fitting piece of dry flannelette in the second loop of the pull-through, and draw it through till the bore is clean. Finally oil the bore with a loosely fitting piece of flannelette, using enough oil to cover the bore thoroughly. The rifle will be cleaned in this manner for three days following that on which it was fired.

(ii) Use of Boiling Water.—An effective means of cleaning the bore, whether firing has taken place or not, is found in the use of boiling water. Before boiling water is used superficial fouling and grease should be removed. About 5 or 6 pints should be poured through the bore from the breech, using a funnel to prevent its entering the body or magazine. The rifle should then be dried thoroughly and the bore oiled. Not only does the boiling water remove the fouling, but the expansion of the metal due to the heat of the water loosens any rust there may be, and facilitates its removal.

7. Cleaning the Action and Exterior—(i) Bolt.—Thoroughly clean the bolt, paying particular attention to the face of the bolt-head, the striker point, and the extractor. If the bolt requires cleaning inside it will be taken to the armourer.

(ii) Magazine.—See that the recess for the extractor spring is clear of dirt. Take out the magazine and wipe the inside of the body and the entrance to the chamber with an oily rag. Remove all dirt from the slots in the charger guide and from the extractor recess in the front of the body. Take out the magazine platform if required, and clean the inside of the magazine with a dry rag.

(iii) Exterior.—Wipe the exterior of the rifle with an oily rag, seeing that the U of the backsight, the hole in the aperture-sight, the gas escape holes, and, in the short rifle, the rack on the side of the leaf, are free from dirt. Remove any fouling which has collected on the bayonet boss on the nose-cap. If allowed to accumulate, this may cause difficulty in fixing the bayonet.

(iv) Caution.—The instructions regarding the use of an oily rag for cleaning the bolts and bodies will not apply in dusty countries, where all parts of the action will be kept dry and clean.

8. Cleaning ·22-inch Rifles and Aiming-Tubes.—(i) As a foul rifle shoots very inaccurately it is of the utmost importance, from considerations of safety, that the barrel should be wiped out frequently during use.

(ii) Rod and Brush.—The rod and brush should be inserted from the breech end. Under no circumstances should they be inserted from the muzzle, as the friction of the rod is liable to enlarge the bore and make the muzzle bell-mouthed, thus causing inaccuracy.

Section 5.—Instructions for Care of Arms and Ammunition.

1. Care of Arms.—(i) When the rifle is not in use, the leaf and slide of the backsight should be lowered to avoid the risk of damage from a blow or fall. No non-commissioned officer or soldier is permitted to take to pieces any portion of the action, except as prescribed for cleaning, nor is he allowed to loosen or tighten any of the screws, unless authorized to do so by his company commander.

(ii) Mainspring.—The mainspring should never be allowed to remain compressed, except when the rifle is loaded, as the spring will thereby be weakened. The position of the cocking-piece shows whether the mainspring is compressed or not.

(iii) Pull-off.—The pull-off is the amount of pressure which is required to release the nose of the sear from the full bent of the cocking-piece; it should not be heavier than 6 nor lighter than 5 pounds in the short rifle, and not heavier than 7 nor lighter than 5 pounds in other rifles. Defects in the pull-off should be remedied by the armourer only.

(iv) Magazine.—The magazine must not be removed from the rifle except for cleaning purposes, and, to avoid weakening the spring, cartridges should only be kept in it when necessary. A failure of the spring to raise the platform can usually be overcome by tapping the bottom of the magazine smartly with the palm of the hand. If the failure recurs, the rifle should be taken to the armourer for examination and repair.

(v) Bolt.—The bolts of rifles are not to be exchanged. Each bolt is carefully fitted to its own rifle, so that the parts which take the shock of the explosion have an even bearing, and the use of a wrong bolt will affect the accuracy of the rifle. The number stamped on the back of the bolt lever should agree with that stamped on the right front of the body.

(vi) Browning.—Care should be taken to prevent the browning being rubbed off the rifle.

(vii) Cover In Dusty Countries.—In dusty countries it may be found necessary to cover the muzzle and bolt with a cover of khaki or other suitable material, to prevent the dust gaining access to the interior of the rifle, but anything in the nature of a plug in the muzzle is expressly prohibited.

(viii) Removal of Oil.—The oil will only be removed from the bore of the rifle—

(a) Immediately before firing.

(b) For inspection, which, except after firing, should not as a rule be more often than once a week.

(c) For parades and duties as may be ordered by the commanding officer.

In all cases it will be replaced as soon as possible.

2. Bayonets.—After firing with bayonets fixed, the bayonet should be carefully wiped before it is returned to the scabbard. All oil should be removed from the blade before placing a bayonet in the scabbard.

3. Care of Ammunition.—(i) Ammunition should be kept perfectly dry and clean, and should not be exposed to extremes of temperature.

(ii) Miss-Fires.—A miss-fire arises from—

(a) A defective cartridge.
(b) A defective rifle.

In case (a) the cartridge will be tried in another rifle, and, if it still fails to fire, a report will be made in accordance with the instructions contained in the King’s Regulations. In case (b) the rifle will be taken to the armourer for examination.

Section 6.—Examination of Small Arms.

1. Instruction of Officers.—It is necessary for all company officers and sergeants to possess a competent technical knowledge of the inspection, care, and preservation of small arms. Commanding officers will therefore arrange that they shall be instructed annually by the regimental armourer in repairing faults most likely to occur in the field with such tools as would be available, and in the examination of the various components as directed in the following paragraphs:

2. Examination of M.L.M. Rifles.—(i) The interior of the barrel for rusts and cuts.

(ii) (a) The backsight leaf for firmness of joint; that it is not bent; that the slide moves smoothly and fits firmly on the leaf; that the V is not deformed; and that the lines on the slide are clearly marked.

(b) The foresight; that the barleycorn is not deformed.

(iii) The aperture and dial sights; that they are not bent, and work smoothly.

(iv) The bolt cover; for security on the bolt and clearance of the body.

(v) The cocking-piece; for firmness on the striker, that the bents are in good condition, and that the sear nose bears properly.

(vi) The sear; for height of the nose, which should just clear the bottom of the resisting lug on the bolt.

(vii) The butt; that the stock-bolt is properly screwed up.

Note.—In arms marked “2” on the right of the butt, and at the socket of the fore-end, the latter must be removed before attempting to turn the stock-bolt. In screwing it home the precautions prescribed in sub-para. xvii will be carefully observed.

(viii) The cocking-piece and striker; that they fly forward freely on pressing the trigger.

(ix) The striker-point; that it is the correct shape and projects sufficiently through the face of the bolt-head.

(x) The magazine; that it is not dented, and that the platform works freely.

3. Examination of M.L.E. Rifles.—The same as for rifles M.L.M., with the following addition:

(xi) Safety-catch; that the bolt of the safety-catch engages in the slots in the extension at the end of the bolt.

M.L.E. Charger-Loading Rifles.—The same as (i), (iii), (v), (vi), (vii), (viii), (ix), (x), and (xi), with the following additions:

(xii) (a) The backsight leaf, for firmness of the joint; that it is not bent; that the slide moves freely; that the clamping screw engages properly; that the windgauge fits firmly; and that the U is not deformed.

(b) The foresight; that the blade is not deformed.

4. Examination of Short, M.L.E., Marks I and I* and Converted Marks II and II* Rifles.—The same as (i), (iii), (v), (vi), (viii), (ix), and (x), M.L.M. Rifles, with the following additions:

(xiii) (a) The backsight leaf, for firmness of the joint; that it is not bent; that the fine adjustment and windgauge fit firmly; that the slides move smoothly; that the catches engage in the racks on both sides of the leaf; and that the V is not deformed.

(b) The foresight; that the barleycorn is not deformed.

(xiv) The bolt; that the striker is not too free on the cocking-piece, and that it is not screwed too far into the latter; also that the striker keeper nut-screw (or the striker keeper-screw if fitted) is not broken, and that the nut is in its proper position.

(xv) The bolt-head; that the charger guide is not too loose on the bolt-head; that it works smoothly; and that the top screw is intact.

(xvi) The safety-catch and locking-bolt; that the safety-catch engages in the camway of the bolt and locks it; that it does not move too easily; and that the cocking-piece is withdrawn slightly to the rear when the locking-bolt is applied, whether it is at “full cock” or the “fired” position.

(xvii) The butt; that it is not loose. If the stock-bolt requires screwing up to tighten the butt, the fore-end must first be removed. On reassembling, great care will be taken that the square end of the stock-bolt which protrudes through the socket of the body is in the correct vertical position, so that it may enter the keeper-plate properly when the fore-end is replaced. On replacing the fore-end, see that the fore-end stud and spring, where fitted, are in proper position; the front guard and inner band-screws must be tightened carefully.

5. Examination of Short, M.L.E., Mark III, and Converted Mark IV Rifles.—The same as (i), (iii), (vi), (viii), (ix), (x), (xiv), (xvi), and (xvii), with the following additions:

(xviii) (a) The backsight leaf, for firmness of the joint; that it is not bent; that the windgauge fits firmly; that the slide moves smoothly, that the thumb-piece and fine adjustment worm work freely and engage in the rack on the side of the leaf; and that the U is not deformed.

(b) The foresight; that the blade is not deformed.

6. Drill Purpose Rifles.—These instructions apply also to Drill Purpose rifles. As these are used for the instruction of recruits in aiming, particular attention should be paid to the state of the sights.

Section 7.—Inspection of Arms on Parade.

1. For Inspection—Port Arms.—Cant the rifle, muzzle leading, with the right hand smartly across the body, guard to the left and downwards, the barrel crossing opposite the point of the left shoulder, and meet it at the same time with the left hand close behind the backsight, thumb and fingers round the rifle, the left wrist to be opposite the left breast, both elbows close to the body.

Turn the safety-catch completely over to the front with the thumb or forefinger of the right hand (with Lee-Enfield or Lee-Metford rifle, lower the safety-catch with the thumb of the right hand). Pull out the cut-off if closed, first pressing it downwards with the thumb, then seize the knob with the forefinger and thumb of the right hand, turn it sharply upwards, and draw back the bolt to its full extent, then grasp the butt with the right hand immediately behind the bolt, thumb pointing to the muzzle.

Note.—A squad, before being inspected, will receive the command Rear Rank, One Pace Step Back—March.

2. To Ease Springs and come to the Order—Ease Springs.—From the position described above, work the bolt rapidly backwards and forwards until all cartridges are removed from the magazine and chamber,[4] allowing them to fall to the ground, then close the breech (with Lee-Enfield or Lee-Metford rifle, the cut-off should first be closed), press the trigger, close the cut-off by placing the right hand over the bolt, and, pressing the cut-off inwards, turn the safety-catch over to the rear, and return the hand to the small.

Or, if the Magazine is Charged—

Lock-Bolt.—Close the breech (with Lee-Enfield or Lee-Metford rifle, the cut-off should first be closed), then turn the safety-catch over to the rear (with Lee-Enfield or Lee-Metford rifle raise the safety-catch), and return the hand to the small.

Order Arms—One.—Holding the rifle firmly in the left hand, seize it with the right hand at the band (with Lee-Enfield or Lee-Metford rifle, at the lower band).

Two.—As in the second motion of the order from the slope.

Three.—As in the third motion of the order from the slope.

3. Instructions for Inspecting Arms.—(i) When arms are inspected at the port only, as in inspecting a platoon on parade, the officer or non-commissioned officer will see that the exterior of the rifle is clean and free from rust; that the magazine and action are clean and in good order; that the sights are at zero; and that no parts are loose or damaged. He will here and there examine the bore of a rifle to see that it has been cleaned and oiled, and is free from obstructions.

(ii) Each soldier, when the officer has passed the file next to him, will, without further word of command, Ease Springs, Order Arms, and Stand at Ease. When the inspection is completed, the squad will be closed on the squad commander’s command Close Ranks—March, when the rear rank will take one pace forward.

4. To Examine Arms—Examine—Arms.—Both ranks, being at the port, will come to the position for loading (Sec. 27, para. 1 (1)), with the muzzle so inclined as to enable the officer to look through the barrel, the thumb-nail of the right hand being placed in front of the bolt to reflect light into the barrel.

The soldier, when the officer has passed the next file to him, will act as detailed in para. 3 (ii) above.

Notes.—(i) If it is necessary to examine arms, the men, when in the position of for inspection, port arms, will be cautioned to remain at the port. Ranks will be closed, as in para. 3 (ii), when the examination has been completed.

(ii) In ordering arms from the examine, the first motion is to seize the rifle with the right hand between the backsight and the band, at the same time bringing the left foot back to the right. With the second motion the rifle will be brought to the order, the left hand being cut away to the side.

CHAPTER II
THE THEORY AND PRACTICAL APPLICATION OF RIFLE FIRE

Section 8.—General Information.

1. Need of Theoretical Knowledge.—A knowledge of the theory of rifle fire is of great importance in enabling the best use to be made of the powerful and accurate weapon with which the soldier is armed. The next step in the soldier’s musketry training after he has been instructed in the construction, care, and cleaning of his rifle will therefore be devoted to teaching him the theory and application of rifle fire. This instruction will consist of lectures, important points being illustrated by the aid of diagrams or drawings made with chalk on a blackboard, and by practical demonstrations when possible.

2. Difference between Peace and War Conditions.—(i) It is, however, of the utmost importance that the soldier should be taught from the first to apply his theoretical knowledge correctly. The soldier must be made to realize clearly that the moral conditions under which fire is delivered in war are very different from those of peace. Therefore deductions made as to the effect of fire from the theory of musketry applied under peace conditions, when firing takes place on open level ground under good conditions of light and atmosphere at visible targets at known distances with weapons in good condition in the total absence of any strain of excitement or fatigue and of the enemy’s fire, must not be applied to conclusions as to the effect of fire delivered under war conditions.

BM = Axis of barrel
MF = Line of departure
MS = Line of fire
LOS = Line of sight
MTS = Trajectory

Fig. 2. Illustration of Trajectory etc.

AG = Horizontal plane
CMF = Axis of barrel
BMO = Line of sight
ML = Line of departure
BMC = Angle of tangent elevation—T
OMP = Angle of sight—S
FMP = Angle of quadrant elevation—QE
LMP = Angle of departure—D
LMF = Angle of jump—J
MHO = Trajectory

Fig. 3. Illustration of Trajectory etc.

(ii) For under war conditions targets beyond close range are usually invisible or indistinct, and frequently in motion; distances are uncertain and difficult to judge; firing takes place under all conditions of light and atmosphere over every variety of ground, under the strain of excitement and fatigue in the face of artillery and rifle fire, with weapons which rapidly become imperfect owing to heavy wear. Accordingly, the theory of rifle fire is considered in this book in relation to practical service conditions.

3. Technical Terms.—The different technical terms used in this chapter in explaining the theory and application of rifle fire will be found among the Definitions (p. xxii). Some of these terms are illustrated in Figs. 2 and 3. In addition, the following technical terms may conveniently be quoted in this paragraph:

(i) Individual Fire.—Individual fire is fire opened by individual soldiers without orders from a fire-unit commander. When men fire individually, each one selects his target, estimates the range, and regulates his fire according to his own judgment.

(ii) Collective Fire.—Collective fire is the fire of a number of men combined for a definite purpose under the orders of a fire-unit commander, who indicates targets, gives ranges, and controls fire as to rate, etc.

Note.—Collective fire is necessarily controlled fire. Individual fire will also be controlled if circumstances permit.

4. Rifling.—A gun-barrel is said to be rifled when it has spiral grooves cut down the bore. Rifling a barrel enables an elongated bullet to be used instead of the round “ball” of former days. The advantage of this form of bullet is that it has great weight in proportion to the surface directly opposed to the air. It has therefore great power of overcoming the resistance of the air, and thus maintaining its velocity and penetrating force[5] over greater distances than would otherwise be possible. Moreover, when the charge is fired, the bullet is forced into and follows the spiral grooves up the barrel, the effect of which causes it to leave the muzzle rotating or spinning on its longer axis. This spin tends to keep its point foremost, and therefore to ensure accuracy of flight.

5. Forces Acting on the Bullet.—Three forces act on the bullet: (a) The explosion of the charge, (b) gravity, and (c) the resistance of the air. The explosion of the charge drives the bullet forward. Gravity—the natural attraction which draws all unsupported bodies towards the centre of the earth with ever-increasing velocity—acts on the bullet immediately it leaves the muzzle. The resistance of the air causes the velocity of the bullet to decrease rapidly during its flight.

6. Trajectory.—The combined effect of these forces causes the bullet to travel in a curved line called the trajectory, the curvature of which becomes more pronounced the longer the bullet is exposed to their action. Thus, a Mark VI bullet leaving the muzzle of a service rifle at the rate of about 2,060 feet per second falls about 4½ inches below the line of departure in the first 100 yards. This drop is increased to about 20 inches at 200 yards. With Mark VII ammunition, giving a muzzle velocity of 2,440 feet per second, the drops at the above distances are about 3 inches and 13 inches respectively. Imaginary not actual curves of trajectories are shown in Figs. 6 and 8.

7. Method of Explaining Trajectory.[6]—(i) In explaining the trajectory to recruits it is not sufficient merely to show or draw a diagram representing a trajectory distorted in respect of height and range. When possible the actual path of the bullet through the air at various short ranges—say 400 and 800 yards—should be shown by means of discs raised on poles at every 100 yards, or some similar device.

(ii) It must be explained to the soldier that the further an object has to travel and the longer it is suspended in the air, the higher it must be thrown to counteract the force of gravity, because the greater the distance it travels and the longer it remains in the air the longer will the object be affected by the force of gravity. Consequently the longer the range the higher will the curve of the trajectory take the bullet in its flight, and the steeper will be the angle at which it will fall to the earth.

(iii) On the other hand, the shorter the distance an object is thrown, and the swifter its flight through the air, the less will it be influenced by the force of gravity during its flight, and the lower or flatter will its trajectory be in consequence. Thus, with the backsight adjusted for the distances in question, a Mark VI bullet does not rise above the height of a man on foot at 500 yards range, or above the height of a mounted man at 600 yards range. With Mark VII ammunition, the bullet does not rise above these heights at 600 and 700 yards range respectively.

8. Firing at Close Range without Altering Sights.—It is therefore evident that effective fire can be maintained within close range without alteration of the backsight. Apart from the flatness of the trajectory at close range, and the consequent inclusion of distances within close range in dangerous space (Sec. 9), there will seldom be opportunities for altering sights at close range on service, and necessary allowances for elevation must be made by aiming up and down (Sec. 21).

9. Elevation.—In order to allow for the fall of the bullet, owing to the force of gravity, it is necessary to direct,the line of departure as much above the object to be hit, as the bullet will fall below it at any given distance if the axis of the barrel of the rifle is pointed at the mark. This raising of the barrel to allow for the curve of the trajectory is termed giving elevation. The target must of necessity be kept in view. The rifle is therefore provided with sights, which permit the firer to give the elevation required whilst keeping his eye fixed on the mark.

10. The Sighting of Rifles.—(i) In the sighting of rifles a mean graduation for each range has been adopted, and a high general standard of accuracy for all practical purposes is thus obtained. Each rifle is carefully tested before issue, but it must be understood that no two rifles behave in an exactly similar manner, and that even if compensation could be made for every error in the sighting of the rifle before issue, the wear of parts and the loosening or tightening of screws, etc., would bring about faults from time to time which would affect the shooting of each rifle differently.

11. Need of Knowledge of Each Weapon.—It is therefore necessary that every man should study the shooting of his own rifle, and make himself acquainted with any incorrectness of the graduations marked on the backsight, in order that he may be in a position to give his rifle the correct elevation for the estimated or ascertained range of the target. At longer ranges the backsight elevation may be regarded as the best possible guide to errors under all conditions, or any error may be ascertained by using a long-range sighting target.[7]

12. Jump.—Owing to the shock of discharge, a vibratory or wavy motion is set up in the barrel, which slightly affects the line of departure of the bullet as it leaves the muzzle, and which is known as “jump.” The causes and extent of jump are dealt with in the textbook of Small Arms. The effect of jump is allowed for in the sighting of the rifle, and will not be taken into account by the soldier in aiming.

13. Drift.—Drift is the term used to express the lateral deviation of the bullet after it has left the barrel. This is due to the direction of the rifling, which causes the bullet to rotate from right over to the left in its flight, so that the point works over slightly to the left, owing to gyroscopic action. The consequent increased air-pressure on the right side of the bullet forces it to the left as it flies. The deflection due to drift at distances within 1,000 yards is negligible, and need not be taken into account by the soldier in individual firing. Beyond 1,000 yards up to the limit of effective rifle fire at about 1,400 yards, drift will carry the bullet about 7 feet to the left. This deflection, if necessary, will be taken into account by fire-unit commanders in directing concentrated fire at narrow-fronted targets at longer ranges.

14. Effect of Fixing the Bayonet.—(i) When the bayonet is fixed to the muzzle of the rifle, its weight checks the jump, and in consequence slightly affects the position of the muzzle at the moment of the departure of the shot, and the primary direction given to the bullet.

(ii) Short Magazine Lee-Enfield Rifle.—With Mark VI ammunition, the accuracy of the short magazine Lee-Enfield rifle is not appreciably affected by fixing the bayonet. With Mark VII ammunition, the soldier will aim down slightly in firing with fixed bayonet at ranges up to 600 yards.

(iii) Lee-Metford or Charger-Loading Lee-Enfield Rifles.—With Mark VII ammunition, fixing bayonets has a negligible effect. When firing Mark VI ammunition from the Lee-Metford or Charger-loading Lee-Enfield rifles with fixed bayonets at ranges up to 600 yards, the soldier should aim up very slightly, taking care, however, in doing so to aim low in all cases, and to aim at the ground-line in firing at troops advancing towards him.

15. Effect of Resting the Rifle.—For practical purposes, the shooting of the rifle is not affected by resting the muzzle or any portion of the stock lightly on earth or other substance.

16. Effect of Oily Barrel.—The first round fired from an oily barrel is liable to follow an erratic course, the rifle throwing sometimes high, sometimes low, and at other times to the right or left. A dry rag should therefore be passed through the bore before practice is commenced.

Section 9.—Dangerous Space—Ricochets—Firing Up and Down Hill.

1. Dangerous space may broadly be defined as the whole ground covered by the trajectory of a bullet from the point where it could first come in contact with the top of an object fired at to the point where it falls to the earth (Figs. 4 and 5, and Figs. 6 and 8).

2. Extent of Dangerous Space.—The extent of dangerous space depends upon the following factors:

(i) Range.—Dangerous space decreases as the range increases, the reduction being due to the steeper angle at which the bullet descends at longer ranges (compare Figs. 4 and 5).

(ii) Firer’s Position.—The position of the firer and the consequent height of his rifle above the ground will affect dangerous space. The nearer the rifle is to the ground when it is fired, the greater will be the extent of dangerous space.

(iii) Height of Object.—As a rule the higher the object fired at is, the greater will be the extent of dangerous space.

(iv) Trajectory.—The flatter the trajectory—the closer the bullet keeps to the ground in its flight—the greater as a rule will be the extent of dangerous space.

(v) Conformation of Ground.—The more nearly the slope of the ground conforms to the curve of the trajectory and to the fall of the bullet, the greater will be the extent of dangerous space (see [Fig. 8]).

3. Example of Conditions affecting Dangerous Space.—The following example illustrates the method by which the soldier may be made to realize the importance of this question, and the principle which underlies its influence upon the effect of fire: If he is firing in the lying position with Mark VI ammunition, and aims at the ground-line of a prone figure at 500 yards range, the dangerous space of his fire will be about 50 yards. If, however, he stands to fire at the same target, the dangerous space will be reduced to about 40 yards.

Figs. 4 and 5.—Dangerous Space.

Note.—The angles of descent are imaginary, and not accurate for any distance.

4. Ricochets.—Bullets which rebound after striking the ground or any other obstacle, and continue their flight, are said to ricochet. Ricochets may occur from any surface, and bullets may ricochet two or even three times before their flight is finally arrested. At long range, they are less likely to ricochet from soft ground than from hard, smooth surfaces.

5. Firing Up and Down Hill.—(i) When a shot is fired at a target placed on the same level as the firer, the forces acting on the bullet cause it to travel in its greatest curve, and the greatest elevation for any given distance must therefore be given to the rifle. If a shot is fired perpendicularly upwards or downwards, no elevation is required, for the bullet will travel in an approximately straight line until its impetus is exhausted. Hence it follows that, when shooting up or down hill, less elevation is necessary than when the object is on the same level.

(ii) For practical purposes, the effect of firing up and down all moderate slopes will be negligible, and may be disregarded by the soldier in taking aim on service. Within close range, in firing up and down steep slopes, or slopes at an angle of 10 degrees and over, the decreased elevation necessary will usually be small, and may be allowed for by aiming down slightly. The correct elevation to be used in firing up or down hill at longer ranges in various circumstances is a matter for the judgment of fire-unit commanders, and can best be ascertained by careful observation of fire, when possible.

Section 10.—Effects of Barometric Pressure, Temperature, Wind, and Light.

1. Barometric Pressure and Temperature.—Rifles are sighted for the following conditions: Barometric pressure, 30 inches (sea-level); thermometer, 60° F.; still air; a horizontal line of sight.

2. The rise and fall of barometric pressure and temperature affect the flight of the bullet and elevation by changing the density of the atmosphere, and so increasing or decreasing its resistance to the bullet. For practical purposes, the soldier may disregard the effects of barometric pressure and temperature as negligible. In operations conducted at considerable heights above sea-level, orders as to allowance for barometric pressure will, if necessary, be issued by the Staff.

3. Effect of Wind—(i) Head Wind, or Wind from the Front.—A head wind, or wind from the front, retards the bullet, and necessitates more elevation.

(ii) Rear Wind.—A rear wind lessens the resistance of the air, and necessitates less elevation.

(iii) Side Wind.—A side wind, or wind blowing at right angles from either side across the front, acts on the greater surface of the bullet, and has, consequently, more influence on its flight than a wind blowing from the front or rear.

(iv) Oblique Winds.—Oblique winds, or winds blowing from any intermediate direction between a right angle and a front or rear wind, have the same effect in varying degree as side winds. Oblique winds, in addition, affect the bullet to some extent in the same way as head and rear winds.

4. Allowance for Head and Rear Winds.—No fixed rules can be laid down regarding the degree to which elevation should be increased or decreased at different ranges for head and rear winds. For practical purposes, the effect of these winds may be disregarded at ranges under 1,000 yards. At longer ranges, fire-unit commanders will use their judgment in directing fire, whether they will allow for strong head and rear winds by increasing or decreasing elevation, and to what extent.