COLOUR PLATE I

Section of the Holy Carpet of the Mosque of Ardebil, in the Royal Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington, London. Described on Pages 83 and 84.

SECTION OF THE HOLY CARPET OF THE MOSQUE AT ARDEBIL,
Size: 34 ft. 6 in. by 17 ft. 6 in.

Translation of Inscription. I have no refuge in the world other than thy threshold, My head has no protection other than this porchway; The work of the Slave of this Holy Place. Maksoud of Kashan. 946 A. H. = 1540 A. D.

FORMERLY IN THE POSSESSION OF VINCENT ROBINSON & CO., Ltd.,
34 Wigmore Street, London, W.,

And Sold by them in 1892 to
THE ROYAL VICTORIA AND ALBERT MUSEUM, SOUTH KENSINGTON, LONDON.

ORIENTAL RUGS

ANTIQUE AND MODERN

BY

WALTER A. HAWLEY

WITH ELEVEN FULL-PAGE PLATES IN COLOUR
EIGHTY HALF-TONE ENGRAVINGS
AND FOUR MAPS

NEW YORK
DODD, MEAD AND COMPANY
1927

Copyright, 1913
By John Lane Company

Printed in U. S. A.

PREFACE

INCE the appearance, in 1900, of the excellent work of Mr. John Kimberly Mumford on Oriental Rugs, the public interest in these fabrics has so largely increased that the author feels warranted in offering this monograph, which aims to treat the subject in a way that will not only appeal to the general reader but be of value to the student.

In the chapter entitled “Rug Weaving Before the XVIII Century” is a brief review of some of the notable achievements in this branch of art; and in order that the public may as far as possible have access to the masterpieces described, the carpets on exhibition in the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York have been given unusual prominence. The chapters on “How to Distinguish Rugs” and on “Purchasing Rugs” should prove serviceable to those who are collecting or are buying for use; and the chapter on “Weaving” contains many details which have not previously received from connoisseurs the consideration they deserve.

The descriptions of all but the least important classes of rugs in the Persian, Asia Minor, Caucasian, and Central Asiatic groups include not only a general statement of their most striking features, but also a technical analysis that is termed “Type Characteristics.” It should be understood, however, that these characteristics are not invariable, but are remarkably constant. They may interest chiefly those who aim to acquire expert information, yet they will doubtlessly prove valuable to every owner of a rug as a means for its identification.

It would be difficult to acknowledge all the assistance received by the author since he began the study of rugs; for sometimes a mere suggestion has started a line of investigation resulting in interesting discoveries. He has freely consulted well-known authorities, who are quoted in the body of the work; and has received valuable suggestions and assistance from Messrs. T. S. Hawley, of Santa Barbara, Cal., George Harootunian and Frank Loftus, of Los Angeles, Cal.; George Stevenson, of New York; G. Graf, of the Persische Teppiche Gesellschaft, of Tabriz; and P. de Andrea & Co., of Constantinople. He gratefully acknowledges the permission of Messrs. C. F. Williams, of Norristown, Penn., and James F. Ballard, of St. Louis, Mo., to study their valuable collections; and the permission of Dr. Wilhelm R. Valentiner, Curator of Decorative Arts in the Metropolitan Museum in New York, to examine the carpets of the museum and to take photographs of them. He also wishes particularly to mention the kindness of the following collectors and firms who have allowed their rugs to be used for illustrations: Miss Emily Davis, of Buffalo, N. Y.; the Misses Palache, and Messrs. Nathan Bentz and T. S. Hawley, of Santa Barbara, Cal.; Mr. R. Y. Struble, of Fredericktown, Ohio; Mr. E. L. Pierce, of Syracuse, N.Y.; Mr. H. C. Merritt, of Pasadena, Cal.; Mr. J. F. Ballard, of St. Louis, Mo.; Mr. C. F. Williams, of Norristown, Penn.; Major L. B. Lawton, U.S.A., of Seneca Falls, N.Y.; Messrs. Mihran & Co., of Los Angeles, Cal.; Messrs. B. Altman & Co., Benguiat & Keresey, Wm. Baumgarten & Co., Jones & Brindisi, Jos. Wild & Co., W. & J. Sloane, and the Tiffany Studios, of New York City. He is also indebted to Vincent Robinson & Co., Ltd., of London, for the use of the colour plate of the Royal Garden Carpet, now owned by them, and to the Royal Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington, London, for permission to obtain a colour plate of the Holy Carpet of the Mosque of Ardebil.

Walter A. Hawley.

New York, June, 1913.

CONTENTS

ILLUSTRATIONS

Coloured Plates

Halftone Engravings

Black and White Engravings

Charts

ORIENTAL RUGS

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

T is not altogether surprising that in a most materialistic age many of a race distinguished more for its utilitarian than artistic accomplishments should fail to see in Oriental carpets high artistic expression; yet during the last twenty years choice specimens have been sold for sums which not only are very large, but show a tendency to increase with each succeeding year. In 1893 a woollen rug, known as the Ardebil carpet and regarded, on account of its beautiful designs and exquisite colours, as one of the finest products of Oriental art, was purchased for the South Kensington Museum. Since it had a length of thirty-four and a half feet with a breadth of seventeen and a half, the price of £2500, which was the sum paid, was at the rate of twenty dollars per square foot. At an auction sale in New York in 1910,[1] a woollen rug five and a half feet long by three and three quarters wide was sold for the sum of $10,200, or at the rate of four hundred and ninety-one dollars per square foot; and a silk rug seven feet and two inches long by six feet and four inches wide was sold for the sum of $35,500, or at the rate of nine hundred and thirty dollars per square foot. As it was the general opinion of connoisseurs that the prices paid for these two rugs were low, and as it is well known that these rugs are not more valuable than some others of equal size, it is not unreasonable to assume that many of the best judges of Oriental rugs would declare that at the present time the sum of five hundred dollars per square foot is a fair price for some antique woollen rugs, and the sum of one thousand dollars per square foot a fair price for some antique silk rugs.

If these judges were asked on what they based their opinion of the value of these old pieces, which are less serviceable for wear than new rugs that can be bought of an American factory at twenty cents per square foot, they might with reason reply that they are works of art, woven in those days when Michelangelo, Titian, Rubens, and Rembrandt were busy in their studios; that they are as scarce as the paintings of these masters; and that they might justly be compared with them in beauty and artistic execution. Though granting that the technique of weaving makes it impossible to represent a design as perfectly as can be done with a brush, they would claim that the drawing of dainty vines, scrolls, and arabesques was often represented by lines that in abstract beauty of form are unsurpassed, and that no artist had ever produced from his palette colours which equalled in brilliant sheen and marvellously changing hue those of the woven masterpieces.

Whoever is inclined to disagree with these judges and with those art critics of Europe and America who assert that in an aesthetic sense the people of the Orient are cultured to a standard beyond the comprehension of the Western world, should remember that the taste for any kind of art is based on convention and is largely a matter of cultivation. The Occidental, who for generations has cultivated the taste for paintings and statuary, looks to the painter and sculptor for the highest expression of artistic genius; but the Oriental takes greater delight in his marvellous creations of porcelain or woven fabrics. There is, too, a marked difference in treatment. The Occidental demands that in art “everything should be stated with the utmost fullness of a tedious realism before he can grasp its meaning”[2] and fails to recognise the more subtle beauty of various forms of Oriental art. The Oriental, on the other hand, is far less realistic and is better satisfied if his subject suggests abstract qualities that depend for their fullest appreciation on those quickening experiences that at different times have touched the soul of the observer. Moreover, as Buddhism, which prevails in many of the countries of Asia, teaches that a universal spirit is manifested in each form of nature, determining its character, and a similar idea pervades other religions of the East, the highest aim of Asiatic art is to express that inner spirit. It is largely this difference in artistic cultivation that accounts for the difference in taste. Whoever then would fully appreciate these rugs must view them not only with an eye trained to see the beautiful harmonies of colour and design, but with the artistic temperament of the Oriental.

By study and cultivation the European as well as the American is growing to value more highly the products of Oriental art. When the old sea captains carried on trade with Japan, they imported into Europe large quantities of Imari ware, which the Japanese purposely decorated with crude and vulgar colours to meet the less refined taste of the Europeans, who regarded many of them as fine specimens of ceramic art and studiously copied them in their factories. But so great has been the change in artistic taste since then that now they are valued principally as objects of curiosity. Likewise, many beautiful Japanese Makimonos, in which a few strong lines gave but a hint of the essential thought, formerly passed before the eyes of Europeans as the paintings of semi-barbarians. But now we begin to see, as did Whistler, that they are often the products of great genius and that they express thought and feeling with marvellous power. There has been a similar growth in the appreciation of Oriental rugs. Even within the last generation this growth has been apparent, so that the few who wisely bought those old worn pieces which thirty years ago hung at doors of little shops where dark-faced foreigners invited acquaintance, are now the envy of the many who, too late, have learned that to-day they can scarcely be bought at any price.

The more we study the several fields of art in the Orient, the better we realise the wonderful creative genius of its people and learn to value the products of any one field. Japan has awakened the admiration of the highest art critics for its bronzes, some of which exceed in size any other castings in the world, and for its netsukés, which are the smallest of carvings. Its blades of steel are superior to those of Damascus and Toledo; and its lacquer, which is the most wonderful of its artistic products, displays genius of a very high order. To China, a country that we often regard as barbarous, we owe the invention of silks, the printing press, and gunpowder; yet it is in porcelain, that was manufactured even in those days when Caesar was marching with his legions against the barbarous races of Central and Northern Europe, that China has surpassed the world and set a standard that probably will never again be reached. In the land where glide the Indus and the Ganges stand temples, erected by the descendants of the house of Tamerlane, before which the beholder, even if familiar with the wonders of St. Peter’s, is lost in admiration of the intricate delicacy of detail, the majesty of proportions, and the gorgeous splendour of colour with which some of the spirit of the East is expressed in material form. When we realise that in these different lines of artistic effort the genius of Asia has rivalled and surpassed that of Europe and America, we become the better prepared to believe that choice specimens of woven fabrics, in weaving which every class of every country of Asia has been engaged from time immemorial, are to be regarded as works of the highest art.

However pleasing the design or elaborate the detail, it is principally in the colouring that these rugs claim our interest and admiration. The colours which are derived from vegetable or animal dyes grow more mellow and beautiful with passing years, and applied to wools of finest texture acquire a lustre and softness which in the choicest specimens are like the radiant throat of a humming bird, or tints at the close of an autumn day. The different shades have different moods, expressing peace, joy, pensiveness, sorrow, the deep meaning of which the Oriental mind with its subtle and serious imagination has grasped as has none other. Moreover, in all truly fine pieces there is perfect harmony of tone. It is in this richness, suggestiveness, and harmony that the greatest artistic value lies.

That all do not appreciate these qualities is not because they do not exist; for the keen perception of colour, like the keen perception of music, is a faculty granted to one person but denied to another. Even to those who take delight in colour there are different degrees of appreciation. “The fact is,” said John Ruskin, “we none of us enough appreciate the nobleness and sacredness of colour.” But as the ear can be cultivated to a higher taste for music, so can the eye be cultivated to a higher taste for colour; and to fully appreciate the beauties of Oriental rugs it is necessary to develop this faculty to its fullest extent.

And yet it is not alone as works of art that Oriental rugs interest us. They suggest something of the life and religious thought of the people who made them. Some seem redolent with the fragrance of flowers, others reflect the spirit of desert wastes and wind-swept steppes. So, too, in the colours and designs of some appear the symbols of that mysticism with which the minds of the followers of Zoroaster in their effort to commune with the unseen forces of the universe were imbued; and though the original meaning of many of these symbols has been forgotten, the study of others leads to a better understanding of the life-thought of the weavers.

Realising, then, that Asia has been the cradle from which has come the highest expression of many forms of artistic achievement, and that the Western mind is now assigning to its woven fabrics their proper place in the galleries of art, we may begin the study of Oriental rugs with the assurance that the further it is pursued the greater will be the appreciation and delight. It will take us among strange and interesting people, and over fields that were historic grounds before the walls of Rome were built. It will lead beyond the dome of St. Sophia to the land of the Arabian tales, where the splendour of former days is reflected in tomb and mosque, and where, perhaps, when the Western world grows old, there will rise again from crumbling ruins another nation that will revive the poetic and artistic genius of the East with all the majesty and creative power of the past.

CHAPTER II

PHYSICAL FEATURES AND HISTORY OF THE RUG-PRODUCING LANDS

HE artistic character of Oriental rugs, like every other artistic impulse, is subject to the influence of physical environment. This influence is not alone that to which an individual weaver has been subjected, but is the transmitted effect of the accumulated experiences of many generations. It appears in the colours which simulate tones displayed by varying phases of nature, and also in the designs or symbols which, derived from older types by a long process of evolution, partially reflect feelings engendered in a people of highly imaginative and poetic temperament by long contact with elemental forces. Moreover, the quality of material used depends almost exclusively on the climate and physical conditions of countries where it is produced. Accordingly, the artistic and essential characteristics of rugs are better understood by a knowledge of the salient physical features of the countries where they are woven.[3]

The principal Oriental countries that continue to produce rugs are China, India, Afghanistan, Beluchistan, Persia, Turkestan, Caucasia, and Asia Minor. As all of them are contiguous, they may be regarded as a geographic unit; and though there is much diversity of detail, there is also much in common. From near the western boundary of Asia Minor a vast plateau stretches eastward into Central Asia, increasing in altitude towards the east.

Its mean elevation in Asia Minor is from two thousand to three thousand feet, and as it extends beyond the Zagros Mountains and crosses the northern half of Persia, it rises from four thousand to five thousand feet. Continuing eastward through Southern Turkestan and Afghanistan it increases in altitude until it has risen to nearly twelve thousand feet in the lofty table-lands of Central Asia, where it begins to descend as it extends farther into the desert of Gobi. From the western part of this plateau a spur extends northward between the Black and Caspian seas, to form the high table-land of Caucasia, which has a mean elevation of about seven thousand feet.

The general topographic features of this plateau include great stretches of comparatively level land, broad tracts from which there is no drainage to the sea, and sandy desert wastes. On almost every side it is bounded by mountain chains and is intersected by transverse ridges that lift still higher peaks where rests the perpetual snow. Throughout the deserts and large parts of the table-lands the rainfall is slight, so that there are but few important river courses.

The cultivated portions of this vast area are relatively small, and consist largely of strips of land in fertile valleys, through which flow perennial streams. From time immemorial these streams have been used for irrigation, and the inhabitants of the districts have prospered by abundant harvests. In one or another of these valleys have been built the principal cities, within the walls of which were imposing temples that stimulated religious fervour, schools of learning to quicken the intellect, and gardens where perfumed flowers and the songs of birds delighted the aesthetic senses. In these cities science, philosophy, religion, and art received their highest development. In them lived the most skilled artisans and artists of the Orient; and the products of the loom were of the finest quality.

Beyond these valleys are great stretches of uncultivated tracts consisting of plains, hills, and mountains. Some of these tracts are naturally fertile and could be made productive, but at present are used only for pasturage, and over them numberless tribes of fierce nomads drive their flocks of sheep. On the other hand, where the land has no drainage to the sea, so that the streams and rivers that flow into it empty into small lakes or are finally absorbed, the soil becomes impregnated with alkali deposited from the waters, and the grass is scanty. There are also sandy wastes of great extent where scarcely any animal life can exist. Moreover in many parts of the country the rain falls only during a few months of the year, and more abundantly in the higher altitudes, so that the nomads are constantly searching for fresh pasturage, and moving from the lowlands, where the grass dies after the rainy season, to the higher altitudes, from which they return again at the approach of winter. So numerous are the flocks that in the struggle for pasture the weaker tribes are driven to the poorer land.

The pastoral life, the necessity of moving from place to place, the strife resulting from the difference in quality of pasture, have affected the temperament and character of the people. The boundless stretches of land, the clear atmosphere, the burning desert sands, the delicate mirage, and the starry heavens, have made men hospitable, thoughtful, devotional; constant wanderings have made them independent; the struggle for pasturage has made them lawless and cruel. These qualities are reflected to some extent in their woven fabrics, which lack the high artistic finish of those woven in cities. A large proportion of them are prayer rugs and contain symbols of the sun and fire worship. The designs are barbaric, and many are doubtless the same as those used hundreds of years ago. The colours of the old pieces, woven on upland plains or in mountain fastnesses, blend less harmoniously than those woven by more cultured weavers; but they frequently possess rich, pure tones, which are no longer seen in the modern rugs. As even a partial expression of the thoughts and feelings of a people, there are no rugs from the Orient more worthy of study than the rare old pieces woven by nomadic tribes.

Not only physical environment but the conquests of foreign enemies, as well as political struggles at home, have had an important influence on all art. It will be of interest, therefore, to briefly review the histories of Central and Southwestern Asia, where rugs have been made for over three thousand years, in order to understand the different racial influences which have affected their artistic development.

Plate 1. Khorassan Rug

In the rich valleys near the mouths of the Tigris and Euphrates dwelt in the remote past a race of unknown origin called Sumerians, and to the north of them lived another people known as the Accadians. These races built canals, cultivated the soil, established towns, and invented the cuneiform writing. They lived in harmony with one another, and continued to prosper until about 3000 b.c., when the Semitic race of the Chaldees, appearing from an unknown land, subdued them. The Chaldees, however, allowed the conquered races to retain part of their lands, adopted their civilisation, and about the year 2500 b.c. built the city of Babylon, the foundation of which biblical students claim was laid by the mighty hunter Nimrod. By cultivating the surrounding country, by developing its trade and commerce, the Babylonians became a wealthy and powerful nation; and by encouraging manufactures, art, and science, they became noted for their delicate fabrics, magnificent temples, and knowledge of mathematics and astronomy.

About the year 2000 b.c. a number of tribesmen, among whom was Abraham, migrated with their flocks to the upper valleys of the Tigris and founded Nineveh. A century later the land occupied by colonists who settled about Nineveh was known as Assyria. It increased in numbers and in power until, in 1300 b.c., it gained its first victory over Babylon; and during the next four hundred years, though meeting with occasional reverses, it extended its rule over Babylonia, Asia Minor, and Assyria, and received tribute even from Egypt. It thus became the first great conquering power in Southwestern Asia. In their magnificent palaces of Nineveh, surrounded by luxury, the rulers of Assyria were resting in supposed security when a powerful and unexpected enemy appeared from the land now known as Persia.

When the valleys of the Tigris and the Euphrates were inhabited by Sumerians and Accadians, Iran, which included modern Persia, was similarly inhabited by races of unknown origin. Subsequently, but at an exceedingly remote period, from the region about the Oxus river in Western Asia two branches of the great Aryan family migrated to Iran. One of these, which settled in the northern part, was known as the Medes; the other, which settled in the southern part, was known as the Persians. Both Medes and Persians subdued the native races and in the course of centuries constructed powerful empires. The former were the first to extend their conquests, and forming an alliance with the viceroy of Babylon they attacked Nineveh in the year 606 b.c. and destroyed it. Babylon now became the mistress of all Mesopotamia, and under Nebuchadnezzar it was enlarged to cover an area of one hundred square miles, and surrounded by walls three hundred feet high. These walls enclosed parks, orchards, gardens, and a city that soon became famous for its palaces, its temple of Bel, and its Hanging Gardens.

While Babylon was rising in power changes were occurring in Iran. Cyrus, leader of the Persians, instigated a revolt against the Medes and conquered them. But not satisfied with making the Persians rulers of Iran he extended his conquests westward, and in the year 538 b.c., by diverting the waters of the Euphrates, surprised Belshazzar in his banquet hall and became master of Babylonia. The complete subjection of all Asia Minor followed, and for the next two centuries the warlike Persians were the dominant power in Western Asia. But in the year 331 b.c., when Alexander the Great defeated their armies under Darius, the Persian Empire melted away.

Whether in Egypt or China or by the Tigris the art of weaving first took definite form, it was in this land of Babylon and Nineveh, of the Medes and the Persians, of Abraham, Belshazzar, and Cyrus, where a few remaining monuments attest the delicate textiles of those early days, that in more recent ages have been woven the most perfect carpets of which there is any knowledge.

During the succeeding five hundred years Persia, Asia Minor, Caucasia, and Syria became the prey of the Parthians, Greeks, and Romans, to whom petty tribes, recognising no sovereign power and secure in their mountain fastnesses, bade occasional defiance. About the year 226 a. d. an able leader of one of the Persian tribes founded the dynasty of the Sassanides, which during the reign of Chosroes (531-579 a. d.) and his grandson Chosroes II (590-628 a. d.) ruled over the country from the Oxus on the north to Arabia and Egypt on the south, and from India on the east to Assyria on the west. This was a period of prosperity and luxury, the glory of which continued until the middle of the VII Century, when it was overthrown by a new power rising from a most unexpected quarter.

In the inhospitable land of Arabia, noted for its coffee, dates, and myrrh, for its dreary, sandy, waterless wastes, a land hitherto almost unknown in history, Mohammed promulgated the religion which, suited to the temperament and desires of the Bedouins, united them into a fanatic, militant body of conquerors. After his death his successors, known as the Caliphs, extended his conquests. Their successful armies quickly overran Persia and overthrew the Sassanian rule; then marching northward into Turkestan and as far east as the Indus they overcame all resistance. From the Greeks, by whom they were known as the Saracens, they snatched Palestine and Syria, and invading Egypt, conquered it after the long stubborn siege of Alexandria. A little later the Arabs became masters of Northern Africa, and settling there intermarried with the native races. Near the Straits of Gibraltar their African descendants, known as the Moors, crossed to Spain, where in the year 711 they vanquished a powerful army that opposed them. During the following year they subdued all of that country and began an invasion of Northern Europe. But on the rich pasture lands near Tours, where the infantry of Charles Martel met the Mussulman cavalry in one of the most decisive battles of history, they were defeated with terrible slaughter and Christian Europe was saved.

These conquests of the Mohammedans had not only a political and religious significance, but also an important influence on art at a time when Europe was sunk in ignorance and barbarism. Fond of magnificence and luxury, the Caliphs founded great capitals in Assyria, Egypt, and Spain, and built palaces that have histories which sound like fairy tales. Bagdad on the banks of the Tigris, with its sixteen hundred canals, one hundred and five bridges, and nearly a million people, with its countless baths, its many thousand mosques, and its royal palace, where was collected the best of Asiatic taste, elegance, and splendour, possessed more grandeur than any other city in the world. Gibbon states that within the palace, furnished with Oriental luxury, hung thirty-eight thousand pieces of tapestry, one third of which were of silk embroidered with gold, and that on the floors lay twenty-two thousand carpets. In Cairo and in Cordova, likewise, the Caliphs surrounded themselves with similar splendour, of which, unfortunately, but few traces now exist; but the Castle of the Alhambra still remains as a powerful reminder of their taste and artistic genius. It is largely to the influence of this race that were due many of the beautiful Spanish rugs such as Queen Eleanor in the XIII Century took to England from Cordova and Granada, as well as those of other periods. Moreover, in some of the choicest pieces of Asia Minor and Persia, woven during the XVI and XVII Centuries, are traces of this early Saracenic art.

For about five centuries the militant power of these Mohammedans was dominant in Southwestern Asia when another conquering race appeared. The great wall of China, which was built over two hundred years before Christ by the famous Che-Hwang-te, to protect it against the invasions of the Tartars, turned westward many wandering hordes from the more fertile pastures and valleys of Southeastern Asia. One of these hordes was of Turks, who, leaving their homes near the sources of the Irtish and Yenisei rivers in the Altai Mountains, settled in Turkestan. Many centuries afterwards, to escape from other hordes pressing westward and to reach fresh pastures, different branches of them migrated southward and westward. About the year 1000 a. d. one of these branches known as the Seljukian Turks gained a foothold in Persia, and under Malek Shah, in 1072, made Ispahan its capital. About the same time it extended its power over Asia Minor and overran Georgia, where it destroyed the capital Tiflis after slaughtering the inhabitants. To this Turkoman race should probably be accredited the earliest Mongolian influence on Persian textile art.

Somewhat later a people numbering forty thousand tents were ranging that part of Mongolia which lies north of the desert of Gobi in search of pasture and water. One of their number gathered about him a few followers, and by his own genius gained the ascendency over his tribes. He then allied himself with another powerful tribe, and reducing to obedience all the Mongolians who dwelt north of the desert of Gobi, in 1206, in the presence of his chiefs, he assumed the title of Genghis Khan. After becoming the ruler of millions of nomads of the great central plateau of Asia and conquering part of China, which was then enjoying a period of great wealth and prosperity, he invaded Western Asia. Bokhara offered no resistance and might have been spared, but learning that some of the Sultan’s garrison were concealed he ordered the city to be burned. Samarkand, which surrendered after three days’ siege, was pillaged and the inhabitants were slaughtered. Herat appeased his anger by opening its gates. Even his death did not stop the ravages of the Mongol horde that captured and sacked Bagdad, and, crossing the Tigris and Euphrates, pillaged all Asia Minor. In 1258, Hulaku Khan, grandson of Genghis, conquered Persia and established his capital in the province of Azerbijan, where his descendants ruled for over a century.

Plate 2. Meshed Rug

With these invasions another wave of Mongolian influence was felt in Western Asia. Whatever may have been the effect on local art by the settlement of the Seljukian Turks in Persia and Asia Minor during the early part of the XI Century, it was inappreciable as compared with that of Genghis Khan and his followers. For the influence of Bagdad over Southwestern Asia was like that of Rome over the empire of the Cæsars, and when in the middle of the XIII Century it was plundered for forty days, and other important cities of Asia Minor and Persia similarly treated, there was no longer the same incentive to work, so that art for a time languished. But in some cities the artistic spirit of the people prevailed over the loss of independence, and the more skilled workmen were encouraged by their new masters, who, recognising the beauty of the Persian carpets, sent many Persian artists to China and brought many Chinese artists to Persia, that the different races might derive advantages from the instruction of one another. It is therefore not surprising that from this time the influence of Chinese art has been recognised in the woven fabrics and metal work made in the southwestern part of Asia. In fact, the Chinese motive known as the “key pattern,” as well as other less familiar designs of distinctly Mongolian origin, appeared for the first time in some of the carpets and metal work of this period.

Like Turkestan, Asia Minor has been one of the great battle-grounds of the world. During parts of the XI, XII, and XIII Centuries not only Seljukian Turks, but Mongols and Ottoman Turks under Murad and Bajazet, rose in influence until all Asia Minor, as well as Thrace and Macedonia, was subject to them. But still another power from the far East was to overrun Asia and divert Bajazet from the walls of Constantinople.

Under Tamerlane, the descendant of Genghis Khan, the Mongol hordes were again united and again attempted the conquest of the world. From the walls of China to the Mediterranean Sea, and from the Steppes of Turkestan to the Arabian deserts, his victorious armies overcame all opposition. Never was conqueror more rapacious, more bloodthirsty. At Ispahan, seventy thousand inhabitants were slain. Georgia was laid waste and the people were massacred. In 1401, Bagdad was besieged and, when taken, a pyramid of ninety thousand human victims was raised as a monument to the Tartar conqueror. In the following year, when the armies of Bajazet and Tamerlane met on the plains near Angora, the Turks were defeated and Bajazet was captured. But now the tide of Mongol invasion receded; and laden with spoils Tamerlane returned to his capital at Samarkand, where he enjoyed the remaining years of his life by surrounding himself with a brilliant court and by building palaces and temples, which he adorned with royal splendour. With all his atrocious barbarities he had a higher appreciation of art than his Mongolian predecessors. At his capital were assembled skilled artisans from Eastern and Western Asia; and there at the beginning of the XIV Century European travellers saw innumerable art treasures, including carpets of wonderful workmanship and beauty.

The Mongol power also gained an important foothold in India. This country, like Iran, had been subjugated by a branch of the Aryan race, which conquered the native Dravidians, and remained dominant until the VII and VIII Centuries. Then the Mohammedans invaded it, and were still in ascendency when Tamerlane crossed the mountains and attacked Delhi. After the lapse of more than a hundred years his descendants, Baber, Akbar, and Shah Jahan, rose to power. The magnificence of their courts and the splendour of the temples which they built stimulated Indian art; and under the instruction of Persian artisans, who were induced to settle in that country, the natives attained their highest skill in weaving.

With the death of Tamerlane, in 1405, the Ottoman power in Persia and Asia Minor rose again, and Turkish victories followed in quick succession until in 1453 Constantinople fell and the church of St. Sophia became a mosque.

After the lapse of half a century Shah Ismael of the family of the Safavids defeated the Turkomans in 1502, and founded a new dynasty in Persia. With his rise began one of the most splendid periods in its history. Within a few years victories extended his empire from the Euphrates river to Afghanistan and from the Oxus to the Persian gulf. This was the land of ancient Iran, over which from his court at Ardebil he ruled until his death. In the early part of the reign of Shah Tamasp, which lasted from 1524 to 1576, the new dynasty was threatened by the Turkish ruler, Soliman the Magnificent, after he had taken Rhodes from the Knights of St. John and invaded Southern Europe. In 1534 he captured Bagdad and Tabriz, as well as conquered Shirvan and Georgia.[4] But the lost territory was soon regained and the new Persian capital was established at Tabriz where, as will be seen later, were woven many of the greatest masterpieces of Persian textile fabrics. Much as these monarchs had accomplished, it was Shah Abbas the Great who, after ten years of internal strife, succeeded by expelling the Turks from Persia, restoring tranquillity, and establishing commerce, in elevating his country from one of devastation and confusion to one of greatness such as it had not known for many ages. He transferred his court to Ispahan, where, while adding to the magnificence of the city, he encouraged art even to the extent of sending to Italy, for study, a number of the most skilled artists of Persia. These in time returned and exerted an influence that appeared in the more elaborate designs of carpets of a subsequent period. It is also probable that he rendered valuable assistance to Akbar of India in founding carpet-weaving in that country. He ruled from 1586 to 1628. This period, during which America was a wilderness and England under Queen Elizabeth was still struggling with the feudal system, was the golden age of Persian history and Persian art; but with his death the Safavid dynasty declined and art decadence began.

In 1722, the Afghans conquered Persia and for a number of years ruled it with horrible cruelty; but they were finally defeated by Nadir Shah, who captured Herat in 1731, extended his dominion into Georgia, and recovered some of the lost territory from the Turkish Empire in the West. After his death the sovereignty of Persia again waned, until in time it was confined to its present limits.

It thus appears that from the earliest times recorded in history the southwestern part of Asia has been subject to invasion, and to constant struggles between the different races of the East for supremacy. Even from the desert of Gobi, the flanks of the Altai Mountains, and the deserts of Arabia have poured forth armies to devastate the land. One victorious power after another has extended its sway from the banks of the Indus to the shores of the Mediterranean. The result is that the present Oriental textile art is of a composite character, which can be understood only by taking into consideration the value of these racial influences that have contributed to it some of its most interesting and subtle charms.

CHAPTER III

THE MATERIALS

S was the case with the earliest shepherd weavers, many nomads living in unfrequented parts of Asia spin the wool taken from their own flocks, then colour it with dyes brewed from roots and herbs that they have personally gathered, and finally weave it according to well-known patterns into fabrics. But in large, enlightened communities the manufacture of an Oriental rug involves a division of labour. From the shepherds the professional dyers obtain the wool, which, after colouring, they sell to weavers; and these in turn often receive their patterns from others. A knowledge of these separate steps involving the industries of producing the different materials and the crafts of dyeing, weaving, and designing is essential to a full understanding of any Oriental woven fabric.

The materials that were formerly used in weaving were generally of animal origin, such as the wool of sheep, goats, and camels. To a more limited extent silk and cotton also were used, and occasionally hair of the yak, cow, and even human hair. In later years, when there arose a western demand for eastern fabrics so that the aim of the weaver was to produce an article as cheaply as possible, flax, hemp, jute, and larger quantities of cotton were sometimes substituted. Since all of these materials are indigenous to the country where they are used, and are affected by its climate, altitude, humidity, and fertility, they acquire qualities that frequently give to rugs a distinctly local character.

Plate 3. Kirman Rug

The wool of sheep constitutes the warp and weft of at least half the Oriental rugs and the pile of over ninety per cent. To be sure, in Japan the pile is largely jute and cotton; in a few of the districts of Asia Minor and Persia it is mercerised cotton or silk; and in districts where the camel is still a beast of burden its wool and fine hair are often substituted for other kinds; but throughout all the rug-weaving countries of the East the wool of the sheep has been and still is preferred to all other materials for the pile of rugs. This is due not alone to its warmth, to the facility with which it can be spun and twisted into knots, but also to the fact that from the remotest times the inhabitants of these districts, like Abraham of old, have been shepherds, who followed their calling because over the steppes of Tartary and the great plateaus that extend through Asia Minor, Persia, Afghanistan, and Turkestan spread vast pasture lands that seem better suited than any other parts of the world for the nourishment of sheep with fine fleeces. In fact, a part of these districts seems to be the natural habitat of the sheep; for among the crags of some of the lofty mountain chains of Central Asia, and farther west where Eastern and Western Turkestan meet in the lofty plateau of Pamir, called the “Roof of the World,” still wander great bands of magnificent native sheep with enormous horns and brownish grey wool, from which it is believed sprang the vast flocks that now browse on every hill and mountain slope of Western Asia.

Centuries of care have effected an important evolution in this native stock, for in no other part of the world are there sheep with longer and more silky fleeces. Nevertheless there are different grades, as the quality depends in a measure on the climate and pasturage as well as on the care of the sheep. Thus in the hot, sandy lands the wool shows some deterioration; but in the cold, dry climates of the many high lands of Western Asia and in the pastures of particular localities the wool is long, fine, and lustrous. For instance, in parts of Khorassan, on the flanks of high mountains near Kirman and Shiraz, on the shores of Lake Niris in Farsistan, among the rolling uplands of Asia Minor, are produced uncommonly fine and beautiful fleeces. When, moreover, the sheep of these localities receive the care that is given by some of the nomadic tribes, as the Uzbeck Tartars, who not only shelter them but cover them with blankets, the wool acquires a soft and silky quality that is unsurpassed. The wool produced in many parts of India, on the other hand, is poor; for not only are the serrations, on which largely depends its value for textile purposes, less numerous than in better varieties, but it is harsh and contains many long hairs that do not well unite with it and that take up very little dye.

The wool of the goat is much less extensively used, yet appears in some rugs, not only as warp and weft, but also as pile. The goats of Kashmir, which live in the cold climate of a table-land three miles above the ocean level, produce the finest and most beautiful wool; but as it grows near the skin, and beneath wiry hairs from which it can be removed only with tedious care, it is too precious to be used excepting for the most beautiful shawls and choicest carpets. Of next importance and finest texture is the wool of the Angora goat, known to commerce as mohair. Formerly there was not much demand for it, but now, on account of the consideration that it has received in the carpet factories of recent Sultans, it is found in many of the rugs of Asia Minor. As it grows to an average length of five to six inches it is easily spun; and its soft, lustrous sheen gives to the rugs in which it is used a silky and brilliant appearance. Some of the Bokhara goats, also, yield fine wool that is used in rugs. Yet, as a rule, yarn made from the fleece of the goat is not regarded with favour by weavers, since it is apt to be coarse and to pack closely. Nor does the wool of the goat mix well with the wool of the sheep. There is, however, a much finer grade growing next to the skin, which may be removed with a knife when it is exposed by combing the longer fleece in a direction reverse to that in which it lies. The tougher grades are preferred to any other material by weavers of the Afghanistan, Beluchistan, and some Turkoman rugs for selvages at the sides, as they afford excellent protection against hard usage. Goat’s hair is also sometimes used in these rugs for warp. Unless mixed with wool it is very rarely used for weft, as it is not sufficiently pliable.

Of more frequent use than the wool of the goat is the wool of the camel which grows close to the skin beneath the long hair. In the tropical countries, as in Soudan, the camel has no wool, but in more northern latitudes it yields a crop which increases in quantity and improves in quality as the climate grows colder. Thus in Arabia, Asia Minor, and in most of Persia and Turkestan the yield is small, in the table-lands of Eastern Persia and Afghanistan it is much larger, and on the lofty plateaus of Turkestan and Chinese Tartary as much as ten pounds of wool is obtained yearly from each beast. The clip is taken at the usual moulting season during the spring of the year. The wool of the older camels is coarse and dark, what is taken from the young is finer and lighter, and the most silky and valuable of all is what is obtained from the unborn. The best grade has been more highly esteemed than the wool of any other animal, and rugs in which it constitutes the pile are more valuable than those in which the wool of sheep is used. It is seldom woven in modern rugs, but dyed wool or goats’ hair of similar colour is often substituted for it.

The wool or underhair of the yak is used only among the mountain tribes of Tartary, and is never found in any of the choicer grades of rugs. Occasionally the hair of the horse or cow is employed to a limited extent in the pile of nomadic rugs, where it may be distinguished by its coarse and wiry character. In old rugs of which the pile is much worn cows’ hair will now and then protrude like the hairs of small bristle brushes. Only very rarely is human hair seen in a rug.

Natural colours of the several kinds of wool, which have made it possible to dispense with their dyeing, have always been taken advantage of by weavers. The only black yarn on which the wear of time has left no impress is from the fleece of the proverbially despised black sheep. Shades of white, ivory, brown, grey, rufus, and even a plum are obtained from different varieties. Likewise a wide range of rich chestnut colours are furnished by the camel.

It is but natural that the nomad should depend on the wool of his flocks and herds for warp, weft, and pile; but people of fixed habitations have employed other kinds of material also. Where the sensuous luxury of the East called for magnificent carpets, they were often woven almost entirely of silk, which was easily obtained, as silkworms thrive on the mulberry trees that grow wild on the plains of Central and Southwestern Asia. Silk rugs are still woven in a few cities of Asia Minor and Persia. For the cheaper grades of rugs flax, hemp, and jute have been sparingly used; and during recent years cotton has been widely adopted, particularly in Persian, Indian, and Chinese rugs, on account of its cheapness as compared with wool. It is, however, almost entirely as warp and weft and rarely as pile that it is used. Though much less durable than wool, its white colour is far less likely to darken with age; yet there is a poorer variety which, after being thoroughly wet, acquires a dark colour.

In the preparation of these different textile materials wool requires the greatest care. In some parts of the Orient it is not washed, and the lustrous hues of the pile are attributed to the fact that it is dyed in its naturally greasy state; but in other parts the grease and dirt are carefully removed. This cleansing is a craft that has been transmitted from parent to child, and is practised according to different methods in different parts of the country. One of the chief essentials is an abundance of clear running water free from alkali; for when the water is hard, as is often the case in the more arid parts of the country, it loses some of its cleansing properties, and potash or other chemicals are required to counter-act this unfavourable quality. After the wool has been thoroughly washed it is carefully dried in the sun and open air.

The next important step is the proper sorting, picking, and combing. The sorting consists of the separation of black and light wool, or of an inferior from a better grade; and the picking consists of the removal of burrs or foreign particles. The object of combing is to effect an orderly arrangement of the wool so that it is ready for spinning. One method, corresponding to carding, is to draw the wool repeatedly between rows of upright spikes set in a wooden frame until every matted particle has been separated and all the fibres are disentangled. The older method, still employed in nearly every part of the Orient, consists of “teasing” with the cord of a heavy bow, which is suspended or held firmly by the left hand over the wool, while with the right hand the cord is made to vibrate either by striking it with a wooden instrument or plucking it, so that the fibres of wool are separated and assorted by the vibrations.

When the wool has thus been prepared, it is wound about the distaff and then spun into yarn. In many parts of the Orient the common spinning-wheel has been introduced and adopted for both wool and cotton; in other parts are crudely made spinning-wheels of different design and about the height of a man. The natives of districts more remote from civilisation still cling to the primeval spindle, which sometimes consists of no more than a rounded stick half an inch in diameter and a foot in length with a ball of clay at one end. Many of the nomadic tribes of Asia Minor and Mesopotamia use in place of it a small stone of convenient shape, to which is tied a strip of linen a few inches in length. A few fibres of wool are attached to the end of the linen by twisting them about it, and a few more fibres are similarly attached to these when the stone is suspended and twirled. As the fibres become closely twisted together more fibres are added until on account of the length of the thread thus formed the stone reaches the ground. The thread is then wound about the stone and secured by a couple of loops so as to leave a piece only a few inches in length, to which more wool is attached in continuing the spinning. When a large ball of thread has been spun, it is removed from the stone and the process begun again.

Plate 4. Shiraz Rug

One advantage of these simple devices is that they can easily be carried anywhere. Even to-day a not unusual sight is a half barbaric shepherd following his flock, while he spins with simple distaff and spindle or stone, as did his ancestors thousands of years ago. On the end of the distaff, that rests beneath his left arm, is the ball of wool from which he selects and twists the fibres, while he deftly turns the short spindle or twirls the stone with thumb and forefinger of the right hand. The threads spun by professional spinners on spinning-wheels are of small diameter and are the most regular in size and texture, those spun with the small spindle are of larger diameter and less regular, and those spun by twirling a stone are made of the coarsest diameter in order to insure sufficient stoutness, since they are the most irregular in size and texture; yet yarn so made is the most highly valued by all weavers.

Only very rarely, indeed, is one of these single threads used for yarn, since it would be apt to part. Two of them, therefore, are twisted together to form a double thread. A simple device used by many nomadic tribes for this purpose consists of two short sticks crossing at right angles, and another piece with end like a crochet needle perpendicular to them. The threads which are attached to this piece pass through a hole at the intersection of the crossed sticks and are twisted by twirling them. It is very seldom that three single threads are twisted to make a triple thread, and when such is the case it is the work of a professional spinner who uses a large spinning-wheel, and never the work of a nomad. For the weft of many rugs, and for the pile of a few rugs such as Sarouks and Kashans, a double thread alone is used; whilst for the pile of most rugs the double thread is again doubled, trebled, or quadrupled, so as to form yarn of two, three, or four ply, and even yarn of six ply is sometimes used. A distinction also exists in the manner of twisting together double threads to make yarn of two or more ply, since according to the custom of different tribes they may be twisted so loosely that in the length of an inch they do not describe more than a single revolution or so tightly as to describe several.

Until the introduction of the modern spinning-wheel wool was spun in the Orient exactly as it was ages ago. It is this almost incredible disposition to adhere as with religious fanaticism to methods transmitted from father to son and to resist as pernicious every attempt at innovation that makes a precise analysis of rugs possible. Accordingly, the evenness or unevenness of single threads, the looseness or tightness with which double threads are twisted together to form yarn of different ply, as well as the number of the ply used, are a few of the important indices for distinguishing between rugs of different districts.

Even after the yarn is spun it is not always ready for the dyer, and in order that it may properly absorb the dye it is often washed and rewashed. In some parts of the Orient it is first soaked in warm water and carefully rinsed in cold water. It is then placed in a copper pot or vat containing boiling water to which has been added carbonate or sulphate of soda and potash, and stirred for about an hour. After this thorough cleansing it is again washed very carefully in soft water and thoroughly dried in the sun.

The wonderful sheen of many old rugs is due almost entirely to the materials of which they are made. This material, as a rule, is unsurpassed by similar products of any other part of the world, and is prepared by patient races who know little of the value of time. The simple labour required is in itself prosaic enough, yet without a doubt the earlier spinners and weavers, while following their flocks with minds free from all conventions and limitations of art, discerned the elemental forces of nature in all their freshness and power, and from them drew inspiration that bore fruit in the exquisite colouring and delicate tracery of the woven carpets.

Plate 5. Niris Rug

CHAPTER IV

DYEING

OWEVER remarkable the achievements of Oriental art in any field, their most pleasing effect has always been associated with colour. Without it the beauty of the lustre tiles of Persia, the marvellous porcelains of China, and the delicate textiles of Western Asia would fade into insignificance. It is indeed the wonderful harmonies of exquisite tints chosen by the touch of genius from a palette of many thousand pigments that awaken the appreciation of the luxurious splendour of the East. This love for colour is inherent in every rug-producing race of Asia and is older than history. It is but natural, then, that the earliest carpets should be radiant with glorious tints, which in a lesser measure are reflected in modern fabrics.

If high praise is due to the artist who, by a skilful association of different colours of co-ordinate tones, creates the picture that delights the sense, a fair measure is also due to the artisan who not only controls the secrets of the dyes, but has mastered the difficult knowledge of their proper application; for the beauty of the finished woven product depends on the judicious dyeing of the yarn more than on anything else. From father to son for many generations has been transmitted a knowledge of those particular vegetable and animal products of root, leaf, fruit, and insect, and the manner of their use, by which the imperishable lustrous sheen and colour of the finest woven fabrics are produced. Indeed, this art requires to-day more technical knowledge than any other branch of rug weaving, since modern designs are no longer more than the imitation of those in older carpets; and so important is it regarded that a successful dyer is a man of distinction in his tribe.

The sources from which are obtained many of the dyes that give the innumerable carpet colours are recorded. A few of them are received from remote countries, but most of the plants from which they are extracted grow in marshes and on hills and plains where the nomads wander with their flocks. Many of them are used without blending, but even some of the seven primary colours are derived by proper blending; and from a number of dyes of different strengths and qualities are produced an infinite number of rich and delicate shades.

The principal blues of Oriental rugs are obtained from indigo. This is derived from colouring matter in the leaves of plants of the genus Indigofera, that grow to a height of four to six feet in the East Indies, when they are cut and placed in a vat containing water. In about twelve hours fermentation ensues; and after this subsides the liquid is drawn off into another vat, where after one or two hours of agitation the indigo forms as a precipitate. Many different species of this plant grow wild throughout Asia, and from the earliest times have been used to produce dye-stuff. Indigo is one of the most valuable of all dyes, as by using it in conjunction with others an infinite variety of shades result.

Some reds are obtained from the plant madder (Rubia tinctorum), that grows abundantly in Central and Southwestern Asia, Its colouring properties were known to the ancients; and for a long period it has been cultivated in Asia Minor, where the succulent roots of the second and third years’ growth are regularly dried and prepared for use. Other reds are derived from the insect cochineal (Coccus ilicis) that lives on oaks of the countries bordering the Mediterranean, and was known among the Arabs as “kermes,” signifying Red Dye. After the discovery of America another species (Coccus cacti) was found that was more productive of dyeing qualities. The females, which alone are valuable, are plucked from the trees and killed by exposing them to vapours of acetic acid, or placing them in hot water, or in an oven. From their dried bodies, of which over fifty thousand are necessary to make a pound, the dye is produced. As both these dyes are noted for their fastness, they are constantly used, but when silk or wool is to be dyed cochineal is preferable to madder.

The yellow dyes are obtained from several sources. Some are from the berries of plants of Western Asia. Others are from the leaves of the sumach bushes, that are indigenous to nearly every part of the world. An orange tinge is derived from the turmeric extracted from the short root stocks of a plant of the genus Curcuma. From time immemorial a beautiful yellow has been obtained from saffron. It is the product of the stigmas of the fragrant crocus, which are so small that over four thousand are necessary to furnish an ounce of dried saffron; yet the dye is so powerful that it will give a distinct tint to seven hundred thousand times its weight of water. As saffron has something of a stimulating effect on the human system, it has been taken by the Persians when mixed with their rice.

With none of these three basic colours was any national feeling associated, yet the Persians excelled in the use of blues. The Turkomans of Turkestan and Asia Minor produced better reds than any other colour, and the best yellows, even if generally inferior in positiveness to blues and reds, were those of the Chinese.

Though other primary and secondary colours sometimes result from the application of a single dye, the many thousand different tints can only be produced by the blending of two or more. Moreover, the qualities of the same dye vary greatly, as they depend on the soil where the plant grew, the time of year when it was removed, and the weather and other conditions prevailing during the dyeing.

In nature green is one of the most pleasing colours, but in carpets it is most unsatisfactory, as it has generally a faded appearance, due probably to the fact that one of the dyes of which it is formed by blending is less permanent than the other. The Chinese greens obtained from the buckthorns are generally the best.

Greys and browns are sometimes derived from gall nuts, and reddish brown from henna. For very dark browns and black, iron pyrites has been largely used in both old and modern rugs; but unfortunately the dye has a corrosive effect on the wool, so that the black knots of old rugs are often worn to the warp.

In parts of India flowers of the bastard teak (Butea frondosa) make a favourite dye, from which are produced, by blending with other dyes, a large number of shades ranging from deep yellow to brownish copper tones. Another well known dye is Butti lac, obtained from an insect, Coccus lacca, that lives on the twigs of trees. It is a substitute for cochineal and produces different shades of red, crimson, terra cotta, and purple, according to the other dyes and the mordants with which it is blended.

Besides these few dyes are innumerable others that are used either singly or in combination. Furthermore, different colour effects are produced by the application of different mordants, which it is necessary to use for the reason that without them many fibrous materials are unable to absorb a large number of the dyes. The most valuable of all mordants is alum; and the sulphate of iron and tin are largely employed in the case of red colours. Of the vegetable mordants, pomegranate rind, which contains some yellow colouring matter, is the best known. Valonia also is sometimes used, as well as limes, lemons, the fruit of the tamarind, and the mango.

In the monograph of Mr. Harris on the “Carpet Weaving Industry of Southern India” are a number of directions from an old manuscript owned by a dyer who stated that he was the descendant of twenty generations of dyers who originally came from Tabriz, and that he had made his copy from a Persian book of dyes which had belonged to his grandfather. A few of these are given below, because they show not only the dyes and mordants, but also the methods employed.

“Birbuls Blue. Take cinnabar, indigo, and alum, grind and sift lighter than the light dust of the high hills; soak for ten hours; keep stirring it; put in the wool and soak for many hours. Boil for three hours; wash in kurd water, water in which kurds and whey have been well beaten up; leave for three hours, and then wash and beat again in water.

“A Fine Indigo Blue. Take indigo, soak it in water for twelve hours, grind it to a fine paste in a mortar, add some Terminalia citrina, pomegranate peel, and alum; and mix thoroughly. Boil; put the water into the hot bath and keep stirring till cold. Now mix in some iron-filings water, and boil steadily for another two and a half to three hours; wash with a beating and dry.

“Ruddy Brown Grey. Take sulphate of iron, Terminalia citrina, oak galls, and alum; mix well; dry; then steep for twenty-four hours. Put in the wool; soak it for twenty-four hours, then boil for two or three hours. Dip in a soda-bath, wash, and dry.

“Cinnamon. Take oak galls, acacia bark, cinnabar, and alum, and steep for a night. Put in the wool, and soak for twenty or thirty hours; boil the water for two or three hours and give a soda-bath wash; dip in acidulated water; and wash again with beating.

“Crimson. Take lac colour and cochineal. Steep for from four to six days in the sun, in hot weather for the lesser time, stirring constantly till a rich deep colour comes where some has stood for a few minutes in a thin glass bottle and settled. Then strain through two cloths, and put in pomegranate rind and good iron-filings water. Add mineral acid; steep wool for thirty-six hours, then boil for three hours, wash well, and dry.

COLOUR PLATE II—OUSHAK CARPET

The colours and pattern of this antique Oushak are similar to those of the best examples that remain of the carpets woven in Asia Minor during the XV and XVI Centuries. The deep blue of the central field, the rich red of the medallions, and the golden yellow of the leaves are entirely unlike the more subdued hues found in Persian rugs. Strongly contrasting with them are the more delicate tones of the tendrils and leaves, which display in their drawing a keen sense of refinement. In the formal pattern of the field are stateliness and elegance; in the narrow borders are simplicity and grace. Such colours and drawing show that the early Asia Minor weavers had an intense appreciation of the ennobling qualities of beauty and harmony.

Loaned by Mr. James F. Ballard

“Pale Greyish Green. Take copper rust, asburg,[5] and alum. Mix well with any hot water, not boiling; soak wool for eighteen hours, then boil for three hours. Give a bath with water acidulated with some limes, and dry in shade.

“Old Gold and Rich Yellow. Take turmeric and asburg, cinnabar and alum. Soak all night. Steep wool for twenty-four hours, boil for four and a half hours, wash with a beating, and dry in shade.

“Dark Grey. Take of the fruit of Cupressus sempervirens, seeds and seed pods of babul (Acacia arabica), iron-filings water, and alum. Steep over night. Now add the water and let it soak for twenty-four hours, then boil for two or three hours, until the colour is right, then wash and dry in the sun.

“Rose Colour. Take ratanjot (Onosma echioides), a thought of cochineal, manjit (Rubia cordifolia) or lac colour a very little, and cinnabar. Add water, soak them for twelve hours, put in wool, and steep for thirty-six hours; cook it for three hours, then bathe the wool in alum and wash nicely; afterward dry in the shade.

“Persian Scarlet. Take lac colour, and if you choose a little cochineal for richness, and soak from four to six days; strain it in two cloths and add alum and a little turmeric; let it stand for three hours. Put wool in and steep for twenty-four hours, then boil for two hours. Take out the wool and add mineral acid; re-enter wool and boil an hour more. Wash fifteen minutes when cold, and dry in the shade.

“Saffron Yellow. Take turmeric, cinnabar, and soda, add water and keep for a full day. Then add some alum, make the dip, and soak the wool for thirty hours. Cook it for several hours, and dry in the shade after beating and good washing.

“Rich Yellow. Take asburg and turmeric, soak for a night in water, steep the wool for twenty-four hours, add alum, shake out, and dry in shade.”

Identical shades of a number of colours are not produced in all parts of the Orient, not only for the reason that soil, moisture, and climate affect the colour values of dye-stuff, but because each family of dyers preserve inviolable the craft secrets transmitted from their forefathers. Thus it happens that different parts of the rug-producing countries adhere to particular tones that help to identify the locality where the fabrics were woven.

Unfortunately the Western aniline dyes, which were introduced about the year 1860 and quickly adopted because they are cheaper and less complicated in their application, have to such an extent transplanted some of these fine old vegetable dyes that a number of the richest and most delicate colours found in the rugs of a former century are no longer produced. Thus the superb blue of the fine old Ispahans, as well as of lustre tiles and illuminated manuscripts, belongs to a lost art. The disadvantages of the aniline dyes are several: they have a tendency to make the fibres of the textile fabric brittle, and when it is wet the colours will frequently run. Some dyes also fade more readily than others, so that if a colour be the product of two or more dyes, the resultant tint may be totally unlike the original. On the other hand, not all vegetable dyes are fast; but as they fade they mellow into more pleasing shades. Efforts have been made to encourage the use of old vegetable dyes; but unless the laws which have been enacted in parts of Asia to restrict the importation of aniline dyes be more stringently enforced than in the past, the cultivation in the garden patch of the dye-producing herbs and plants will soon cease to be the time-honoured occupation it was in days gone by.

Almost as important as the art of preparing the dyes is that of properly applying them to the yarns. It is an art that demands infinite pains in its technique, as well as a lifetime to acquire. It is in itself a separate profession practised by artisans who guard with jealousy the sacred secrets that transmitted from generation to generation occupy their thoughts to the exclusion of almost everything else. The homes of these professional dyers in the larger villages and cities are located on a stream of water which possesses mineral properties that long experience has proven especially suitable as solvents for the different kinds of colouring matter. Ranged about the walls of their low dwellings are jars or vats containing liquid dye of various colours. Suspended above them, from hooks driven into beams, are the yarns from which, after immersion in the proper vats, the liquids are allowed to drain. After this the yarns are exposed for the proper length of time to the dry air and burning sun. It is, therefore, the suitable mordants, the preparation of the proper dyes for the vats, the immersion of the yarn in correct sequence and for the correct length of time, as well as the exposure to the glare and heat of the sun for a definite period to be gauged to the exact moment, on which the colour results depend. This complicated process by which, for instance, the infinitely different shades of a red, a blue, or a brown may be conveyed to yarn by using the same dyes but by slightly modifying the steps requires the greatest precision, for which no rule but an experience amounting almost to instinct is the guide.

Plate 6. Feraghan Rug

There was a time when the Oriental had not learned the meaning of tempus fugit or seen the glitter of Western gold, when his dyeing and weaving were proud callings, in which entered his deepest feelings. Then the old vegetable dyes that mellow, grow softer and more lustrous, were almost exclusively used; but now throughout all weaving countries the dyer has deteriorated so that he can no longer produce some of the rich colours in use half a century ago. Yet remote from the principal lines of travel, on the edges of the desert, in lonely valleys, among rugged mountains, half-tamed tribes are still dyeing their hand-spun yarn as did their fathers’ fathers.

CHAPTER V.

WEAVING

EAR the tents of some nomadic tribes may occasionally be seen crude looms on which are woven some of the most interesting rugs that now reach the Western markets. In all probability they are not dissimilar to what were used thousands of years ago, for it would be impossible to construct a simpler loom. Where two trees suitably branching are found growing a few feet apart, all of the upper branches are removed excepting two, which are so trimmed as to leave a crotch at the same height in each tree. In each crotch is rested the end of a pole or beam, and parallel to it is placed another extending at a short distance above the ground from trunk to trunk. Or, as is more frequently the case, roughly hewn posts are firmly implanted in the ground and horizontal beams are stretched between them. In the upper one is a groove with a rod to which one end of the warp, consisting of strong threads of yarn numbering from ten to thirty to the inch, is attached, while the other end is tightly stretched and firmly secured to the lower horizontal beam. Sometimes the beams to which the warp is attached are placed perpendicularly, so that the weaver may stand and move sideways as the work progresses. But among a very large number of those tribes that are constantly wandering in search of new pastures for their flocks and herds, it is customary to let the loom lie flat on the ground, while the weaver sits on the finished part of the rug.

Plate A.—An Upright Loom.

Under more favourable circumstances, when the tribes live in villages or cities, the looms are so made that the weavers are not compelled to bend in order to tie the first row of knots or stand erect to finish the last rows of a long rug. Of the several devices by which the weaver may remain seated while at work, the crudest consists of a plank used as a seat, which rests on the rungs of two ladders placed parallel to each other at the sides of the rug. As the work progresses, the plank is raised and rested upon the higher rungs. More frequently, however, both upper and lower beams of the frame have the shape of cylinders of small diameter, which revolve between the upright posts. The lower ends of the threads of warp are attached to the lower beam, and the other ends may either be wound several times around the upper one or else pass over it and be kept taut by weights attached to them. Such a loom is generally used for weaving very large rugs, which are rolled up on the lower beam as the work progresses.

In Plate [A] (Page 45) is represented a loom commonly used in many parts of the Orient. When preparing it for weaving two stakes are driven in the ground at a suitable distance apart, and about them the warp is wound in the way a figure eight is formed. The warp is then carefully transferred to two rods that are attached to the upper and lower beams. If it has been carefully wound, none of the threads should be slack; but if desired the tension may be further increased by different devices. Two other rods, known as “Healds,” are then attached to the front and back threads of warp; or in the case of a single rod, it is attached to the back threads, as shown in the Plate. A lease rod is next inserted between the threads of warp that cross below the upper beam, and another is placed below it where, if necessary, it is supported in position by loops. When the weaving begins, a short web is generally woven at the lower end to protect the knots from wear. After the first row has been tied, the shuttle carrying the thread of weft is passed between the front and back threads of warp; the heald rod attached to these back threads is then pulled forward, so that they are now in front of the others, and the shuttle is passed back. If the rug is narrow, only one shuttle is used; but if the rug is wide, or if the weft consists of two threads of unequal thickness, a shuttle is passed across from each side. Every thread of warp is in this way completely encircled by the thread of weft as it passes and repasses. When weaving large rugs, there is an advantage in having two heald rods, as by their use the distance between the front and back threads of warp may be increased. The object of the lease rod is to prevent any slack caused by drawing forward the threads of warp, and is accomplished in a very simple manner, as will be seen by studying the drawing; since when the tension of the back threads is increased by drawing them forward, the tension of the front threads is also increased by displacing the lease rods which thereby stretches them.

Plate 7. Feraghan Rug

The products of the loom are divided according to their weave into three separate classes. The simplest of these are the kilims, which are without pile and consist only of warp and weft to which a few embroidered stitches representing some symbol are occasionally added.

A more elaborately made class are the Soumaks. They consist of warp covered by flat stitches of yarn and of a thread of weft which extends across and back between each row of stitches in the old rugs and between each second and third row of stitches in the new rugs. In the narrow, perpendicular lines that define both borders and designs the stitch is made by the yarn encircling two adjacent threads of warp; but in other parts of the rug it is made by the yarn passing across two adjacent threads of warp at the front, and after encircling them at the back, recrossing them again at the front. It is then continued across the next pair of adjacent threads of warp. The result is that at the back of these rugs each of the two threads of warp encircled by the yarn appears as a separate cord, while at the front the yarn passes diagonally across four threads of warp. As this diagonal movement is reversed in each succeeding row, the surface has an uneven appearance sometimes termed “herring bone” weave.

By far the largest class of rugs are those with a pile. When making them, the weaver begins at the bottom and ties to each pair of adjacent threads of warp a knot of yarn so as to form a horizontal row. A thread of weft is then passed, as often as desired, between the threads of warp and pressed more or less firmly with a metal or wooden comb upon the knots, when they are trimmed with a knife to the desired length. Another horizontal row of knots is tied to the threads of warp; again the yarn of weft is inserted; and so the process continues until the pile is completed. In tying the knots, work almost invariably proceeds from left to right and from the bottom to the top. It is but rarely that the warp is stretched horizontally and that the knots are tied in rows parallel to the sides. It is still more infrequently that a rug is found in which the knots are tied by working from the centre to the right and left, and to the top and bottom. These interesting exceptions may easily be discovered by rubbing the hand over the pile, when it will be noticed that the knots lie on one another so as to face the same direction, which is the opposite to that in which the work of tying advanced, or as is generally the case, from top to bottom.

The compactness, durability, and value of a rug depend somewhat on the number of knots in any particular area. Yet if the yarn is coarse, the rug may be compact even though the number of knots be small; and if the yarn is fine, the rug may be loosely woven, either because the rows of knots have not been firmly pressed down, or because there are several “filling threads” of weft, and still the number of knots be large. A square inch is a convenient size for measurement; but since all parts of a rug are not woven with equal compactness, the measurement should be made in several places if exactness be required. In loosely woven pieces, such as the Oushaks and some of the Genghas, there may be less than twenty knots to the square inch; but among the more closely woven, as the Kirmans and Bokharas, are frequently several hundred.

These knots are of two classes, the Ghiordes and the Sehna. The Ghiordes are found in all rugs of Asia Minor and Caucasia, in some of the rugs of India, and in most of the rugs of Persia. They are named after the town of Ghiordes in Asia Minor, where some of the finest Asiatic pieces were made, and which tradition states was once the ancient Gordion, noted even in the days of Alexander. In tying the knot, the two ends of yarn appear together at the surface included between two[6] adjacent threads of warp around which they have been passed, so that the tighter the yarn is drawn the more compact the knot becomes. The three different ways of tying this knot are shown in Plate [B], Figs. 1, 2, and 3 (Page 49), of which the second is known as a “right hand” and the third as a “left hand” knot. The Sehna knots, which are used in the Turkoman, Chinese, many of the Persian, and in some of the Indian rugs, take their name from the city of Sehna in Persia. In tying them, a piece of yarn encircles a thread of warp and is twisted so that its ends appear at the surface, one at each side of the adjacent thread of warp, as is shown in Plate [B], Figs. 4, 5, and 6. According as this thread of warp is to the right or the left of the one they encircle, the knots are known as “right-hand” or “left-hand” knots,[7] but in the appearance of the carpet there is no distinction. If the pile of a rug is carefully parted, the two ends of yarn forming a Sehna knot can be separated; but with the Ghiordes knot this is impossible, as will be understood by studying Plate [B], in which Figs. 1, 2, 3, 7, 8, and 9 are Ghiordes knots, and Figs. 4, 5, 6, and 10 are Sehna knots. As a rule, the Sehna knots, which permit of closer weaving and clearer definition of pattern, appear in rugs of shorter nap.

Plate B.—Nos. 1, 2, 3, 7, 8, 9, Ghiordes knots. Nos. 4, 5, 6, 10, Sehna knots. No. 11, Weft-overcasting. No. 12, Double-overcasting. No. 13, Weft-selvage. No. 14, Double-selvage. Nos. 15, 16, 17, illustrate one, two, and three threads of weft passing between two rows of knots.

The nice distinctions in the technique of weaving are rarely understood even by those who are familiar with Oriental rugs. The general pattern, which next to colour is the characteristic that most quickly arrests the attention, is often the sole guide by which novices guess the class. The more experienced will observe if the knot be Ghiordes or Sehna, and examine the finish at the sides and ends; but few give the peculiarities of the weave the consideration they deserve. This, perhaps, is because only those who have made a special study would believe the constancy with which members of a tribe or locality have followed the same method of tying the knot and inserting the weft. The different methods of treatment by separate tribes are sometimes only slight, but they afford a most important clue for determining the place of origin of doubtful classes. In fact, nearly every class has a typical weave differentiating it from all other classes. To be sure, there are exceptions to the established type which are inevitable; since, for instance, a man from the Feraghan district might marry a woman from the adjoining Hamadan district, who, to please her husband, might weave a rug with pattern common to his district but follow the style of weaving that she has been familiar with from childhood. Nevertheless, weavers of a particular district adhere more closely to a typical style of weaving than they do to any other characteristic of a rug. Nor is this surprising, since weaving is learned in earliest childhood; and as it contains no elements calculated to stimulate the imagination, it is mechanically followed with stereotyped precision. An innovation in pattern, by copying some strange designs that strike the fancy, is far more likely. These distinctions in weaving may be conveniently divided into those that affect the knot, the warp, and the weft.[8]

The Knot.—Not only may a knot be tied as a Ghiordes or a Sehna knot, but it may have other distinguishing peculiarities; as, for instance, it may be of fine or coarse wool. This is most conveniently observed at the back, where it will be seen that the knots of rugs such as the Bokhara, Kirman, Joshaghan, and Bergamo are tied with fine yarn; while the knots of other rugs, as the Samarkand, Bijar, Gorevan, Kurdistan, Yuruk, and Kazak are tied with coarse yarn. Whether the yarn be fine, medium, or coarse, all specimens of any class will show a remarkable conformity. Also in some rugs the knots are drawn very tight against the warp, while in others the yarn encircles the warp loosely. Any one who has examined the back of many Sarouks, Kashans, Kirmans, or Daghestans, and rubbed the finger-nail against them, could not possibly mistake them for a Shiraz, Kulah, Yuruk, or Karabagh, which are less tightly woven. Again, as a result of using yarn in which the double thread that forms two or more ply has been very loosely or very tightly twisted together, there is some difference in the direction or slant of the strands forming the yarn, where it shows at the back, though this feature is not pronounced. For example, in most Afghans, Yuruks, Bijars, and others the strands of yarn where it crosses the warp in forming the knot lie for the most part in a direction parallel to the weft; while in other rugs, as Mosuls, Kurdistans, and Kazaks, the strands of yarn slant irregularly. Furthermore, in some rugs, as the Melez and Yuruks, as a result of the threads of yarn being strung rather far apart, each half of a knot encircling a thread of warp stands out at the back distinctly from the other with clear cut edges; while in many rugs, as the Shiraz or Sehna, each half is very closely pressed together. Also in some rugs, as Sarabends and Afshars, each of these half knots where they show at the back have the same length, measured in a direction parallel to the warp, as width, measured in a direction parallel to the weft; while in such rugs as the Kazaks, since the yarn generally consists of several ply, the length exceeds the width; and in a few rugs the length is less than the width.

The Warp.—The appearance of the back of a rug is partly due to the relative positions of the two threads of warp encircled by a knot. If, for instance, in any Kazak a pin be thrust through the nap wherever a single perpendicular line of one colour appears at the surface, it will be seen that each of the two threads of warp encircled by a single knot lie side by side with equal prominence. This is shown in Plate [B], Figs. 7 and 7a (Page 49), in which the former represents a section of a rug cut transversely to the threads of warp, and the latter the appearance of the rug at the back. The same will be found true of Beluchistans, Feraghans, Yuruks, and many others. If, however, a Kulah, Persian-Kurdish, or Karabagh be similarly examined, it will be seen that one thread of warp to each knot is depressed, so that the back has a slightly corrugated appearance (as in Plate [B], Figs. 8 and 8a). And in the case of a Bijar or Sarouk it will be seen that one thread of warp, included in every knot, has been doubled under so as to be entirely concealed from view; with the result that the foundation of warp has a double thickness, which makes the rug much stronger, as in Plate [B], Fig. 9, representing a Ghiordes knot, and Fig. 10 representing a Sehna knot. To be sure, it occasionally happens that in rugs of a particular class some may have each thread of warp included in a knot equally prominent and others may have one slightly depressed; or that in rugs of another class some may have one thread of warp depressed and others may have it entirely concealed; but as a rule these tribal features show a remarkable constancy. These relative positions of the two threads of warp encircled by a knot are partly due to the degree of closeness with which the threads of warp are strung, also partly to the method of inserting the threads of weft or “filling” between the rows of knots; but more than all else they are due to the way one end of the knots is pulled when they are tied.

The Weft.—In the character and arrangement of weft are technical differences that are more serviceable than any other feature for distinguishing between the rugs of different tribes and districts. So subtle are some of them that they can be learned only by long and painstaking study, and are appreciated by few except native weavers. Nevertheless, to any one who will carefully examine almost any well-known classes, it will be apparent that these differences in the weave are real, and that they are sufficiently constant to differentiate one class from another. The fine brown weft of the Bokhara, or equally fine bluish weft of a Sarouk that is almost concealed between firmly tied knots; the fine thread of cotton weft passing but once between two rows of knots and covered only by the transverse warp of the Sehna; the coarse thread of cotton weft similarly passing but once between two rows of knots in the Hamadan; the coarse thread of cotton weft that once crossing and recrossing appears irregularly between appressed rows of knots in Kermanshahs; the bead-like appearance of the threads of weft that, as a rule, pass many times between two rows of knots in Genghas; the crudely spun weft of coarse diameter crossing and recrossing once between the rows of knots in modern Mosuls; the very fine reddish brown weft that entirely conceals from view the warp in old Bergamos, —are features peculiar to these separate classes with which every rug expert is familiar. The weft of many other classes is equally distinctive, though there are exceptions to the types. It should be remembered, however, that the weave of many rugs woven over a hundred and fifty years ago is different from the weave of rugs woven only fifty years ago; and that many modern pieces cheaply made for commercial purposes are more crudely woven than were the same classes thirty years ago.

Plate 8. Hamadan Rug

These distinctions in the weft relate to the material of which it is made, its colour, the size of the diameter, the way in which it is spun, to its loose or compressed condition between separate rows of knots, as well as to the number of times it crosses the warp between them, and to whether it is inserted with much or little slack. Most rugs are woven with woollen weft of a natural colour, but occasionally it has a reddish brown, a blue, or a yellow tint. When cotton, jute, or hemp are used, they are almost invariably of natural colour; only in a very few pieces, as some of the Kulahs, are both wool and jute ever used in the same piece. The weft of some classes, as Bokharas, Sarouks, and Bergamos, is of a very small diameter, and of others, as the Hamadans and Kurdistans, it is of relatively large diameter. In some classes, as the Karajes and Genghas, the weft is tightly spun like twine; while in the Beluchistans, Mosuls, and Kurdistans it is loosely spun, so that the projecting fibres of wool give a rough appearance to its surface.

Also the weavers of some districts invariably compress very firmly the yarn of weft between every two rows of knots, while other weavers compress it only to a slight degree; as, for instance, in the Afghan, Tabriz, and Kirman the rows of knots are pressed down so firmly that the weft is almost concealed at the back and the transverse threads of warp are entirely covered; whilst, on the other hand, in the Karabagh or Kazak between every two rows of knots the weft and part of the transverse threads of warp are exposed to view. According as the rows of knots are pressed down upon the threads of weft or not, one of the two halves of each separate knot, as shown at the back, may extend slightly or very much beyond the other in the direction of the length of the rug, or each of them may lie in a straight line at right angles to the warp. Comparing Kazak, Kutais, and Tiflis rugs, for example, it will be noticed that as a rule the line thus formed in Tiflis rugs is nearly an even, clear cut line at right angles to the warp, that in the Kutais part of one knot extends beyond the other, while in Kazaks this unevenness is even more conspicuous. Or again, if typical Shirvans, Kabistans, and Daghestans be compared, it will be noticed that in Shirvans the half-knots, or parts of the knot encircling the two adjacent threads of warp, are often inclined at an angle of at least thirty degrees to the line of weft so as to present a serrated appearance, but that the alignment formed by knots of Daghestans is nearly even, and that of Kabistans is intermediate. To be sure, there are exceptions to this rule, but these features are remarkably constant.

The number of times that a thread of weft is inserted between two rows of knots varies with the practice of different localities, but is almost constant in each locality. Weavers of Sehna rugs insert only a single thread of weft between every two rows of knots, which winds in front of and behind alternate threads of warp, with the result that the back of these rugs have a checkered or quincunx appearance, caused by minute portions of exposed warp and weft crossing each other at right angles. In Hamadans a much heavier thread of weft passes only once before and behind alternate threads of warp, so that the appearance of the weave is very similar to that of Sehnas.[9] In almost all other rugs the weft crosses twice, that is, across and back once, between every two rows of knots so as to completely encircle each thread of warp. The weave of a few rugs, as some Anatolians, shows the weft crossing three times, that is, twice in one direction and once in the opposite direction. In the Genghas, Tcherkess, Bergamos, and in many rugs over one hundred and fifty years old, the threads of weft frequently cross many times; and it is not unusual for the number to vary in different parts of the same rug. In Plate [B], Figs. 15, 16, and 17 (Page 49), is illustrated the appearance of the back of rugs in which a thread of weft crosses once, twice, and three times between two adjacent rows of knots. There are likewise rugs in which the number varies with methodical regularity; for instance, in Khorassans it is usual to find an extra thread of weft inserted at intervals of every few rows of knots; in many Herats the threads of weft cross twice between several successive rows of knots, then three times between the following several rows, and so continue to alternate; and in some of the Kulahs a thread of woollen weft that crosses twice alternates with a single coarser thread of jute.

As the shuttle passes back and forth, the thread of weft may be allowed considerable slack, so that when it is pressed down by the comb it will fit about the sides of the warp; or it may be drawn tightly across, so that it has a tendency to displace the threads of warp. If, for instance, a Hamadan and one of the Feraghans which, unlike the majority of them, has only one thread of weft crossing between the rows of knots, be examined, it will be seen that in the Hamadan the weft crosses with hardly any slack, so that the warp stands out clearly and well defined at the back; but that in the Feraghan the weft crosses with much slack, so that it folds about the warp, which accordingly seems slightly imbedded in it at the back. In some rugs the weft is passed across once with very slight slack, and as it recrosses it is allowed much slack. These features of the weave, which are followed with remarkable constancy in the same class, can be observed to advantage in a fragment of a rug cut transversely to the direction of the warp. If, for instance, the weft which crosses and recrosses between the rows of knots be carefully removed so as not to disturb its mould, it will be noticed in the case of many rugs that each thread of yarn has a similar shape of moderately deep undulations, which show how it conformed to the warp and indicate how slack it was when inserted. In the case of a few rugs, as the Luristans, each thread will likewise have similar undulations, but they will be very prominent. If, on the other hand, the weft be removed from some classes, as the Tabriz, Sarouk, and Kashan, one of the two threads will be almost straight or have slight undulations, while the other thread will have deep undulations. The weft of the Herez, Herats, old Khorassans, and Koniehs have the same peculiarities, excepting that the thread with very slight undulations is of three or four ply, while the other is of a single ply.

The only instruments employed in weaving are the knife, comb, and scissors. The first is used, after each row of knots has been tied, to cut the ends of yarn to nearly the proper length; the second, to press firmly each row of knots; and the last, to trim the nap with care, so that the finished product may present an even and compact appearance.

Finish of Sides.—As the sides are constantly exposed to wear weavers of different districts strengthen them in different ways, which may be designated as Weft Overcasting, Double Overcasting, Weft Selvage, Double Selvage, and Added Selvage. Each of these terms, though not euphonious, suggests the method employed. In Weft Overcasting (Plate [B], Fig. 11, Page 49) the thread of weft, after encircling the threads of warp to which the knots are tied, is wound about a much heavier cord that is strung at the side of the rug for a space equal to the thickness of the knots. It then partly encircles the threads of warp between the next two rows of knots as it passes to the other side, when it is wound about the heavy cord there. As this process continues, the cords at the sides are completely overcast with the thread of weft. When the sides have a Double Overcasting (Plate [B], Fig. 12), heavy yarn is wound about the cord that has previously been encircled by the weft. Frequently several threads of yarn take the place of a single heavy cord. Weft Selvage (Plate [B], Fig. 13) is made by placing two or more heavy cords instead of a single one at the side of the warp, and encircling them by the weft in figure-eight fashion. As they extend beyond the rows of knots they form a plain flat selvage. The Double Selvage (Plate [B], Fig. 14) is used among nomadic tribes such as the Beluches and Afghans, whose rugs receive an unusual amount of hard wear, so that an extra selvage is necessary. In adding this extra selvage the threads of weft are carried about the heavy cords, as in weft selvage, and then the extra yarn is wound over it in figure-eight fashion so as again to encircle the heavy cords. In Added Selvage the heavy cords are not encircled by the weft, but are attached to the side of the rug by the extra yarn that winds about them figure-eight fashion, and also encircles two or more adjoining threads of warp. Sometimes also the selvage is “Mixed,” or made by the weft encircling only one or two of the heavy cords, and then an extra yarn is wound about these and the remaining cord or cords. Moreover, the Double Overcasting and Double Selvage may be “attached” more firmly to the sides of the rug by the yarn passing in figure-eight fashion about the adjacent thread or threads of warp between the two rows of knots. When a Double Overcasting is thus “attached,” it is somewhat similar to a two-cord Double Selvage.

These are the principal methods of finishing the sides, though they are sometimes modified by tribal customs. Simple as they seem, skill is required in both overcasting and making the selvage; for if carelessly done the sides are frequently made to curl. This is occasionally found to be the defect of old rugs, the worn sides of which have been recently overcast by inexperienced weavers. When such is the case, removing the stitches and overcasting with more care will remove the defect.

Plate 9. Sarouk Rug

Finish of Ends.—The ends, which receive more attention than the sides, are treated in several different ways; and in many rugs a distinction exists between the treatment of each end. The simplest finish is where the warp and weft are woven like the threads of a kilim, and extend beyond the pile as a web, which may be exceedingly short, or, as in Beluches and Afghans, several inches long. Frequently the ends are finished by a selvage formed by cords heavier than the weft braided into the warp; or the upper end may be doubled back and hemmed. It is not unusual to find both web and selvage; but though the finish be web, selvage, or web and selvage, the warp of the end finished last generally forms a fringe, and often each end will have a fringe. Sometimes each separate thread of warp hangs loose; sometimes a number a foot or more in length are twisted together in cords; and again they are knotted or are tied to one another diagonally so as to form a network from which hang the loose ends. Very frequently the loops formed by the warp that encircled the rod extend beyond the web at the lower end of the rug, or else are braided about the ultimate thread of weft in the web. Though the warp and weft are generally undyed in the body of the rug, the web of the ends is very frequently coloured. Some of the webs, particularly those of the Beluches, are embroidered; and through others, as the Kurdistans, a parti-coloured cord runs transversely; still others, as Bergamos, are adorned with shells, beads, or other articles to avert the evil eye.

In the study of rugs it should be remembered that the effect of rough usage is so considerable that in old pieces the webs of the ends have frequently disappeared, leaving short fringes composed of the ends of warp from which some rows of knots have been removed, and that recent overcasting of the sides may take the place of former selvage.

The many characteristics of knot, warp, weft, sides, and ends, with all the variations made by innumerable tribes, remarkably constant in their methods, are technical peculiarities that are uninteresting to those who feel only an aesthetic interest in rugs, yet they demand the most careful consideration of whoever would learn to differentiate accurately between the many classes. Though admitting of exceptions, these peculiarities are real and definite, yet their analyses often require the subtlest perception of small though exact distinctions, without which expert understanding would be impossible.

CHAPTER VI

DESIGNS AND SYMBOLS

OWEVER well woven, however resplendent in rich modulations of colour, Oriental rugs would quickly lose their fascination if in patterns and designs there were not at least some partial expression of the simple lives of the people, of their religious feelings, and of that veiled mysticism which pervades the thought of every Eastern race.

In all nomadic rugs as well as in many others are innumerable reminders of common life. It may be only crude outlines of the goat or camel, or realistically drawn rose and lily; but even these are suggestive of associations.

Religion, too, exercised on the character of rugs an important influence, which is expressed in the symbolism of both designs and colour. Without a doubt, some of these well-known designs have been transmitted from the earliest times, and were once associated with different forms of idolatry. Thus, among the old Babylonians the sun and moon, which are sometimes seen in the old pieces, represented particular deities; and very many of the oldest Chinese rugs that remain also contain symbols of their deities. In the early religion of Iran, which over 1000 years b.c. was reduced to a system by Zoroaster, the elements were worshipped, so that designs representing these elements would likewise represent the divine forces they personified. This ancient fire worship of the Parsees, which even to-day has a few devotees in parts of Persia, and the kindred sun worship have added much to the symbolism of Oriental rugs. Buddhism also has contributed its share; and with the spread of Mohammedanism appeared a Saracenic influence that is frequently recognised. Even the two great sects of Mohammedan followers, the Shiites and Sunnites, have had distinct effects in the use of designs, as the former employed animal figures and the latter prohibited them.

Plate 10. Sarabend Rug

There was, moreover, a symbolism that in a manner expressed the vague philosophic teachings of the ancient races. It was but natural that the early weaver engaged in tedious sedentary work, often requiring many months of constant application to complete, should endeavour to express therein not only artistic taste, but also the spirit of his innermost thoughts. So as he wove he sometimes left the result, though poorly defined and little understood to-day, of that struggle to interpret the great mysteries of the visible and unseen universe, from which arose the crude beginnings of philosophy.[10]

The patterns, however, of many Oriental rugs are chiefly decorative. Even a casual examination shows that in all of them the coloured knots of the surface represent a border surrounding a central field. The former serves much the same function to the latter as a frame to a picture; yet its office is in no wise subordinate. Nor is there any part of the pattern more useful in determining the place of its origin. For this reason it is well to clearly define the special names which in this work are applied to its different parts. The lineal divisions are designated “Stripes,” though they are frequently spoken of as separate borders. At or near the centre of the border is the main stripe, which is generally accompanied by a much narrower pair, one on each side, known as “Guard stripes.” Very narrow stripes are sometimes called “Ribbon stripes,” and those of only one or two knots in width are called “Lines.” The latter are of solid colour or have the simplest geometric device. The decoration of the ribbon stripes is also necessarily simple; but in the main stripe of artistic rugs the patterns are often exceedingly elaborate, of exquisite colours, and co-ordinate in character with those of the field.

The fields display even greater diversity of pattern than the borders. Frequently they are covered with a heterogeneous mass of detached and unrelated figures, as in many of the nomadic rugs; or, on the other hand, are entirely covered with repetitive patterns, as in the Turkomans; or with intricate and correlated designs, as in the diaper and floral patterns of so many of the Persian and Indian rugs. Others consist of a background of solid colour on which appear isolated formal designs, as in some of the Khorassans, or medallions on which are represented smaller figures, as in some of the old Sehnas and Feraghans. Occasionally the medallions are so large as to extend to the sides and ends of the fields, and thus separate the corners into nearly triangular shaped sections, such as are characteristic of a number of Persian and one or two Caucasian rugs. In a few of the latter, also, the fields are covered with large geometric figures suggesting the medallions. It is only within comparatively modern times that weavers have used solid colours for large portions of the fields. The intent no doubt was a saving in labour and pains, but the effect is frequently most gratifying; as when, for instance, the space beneath the arch of Asia Minor prayer rugs is of a uniform red, blue, or cream, relieved only by a gracefully suspended lamp, the tree of life, or some other emblem of immortality.

Plate C.—Prayer Arches of Persian, Caucasian, and Central Asiatic Rugs

No. 1, Antique silk. No. 2, Kermanshah. No. 3, Khorassan. No. 4, Sarouk. No. 5, Persian, XVI Century. No. 6, Kashan. No. 7, Feraghan. No. 8, Shiraz. No. 9, Daghestan, Kabistan, Shirvan, Chichi, Kazak, Karabagh. No. 10, Kazak. No. 11, Shirvan. No. 12, Karabagh (not usual). No. 13, Beluchistan. No. 14, Bokhara, Tekke. No. 15, Khiva. No. 16, Beshire.

The patterns of prayer rugs are not only pleasing, but have a peculiar importance, as weavers of certain sections of the country adhere so strictly to time-honoured traditions that the shape of the arch, or mihrab, which is the principal feature, often denotes the class, as well as the group, to which they belong. Some of these arches are illustrated in Plates [C] and [D] (Pages 61 and 63), from which it will be seen that in Persian rugs they are formed by gracefully curving lines, but that in rugs of other groups, with the exception of a very few old Ghiordes pieces, they are geometric. The peculiarities of the arches of the several classes, also, are observable; as those of the Beluchistans, which are rectilinear and relatively high, and those of the Bokharas, which are tent-shaped, flat, and small. In the Caucasian group they have a marked resemblance to one another and also to those of the Turkoman rugs, but are larger than the latter. Again, the arch of almost all Asia Minor rugs rises higher than those of any others, excepting the Persian, and extends from one side of the field to the other. In many of them a panel is placed above the spandrel, and occasionally a second panel is placed beneath the field. Above the niche of some Asia Minor and Caucasian prayer rugs is woven a small rhomboidal figure, where the suppliant plants the pebble or bit of earth that he has brought from Mecca; and at the sides of a few arches are crude figures, where are placed the hands during the act of worship. More than one arch is the exception; but now and then are seen two and even four, one above the other, or several parallel to one another. These and other special features associated with prayer rugs will be considered more fully in subsequent chapters.

The smaller designs that appear in rugs and compose the general pattern are distinguished as geometric and floral ornamentation. The former is adopted in those countries where the population is principally nomadic; and the latter is the accepted style in countries where exist numerous towns and cities in which the arts have been cultivated and where a large percentage of the population have enjoyed an advanced state of society. Thus in Caucasia, Turkestan, Afghanistan, and Beluchistan geometric designs are characteristic of the rugs; but in China, India, Persia, and part of Asia Minor floral designs prevail. Sir George Birdwood, an eminent authority on Oriental rugs, has made the statement that the geometric designs are found among the lower Turanian and the floral among the higher Aryan. But it seems most probable that the adoption of the geometric or floral style of ornamentation is due not so much to racial distinctions as to the state to which the textile art had advanced among the different peoples and to the waves of influence that at times spread over the countries. Thus the early rugs of Asia Minor had patterns that were more geometric than those of later times, and during the period when the Mongols ruled in Persia geometric patterns were more frequently employed in the rugs of that country than subsequently.

Plate D.—Prayer Arches of Asia Minor Rugs

Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, Ghiordes. Nos. 5, 6, 7, Kulah. No. 8, Ladik. Nos. 9, 10, Bergamo. Nos. 11, 12, Melez. No. 13, Kir-shehr, Mudjar. Nos. 14, 15, Konieh. No. 16, Anatolian.

In all rugs, however, some trace of the floral design appears. Even in the Turkoman weavings, the pattern of which is strictly geometric, some vestige of the tree of life is manifest. In the fields of Caucasian rugs, in which are represented squares, octagons, triangles, diagonals, lozenges, stars, etc., the weavers have depicted designs that are almost as geometric as those of the Turkoman rugs by which they have been influenced; but, on the other hand, large numbers of the border designs are distinctly floral. In the rugs of China and Asia Minor are found both geometric and floral ornamentation, the latter predominating in pieces woven during the last two centuries, and the former in those of earlier date. Among > the woven fabrics of India and Persia, however, few traces of the geometric pattern remain; but vines, leaves, and flowers form the favourite theme for decoration.

The floral patterns are the result of many centuries of growth, that reached its highest development in the Persian carpets of the XVI and XVII Centuries; and since then till the present time they have continued as the most characteristic features of the rugs of that country and India. They represent the highest technique of the weaver. In the borders are generally represented vines from which are pendant rosettes, palmettes, or flowers; and in the fields, particularly those of the fine antique rugs, are a profusion of floral forms realistically portrayed. On long, gracefully twining and intertwining stems is often the rose, pink, violet, lotus, crocus, narcissus, or daisy. But if the rug is more modern, in its field of uniform colour may be represented a central medallion covered with delicate tracings enriched by bright-coloured conventionalised flowers.

In the general pattern of all rugs are interwoven particular designs or motives that give them a distinctive character and render the greatest assistance in distinguishing the groups and classes. Thus the serrated leaf and wine cup (Plate [I], Fig. 1, opp. Page 226) is found only in Caucasian and old Armenian rugs; and the design represented in Plate [H], Fig. 10 (opp. Page 194), suggestive of some Chinese character, is found almost exclusively in Kulahs. Not only are all designs important as aids in classification, but they have a special interest, as it is maintained by writers of the highest authority that when employed by the earliest weavers each had a symbolic meaning. To be sure, the origin of many has been lost in the remote past and is unknown even to those who now employ them; but others still represent definite ideas, as they did centuries ago, and portray to some extent the thought of the weaver. They therefore deserve the most careful study.

Plate 11. Carpet from Northwestern Persia

Loaned by C. F. Williams, Esq., to the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York

Few of these designs have been transmitted from a more remote past or have been more universally employed than has been the figure

or

. It appears in each of the groups of Oriental rugs excepting the Chinese; and two of the forms it assumes are exceedingly like the arms of the swastika and parts of the fret as occasionally seen in Chinese designs. In Indian rugs it is rarely found except in the borders, which may have been copied from those of other countries. It is very commonly seen in the Beluchistans, Tekkes, and Beshires, of the Central Asiatic group; and in the rugs of the Persian group that show nomadic influences. There is probably not a single class of the Caucasian group, nor any of the Asia Minor group, with the exception of the old Ghiordes, in which it is not sometimes represented. It may be seen near the corner of the Asia Minor “Dragon and Phœnix” carpet of the XIV Century, illustrated in Plate [20] (opp. Page 88); and appears in some of the old Armenian carpets, which are believed to be even older. That it was associated with sun worship and regarded as an emblem of light and the deity is the accepted belief. It is possible, however, that it was intended by some weavers to represent the serpent, which among many different races is emblematic of superhuman knowledge.

Probably no other design has been more universally employed than the swastika, which appears in the textile fabrics of North American Indians, on the Maya ruins of Yucatan, among the monuments of the Nile, and on the temples of India. Widely as is its distribution, its most usual form of intersecting right angles is found in each of these countries. It is not improbable that it originated in China, where it is a most common decorative motive, and was almost invariably represented in the borders and in many of the medallions of rugs woven before the beginning of the XVIII Century. It is also very frequently seen in the rugs of Samarkand, and occasionally in those of Caucasia. It seldom appears in the rugs of Persia, Asia Minor, or Turkestan. The universality of the design indicates its great antiquity, yet its primitive symbolic meaning of abundance, fertility, and prosperity has never been lost. Some of its different forms are shown in Plate [O], Figs. 5a, 5b, 5c, 5d, 5e, and 5f (Page 291).

The reciprocal trefoil (Plate [F], Fig. 17, opp. Page 158) is a very usual design in Caucasian and Persian rugs; it is often found in some of the rugs of India and in Beluchistans, but is very rarely seen in other classes of the Central Asiatic or in the Chinese and Asia Minor groups. Its origin is uncertain, but since it appears in the “Polish Carpets” and other antique Persian carpets of strictly floral pattern, where its drawing is more elaborate than in modern rugs, it is not improbable that it is the conventionalised form of the lily or a spray bearing three leaves, and that it has the emblematic significance of the tree form.

Among all primitive races the sun, moon, and stars have been associated with their religion, so that it is surprising that so few emblems of them are recognised in rugs. In the theology of the Chaldees, from which the earliest weavers must have received inspiration, the sun was regarded as one of their principal deities and the moon as another. The sun is generally represented by a plain circle, a circle with diameters intersecting at right angles, or a circle with small ovals intersecting at right angles; the moon is represented by the crescent. Of much more frequent occurrence is the eight-pointed star, another inheritance of those ancient times when all primitive races worshipped the heavenly bodies. It represented the female principle of the Chaldean sun god; and it is believed, too, that it represented the deity to the Medes, ancestors of many of the present Persians. There is a tradition among some Eastern races that King Solomon wore a ring of diamonds arranged in the form of an eight-pointed star, and also a crown containing a large star of which the eight points and centre were composed of precious stones of different colour. A star now and then seen in rugs with colours so arranged is known as “Mohammedan’s jewel design.” The six-pointed star, a Jewish symbol for the “shield of David,” was adopted as a talisman by some of the Moslems. All of these stars are chiefly nomadic symbols, they rarely if ever are seen in the rugs of China or India, they are only occasionally found in those of Persia, and are of most frequent occurrence in the Caucasian pieces.

Another design is an octagonal-shaped disc (Plate [O], Fig. 10, Page 291), usually about two and a half inches in diameter, on the face of which and extending the full width are figures somewhat like hour-glasses placed at right angles to one another. It seems not improbable that it is of the same origin as the large designs that appear in the field of the Holbein rug of the XV Century, illustrated in Plate [21] (opp. Page 92). It is a very old motive, and is sometimes regarded as a dial symbolising the diurnal motion of the earth. It is of very frequent occurrence in nomadic rugs; and is found in Beluchistans, in nearly all Caucasians, in some rugs from Asia Minor, and in only a very few from Persia.

The zigzag line, known as the water motive, is found in many of the rugs of China, India, Persia, Caucasia, and Asia Minor, as well as in the Beluchistans and Beshires of the Central Asiatic group, though in some instances it appears as little more than a serrated line. It is represented in the narrow guard-stripes of some of the Western Asia Minor carpets of the XV Century. According to Mr. John Mumford, “even in the oldest Egyptian symbolism a zigzag line stood for water and by implication for eternity; and a succession of these arranged to represent the sea has long been a recognised carpet design in India, China, and Persia.”

COLOUR PLATE III—MOSUL RUG

Long before the commercial instinct had been felt among the weavers of the Orient, one or more of them dwelling in the Mesopotamian valley tied the knots of this old Mosul. The central field is of camel’s hair that shades from a rich dark chestnut at one end to lighter tones at the other, and is enlivened by bright flowers representing those found on the river’s banks. This variation of ground colour, the small geometric designs at the extreme ends of the fields, the eight-pointed stars of the main stripe of the border, and some of the drawing are nomadic characteristics. The dainty vine and flower of the narrow guard stripes, on the other hand, show Persian influence. This piece represents a type of which few now remain.

Property of the Author

One of the most common designs is what has been called the “latch-hook.” When there is a long succession of latch-hooks with the straight ends resting on a line and the hooked ends inclined in the same direction, as in Plate [K], Fig. 20 (opp. Page 230), they are called “running latch-hooks.” Since they appear in the Dragon and Phœnix rug (opp. Page 88), that was probably woven about the end of the XIV Century, they are evidently a very old design, which not improbably was derived from the Chinese fret. The hook is of different shapes, and is sometimes perpendicular, sometimes inclined. Its particular function is to shade or subdue the harsh effect of a sudden transition from one colour to another that is entirely different. As such a device is unnecessary in artistic rugs of intricate designs, it is rarely seen in any Indian or Persian piece, excepting the modern Shiraz that frequently adopts geometric patterns; but it is found in all the rugs of Caucasia, Central Asia, and in most of those of Asia Minor. It is in fact as universal as the reciprocal trefoil.

In rugs of geometric patterns are occasionally found both Greek and Roman crosses. The latter are represented in most of the Soumak rugs, and appear profusely in old Asia Minor or Armenian rugs, in which they were probably woven with the intent to convey a religious significance; but in many instances crosses are not used symbolically.

The design of a comb (Plate [O], Fig. 11, Page 291) is a Mohammedan emblem suggestive of cleanliness, yet it is not improbable that it is sometimes intended to represent the instrument employed in pressing the threads of weft closely against the knots. It is found mostly in Caucasian rugs, and rarely in those of other groups.

In a large number of the finest carpets woven in Persia three or four centuries ago was represented what is known as the Chinese cloud-band (Plate [O], Fig. 7). It appeared in Persia about the middle of the XV Century, and was conspicuous in the carpets of Herat, Tabriz, and Gilan, as well as in many of the “Polish Carpets.” Later it was introduced into Asia Minor, but was never represented in any of the strictly nomadic weavings. It appears in only a very few of the modern rugs, and these are mostly Persian. Nor is it recognised in its usual form in any of the Chinese rugs that now exist; though without a doubt it originated with the Chinese, since their early mythology placed the abode of the Supreme Ruler in the Constellation of Ursa Major, of which the stars of the Big Dipper were represented in early art as enveloped in a band of clouds; but in more conventionalised ornamentation the stars are omitted and the band remains. As a motive, then, it is symbolic of heaven and the deity.

In almost all rugs are found expressions of vegetable life, as a twig, vine, flower, or tree. Sometimes they are most naturalistic, again they are partly conventionalised, or so disguised, as in nomadic rugs of geometric designs, that only by study and comparison of many forms in a series can their origin be established. This universal adoption of floral form was due to something more than an aesthetic love for the beautiful, since in every country of the East some part of the tree or plant was emblematic. Moreover, a tree form known as the Tree of Life had a religious significance among many races. The Jews were told that in the Garden of Eden grew the “Tree of Knowledge of Good and Evil;” and in the Book of Revelation the Apostle John speaks of “The Tree of Life which bore twelve manner of fruits and yielded her fruit every month, and the leaves of the tree were for the healing of the nations.” From this passage may have been borrowed the belief of the Mohammedans in the Tree of Life which grew in Paradise, and spread its branches that true believers might rest beneath them and enjoy its fruits and the companionship of beautiful houri. In the ancient lore of China is the Taoist tradition of the Tree of Life, growing by the Sea of Jade, that confers immortality on the fortunate who may gather and eat its fruits; also the tradition of the mountain top where grows the sacred tree on which the elect may climb and mount to heaven. Even among the ancient Chaldees was a story of a tree that grew to heaven and sheltered the earth. In different countries the Tree of Life is represented by different kinds; in Yarkand of Eastern Turkestan it takes the form of a cedar; in Persia it is generally the cypress. Wherever employed it is symbolic of knowledge, resurrection, immortality.

Plate 12. Carpet from Northwestern Persia

Loaned by C. F. Williams, Esq., to the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York

No other form of vegetable life was so universally employed in Oriental symbolism as the lotus flower (Plate [O], Figs. 16a, b, and c), since the Egyptian, Assyrian, Indian, Chinese, and Persian alike did it reverence. It was, perhaps, first employed emblematically in the valley of the Nile, but later it was held in high esteem by the inhabitants of India where the floating blossom is regarded as an emblem of the world. It was inseparately associated with Buddha, and its religious significance must have extended with the spread of Buddhism. Professor Goodyear regards a large number of designs that apparently are not related in form as derived from it through a long series of evolutions. During the highest development of the textile art in Persia it appears most realistically drawn in a large number of the carpets, especially the so-called Ispahans, or Herats, and the so-called Polish. It is also most artistically represented in the fabrics of India, and is a favourite design for Chinese weavers. But in other modern rugs it is seldom used as a motive, and is so conventionalised as often to escape notice.

If the lotus was the first flower to be represented in early woven fabrics, as seems not improbable, several others have met with greater favour among modern weavers. Of these the rose, which is cultivated extensively in the gardens of the East, appears in a large number of the rugs of Persia and Asia Minor. Moreover, a pattern frequently seen in many old Persian rugs is an all-over pattern of small bushes with flowering roses. Almost equally popular is the lily, which is characteristic of many of the rugs of India and of a few of Western Asia Minor. The “Euphrates flower,” which grows by the river banks of the Mesopotamian valley, is also occasionally found as an all-over pattern in some of the rugs of Western Iran and Southern Caucasia. Less frequently seen and still less frequently recognised, as they are generally woven in small figures, are the daisy, anemone, crocus, narcissus, pink, and violet. All are depicted chiefly on account of their associations and beauty, and whatever emblematic meaning they are intended to convey is generally no more than that of their colours. There are, however, in a few old Persian carpets designs of sunflowers, which were accepted by the Zoroastrians and the earlier sun and fire worshippers as symbols of the sun and emblems of light.

Of the fruits of the earth none is more highly esteemed than the pomegranate, which was sculptured in temples of Mesopotamia and embroidered on the robes of Assyrian and Jewish priests. In the days of King Solomon it was cultivated in Palestine, where the Israelites, like modern Persians, made a sherbet by mixing its juice with sugar and spices. At the time of Homer it was cultivated in Phrygia. Now it grows wild over vast tracts of Syria, Persia, and Asia Minor. Yet it rarely appears conspicuously in any woven fabrics excepting the Ladik prayer rugs, in which it is invariably seen. Since the weavers of these, whether Christian or Moslem, would probably be familiar with many of the old Jewish and Assyrian rites, it is not unlikely that it refers emblematically to its religious associations rather than symbolises, as has been suggested, the idea of fruitfulness as expressed in the Turkish wedding custom where the bride throws a pomegranate at her feet that the scattered seed may fore-tell the number of her children.

In almost every rug of Persia, India, and Asia Minor there is in some part of the border a vine with pendant leaves, flowers, rosettes, or palmettes; and even in many Caucasian rugs of geometric pattern the vine with its appendages is seen in conventionalised form. In a few of the more sumptuous carpets, where the drawing is elaborate, delicate tendrils bearing flowers or the more formal designs of the Herati border take the place of the vine, from which they were evolved. In such borders the designs generally convey no symbolic meaning, but the simpler vine encircling the field without beginning or end represents symbolically the continuity of purpose and permanency.

One of the most interesting designs (Plate [O], Fig. 6, Page 291) is known as the Cone, Palm, Mango, Almond, River Loop, and Pear. By some it is believed to represent no more than the closed palm of the hand, since there is an old tradition in Persia that a weaver once asked his little son to devise for him a new design, whereupon the boy thrust his hand into a pot of dye, then placed it sidewise upon a piece of white linen, on which became impressed the “palm” design formed by the hand and incurving small finger. By some it is regarded as a cluster of old Iranian crown jewels. To others, who point to the well-known pattern of the Kashmir weaving, it denotes the bend of the river Jhelum above Srinagar in the valley of Kashmir; and to Sir George Birdwood it symbolises the flame sacred to ancient fire worshippers. In this work it will be called the Pear, the name now generally applied to it. In the course of the many centuries that have elapsed since its origin, and in its migration through India, Persia, Turkestan, Caucasia, and Asia Minor, it has adopted more strange shapes than any other device. In the rugs of Sarabend it is represented in its best-known form of simple curving lines, in the Bakus its identity is almost lost on account of its geometric appearance, and in the fabrics of India it is often very ornate. Though its origin is hidden in the mists of the past, when its antiquity is considered, and also the devotion of the early races to the glowing orb of the sun and to terrestrial fires, it is not surprising that it has been regarded as a relic of the Zoroastrian faith of old Iran, symbolising the eternal flames before which the Parsees worshipped.

Plate 13. Compartment Carpet in the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York

If the floral designs are more beautiful, others are more truly symbolic, and when appearing in rugs of barbaric patterns they are more interesting. Of these the creeping things are represented by the serpent, scorpion, turtle, crab, and tarantula. Among a few races of Asia the serpent, which is found in a few old Persian carpets, has been regarded as emblematic of immortality, but has been more frequently considered as the symbol of knowledge. The scorpion, also, was supposed to represent the idea of knowledge. It does not often appear in woven design, but is sometimes drawn with careful precision in Caucasian fabrics. The turtle or tortoise stands for constancy. What is called the “turtle border” (Plate [E], Fig. 3, opp. Page 156), which was probably derived from interlacing arabesques, occurs most frequently in Feraghans and also in some other Persian rugs, as Muskabads, Sarabends, Serapis, and even the Sehnas. The tarantula and crab designs are found exclusively in borders of Caucasian rugs. As their resemblance to the animals they are supposed to represent is remote, it is most probable that they are simply the conventionalised forms of the star and palmette.

Among the designs seen in Chinese rugs are several not found in any others. Of these the dragon, originally intended as a symbol of the infinite, denotes imperial power; the stork, long life; the duck, conjugal felicity; the bat, happiness; and the butterfly, a spirit. These designs will be noticed in the chapter on Chinese rugs.

With few exceptions the only modern rugs in which birds are represented are the Persian. The drawing as a rule is far from natural; but in the fine old carpets it is often so accurate as to show unmistakably the order to which they belong. Several of them were used symbolically, as the bird of paradise, suggestive of felicity; the peacock, symbol of fire; the eagle, emblem of power. The attitude, to be sure, in which they appear, affects in a measure their symbolic meaning; as an eagle in flight denotes good fortune, but one in the act of descending denotes ill luck.

As the Mohammedan religion interdicts portraying birds and beasts as well as human forms, they are rarely seen in any rug of Western Asia Minor, which is inhabited by the Sunnites, the strict conformists to the law of the Koran; but in Mohammedan countries lying farther to the east, where the Shiites or nonconformists live, animal designs are very common. In modern rugs of Persia and Caucasia, dogs, goats, and camels are the most popular animal subjects, but the drawing is often so poor that the identity is in doubt. In the old carpets, on the other hand, animals and human beings were most realistically drawn, and were intended to represent symbolically the weaver’s thought. In fact, those masterpieces of Persian art known as the “Hunting Carpets” would lose much of their interest if their many forms of animal life were without symbolic meaning. In them the lion is a symbol of victory, power, the sun, and the day; the antelope and unicorn are symbols of restfulness and the moon. The lion destroying an antelope would mean, then, the victory of day over night, or of a powerful over a weak foe. Leopards and hounds likewise symbolise success and fame. There are also mythological creatures, as the phœnix, emblematic of life and resurrection, and the winged djinni or Persian spirits, that often adorn the fields and borders of some of the elaborate antique carpets of Iran.

Not only the forms of vegetable and animal life and their relative attitudes to one another were intended to convey a symbolic meaning, but among almost all ancient races colours had a special significance. To the Moslems no colour was more sacred than the green, which, though difficult to produce in beautiful tones, they have placed in the fields of many of their prayer rugs. To them, also, blue was the emblem of eternity, and in the spandrels above the arches it was the symbol of the sky. Though to the Hindoo it denotes ill luck, it was the chosen colour of the Persians, as well as one of the imperial colours of the Chinese. Among all nations yellow, another imperial colour of China, and red are suggestive of joy and happiness. Such colours, when used in conjunction with other emblems, expressed not only beauty, but also different shades of thought.

Plate 14. Persian Animal Carpet in the Metropolitan Museum Of Art, New York

These are but a few of the many motives that are employed by the weaver. Some of them represent objects intimately associated with his daily life. Some of them reflect his thoughts and emotions. Others are the still unsolved hieroglyphics of his craft. When, then, we examine some old worn rug, we may see only an exquisite pattern resplendent in the deep rich colours of an art now lost; but if to an æsthetic taste be added an interest in a symbolism that expresses something of the thought and life of the weaver, we may find in the study of the various designs another charm that increases with the discovery of any previously hidden meaning.

CHAPTER VII

RUG WEAVING BEFORE THE XVIII CENTURY

HERE are no records to definitely indicate in what land the art of rug weaving originated, or to disprove that it developed independently in different lands. It would be unreasonable, then, to assume that rugs were not woven in northern regions as early as in southern. In fact, during the Neolithic age the Lake-dwellers of Switzerland grew and spun flax, and it is believed that they had looms. Moreover, it is probable that the savages of cold climates soon learned to weave garments with the long wool of their sheep or goats; and the similar process of weaving mats for the floors of their huts would naturally follow. Nevertheless, such evidence as now remains points to the civilisations of the Euphrates or the Nile, as the birthplace of this art.

Though we do not know when the first rugs were made, without a doubt they existed before the pyramids of Egypt or the palaces of Babylon had risen from the plains. Among the rock-cut tombs of Beni-Hassan in Egypt, that date from about 2500 B. C. are pictures of men with spindles, of looms and weavers. There is also unmistakable evidence of the antiquity of a high state of the textile art among the ruins in the valleys of the Tigris and the Euphrates. On carved walls of the palaces of Nineveh, where dwelt the rulers of Assyria over three thousand years ago, are elaborate drawings indicating that carpets of remarkable workmanship were then in use. In the borders of some of the robes worn by the rulers are designs of rosettes and latch-hooks, and on one is depicted the tree of life, similar to what may be seen in modern rugs. Nor are ancient writers silent. In the Old Testament are frequent references to woven fabrics. Homer, also, speaks of them in his Odyssey. Herodotus, Diodorus, Pliny, Strabo, in fact almost all classic writers have mentioned them. Moreover, designs on pottery, bowls, tiles, and walls, similar in appearance to those found in the oldest existing carpets, carry contributory evidence to their antiquity and character.

This art, that necessity created, comfort nourished, and luxury matured, has been a process of slow development. To the mind of some dark tribeswoman of the desert contemplating the rushes gathered from a sluggish stream and strewn upon the floor of her master’s hut several thousand years ago, may have been suggested the first idea of a mat. Indeed, from earliest times mats of reeds, straw, bamboo, or other pliable material have been constantly made. At first they were doubtless without ornament; later they were coloured with dyes obtained from roots and herbs to increase their attractiveness; finally designs symbolic of nature or the deity were embroidered on them. As wealth and luxury increased the ornamentation became more elaborate, until during the rule of the Caliphs the mats rivalled in beauty the carpets for which, during the summer months, they were substituted. “On these mats,” wrote the eminent authority, Dr. F. R. Martin, “the artist found free scope for displaying as much artistic skill as on the real carpets, and gold threads were intertwined to make them as precious as the most expensive silk and gold carpets.” Long, however, before they had reached such a high state of perfection, they would have suggested the idea of making warmer and more durable floor coverings. The first of these was a simple web of warp and woof; later they assumed a character not dissimilar to the kilims now made in the lands of their origin. With further advance, more elaborate carpets and tapestries were made; but it was not until the art had been developing for a great many centuries, that there appeared those most perfect products of knotted pile that were similar in kind but superior in quality to the modern pieces.

Slow as was this development, as early as the Christian era, the work of the most skilled weavers of the Orient deserved to be classed as a fine art. During the time of the Sassanian kingdom (extending from about 226 a. d. to 632 a. d.) carpets of elaborate design and finish were produced in Mesopotamia and Syria. Most of them were of the wool of sheep or goats; and in them were represented designs of trees, birds, animals, and other figures. Other pieces were made of silk richly embroidered with silver and gold. Moreover, authentic evidence from the VI Century a. d. not only gives us positive knowledge of the marvellous workmanship of that time, but enables us to conjecture through what a long period of progression the artisans had been labouring to arrive at such results. Dr. Karabacek, director of the Imperial Library of Vienna, in his monograph “Die Persische Nadelmalerei Susandschird,” gave the following description of the “Spring of Chosroes” carpet:

“When Ctesiphon, the residence of the Sassanides, fell into the hands of the Arabs in the year 637 a. d., they found in the royal palace, the ruins of which still remain, a colossal carpet of 1051 square metres,[11] which was originally made for Chosroes I. His successor, Anoschar (531-579 a. d.), used it also, but only during the stormy weather, when remaining in the gardens was impracticable. The festivities were then transferred to the palace, where a garden with the beauty of springtime was represented by the pattern of the carpet. This was the Winter Carpet that was called in Persia the Spring of Chosroes. Its material, which was marvellous and costly, consisted of silk, gold, silver, and precious stones. On it was represented a beautiful pleasure ground with brooks and interlacing paths, with trees and flowers of springtime. On the wide borders surrounding it were represented flower-beds in which precious stones coloured blue, red, yellow, white, and green denoted the beauty of the flowers. Gold imitated the yellow-coloured soil and defined the borders of the brooks, where the water was represented by crystals. Gravel paths were indicated by stones of the size of pearls. The stalks of trees were of gold and silver, the leaves and flowers of silk, the fruits of many-coloured stones.”

As the value of this carpet was estimated at about three quarters of a million dollars, it was regarded as too precious to fall to the lot of a single captor, and was accordingly divided into segments to be distributed as booty among the soldiers. Even if during this period there was no other fabric so valuable and elaborate, it represented the importance of the textile art during the dynasty of the Sassanides.