Health

How to get and keep it. The hygiene
of dress, food, exercise, rest, bathing,
breathing, and
ventilation

by Walter V. Woods, M.D.

Philadelphia
The Penn Publishing Company
1905

COPYRIGHT 1905 BY THE PENN PUBLISHING COMPANY

CONTENTS

HEALTH
How to Get, and How to Keep It

INTRODUCTION

The injunction “Know thyself” was inscribed in letters of gold over the portico of the temple of Delphi. We can know ourselves only by thoughtful observation and reflection. General forms of exercise may be presented, but we must consider whether our present health and physical condition will not require some modification of the prescribed forms. Certain modes of bathing and specific rules for diet and sleep may be good for the multitude and yet unsuited to particular individuals. Any marked change from our accustomed manner of life should begin gradually. For one who, in winter, has never taken any other than a warm or tepid bath, to plunge suddenly and without preparation into a tub of cold water might be attended with serious results, while by gradual stages the same point may be reached with positive advantage to health and comfort.

The popular error still prevails that a well equipped gymnasium and costly apparatus are necessary to healthful physical development. It is an important part of the object of this work to show that with little or no outlay for apparatus, and with the expenditure of very little time, both health and vigor may be secured and preserved, and the success and happiness of life be greatly promoted.

The hindrances to a more general adoption of a course of physical training as a means of promoting health and strength are:

1. Ignorance of the advantages to be secured.

2. Distrust of the efficiency of the methods.

3. Mistaken notions concerning cost of appliances.

4. The fear that too much time will be required to make the exercise profitable.

5. The belief that the old way is the best—to take your chances while you are well, and send for the doctor when you are ill.

The long lists of clergymen, comparatively young in years, but broken down in health, their usefulness gone, and themselves a burden upon the community, have taught the aspiring candidate for the ministry a useful lesson. The pulpit of to-day includes some of the most prominent college athletes, and all professional men acknowledge the benefits to be derived from physical training.

Who can fully estimate the value of health? It affects not only the happiness, but also the usefulness of every life. Without it, no substantial success can be achieved. By due attention to the simple laws of health, involving fresh air, pure water, wholesome food, sensible clothing, proper exercise, rest, and sleep, nine-tenths of all the ailments that afflict mankind, and the largest amount of human misery resulting therefrom, would be prevented.

AIR

Essentials of Life.—Air, water, and food are the great essentials of life. A man may go for days without food, and for hours without water, but deprive him of air, even for a few minutes, and he ceases to live. In quantity, the daily consumption of air far outmeasures the other two; in purity, it receives the least consideration. The city and the State alike exercise some oversight of the food and water supply of the people. Impurities in these often appeal to the sense of sight or smell or taste, and the individual is put on his guard. The intangible air is laden with the foulest and most poisonous substances, and is as freely inhaled as if it could make no difference to the health.

Lung Capacity.—The quantity of the air we breathe is also important. We may eat too much food, even though it be absolutely pure and wholesome, but we cannot consume too much pure air. The larger the lung space, therefore, the better for health and strength.

The full lung capacity of the average adult is about 330 cubic inches, but an ordinary inspiration does not take in more than one-eleventh part of that volume. The value of full, deep breathing, and of large lung capacity becomes at once apparent. The larger the quantity of air consumed, the greater the amount of life-giving oxygen conveyed through the blood to all parts of the body. No form of physical exercise, therefore, can exceed in value the breathing exercises described in another chapter.

Rate of Breathing.—It is estimated that we breathe once during every four beats of the heart, or about eighteen times a minute. The relation between the heart and lungs is so close that whatever modifies the pulse affects the breathing. When the heart action is hurried, more blood is sent to the lungs, requiring more rapid action on their part. About every fifth breath the inspiration is longer and fuller, the effect being to change more completely the air of the lungs.

Holding the Breath.—While respiration is, for the most part, involuntary, we may arrest the breathing for the space of twenty to thirty seconds. If we first fortify the lungs by taking several deep inspirations and expelling the impure air as fully as possible, we may hold the breath for a minute or two. This power will prove of advantage if we have occasion to pass through a room or hallway filled with smoke, or to remain under water for a brief time. The pearl-fishers, as a result of training, remain under water from three to four minutes.

Importance of Pure Air.—Pure air means pure blood. The air of the mountain tops or by the sea fills us with life, while that of narrow streets, crowded rooms, unventilated dwellings, schools, churches, and theatres is depressing, weakening, and death-dealing.

So far from the aristocracy having a monopoly of blue blood, it flows through the veins of high and low alike. It goes out from the lungs bright and rich with oxygen; it comes back to the heart dark with the waste and poisonous matters which it has gathered in its course.

Atmospheric air is composed of several gases, the principal elements being oxygen, nitrogen, and watery vapor. All animal life requires oxygen for the combustion of the material supplied through the blood. The blood makes its circuit through the body three times a minute. It comes to the lungs laden with poisonous matter. Nearly one-third of the excretions of the body are eliminated through the lungs. The average adult contaminates about five thousand cubic inches of air with every breath. The importance of having an abundant supply of pure air at all times is obvious.

In ordinary respiration an adult abstracts sixteen cubic feet of oxygen from the atmosphere every twenty-four hours, and adds to it fourteen cubic feet of carbonic acid in the same time. If the individual were confined in a close apartment, in which the air could not mingle with the atmosphere without, the processes of life could not long be maintained.

History furnishes many instances of the direful effects of crowding a number of human beings into a limited space without ventilation. One hundred and fifty passengers were confined in the small cabin of a steamship one stormy night, and when morning came only eighty were found alive. Three hundred prisoners, after the battle of Austerlitz, were crowded into a close prison, and within a few hours two hundred and sixty of them had died.

The effects of foul air are not usually so sudden nor so striking. More frequently they consist of a general deficiency of nutrition, loss of vigor of body and mind, and of the power of resistance to disease. Consumptive patients, in a large majority of cases, come from the classes whose occupations confine them to ill-ventilated rooms. A cramped position of the body while at work, and want of good wholesome food, contribute to the mortality from this cause.

Absolutely pure air is rarely found in nature. Even in the open country there are three parts of carbonic acid in ten thousand parts of air. In cities and towns, the out-door air contains from four to five parts of carbonic acid. When, in dwellings and churches and halls, it reaches six to seven parts, its impurity is detected by the nose, the lungs suffer from a lack of oxygen, and the room feels close and stuffy.

The amount of carbonic acid in the breath is about five per cent. Air once used is therefore unfit for purposes of animal combustion. If breathed into a jar containing a short lighted candle, it will at once extinguish the flame. It would also prove fatal to small birds or mice. When the carbonic acid reaches one part in ten of common air, it becomes fatal to man.

Headaches, dullness, drowsiness, and labored respiration are the first symptoms of this lung poison. Faintness, convulsions, and unconsciousness are a later stage. School-houses, churches, theatres, and factories should be so well ventilated that the proportion of carbonic acid would not exceed two parts in one thousand.

Effects of Breathing Impure Air.—Air which is only slightly vitiated, if breathed day after day, for a considerable time, produces most serious results. Its effects are seen in pale faces, loss of appetite, depressed spirits, and a lack of muscular vigor.

An investigation made some years ago showed 86 deaths per 1,000 in a badly ventilated prison, and of these, 51.4 per 1,000 were due to phthisis, or consumption. In the House of Correction, in the same city, which was well ventilated, the death rate was 14 per 1,000, and of these only 7.9 were occasioned by phthisis. The organic particles thrown off from the lungs of diseased persons are responsible for the prevalence of phthisis and other lung diseases. It is also a well established fact that a bad atmosphere promotes the rapid spread of such specific diseases as small-pox, typhus, and scarlet fever.

Constant Supply.—Of so great importance is the matter of having a constant supply of unvitiated air that sanitariums for consumptives are now becoming common in which the principal feature is to have the patients enjoy a continuous out-door existence, day and night, being wrapped up and otherwise protected from cold and dampness. Consumptive symptoms often yield to this treatment.

Individual Habit.—Habit has much to do with our appreciation of pure air. If we recognize its value to health and to all the mental and physical activities, and insist upon a plentiful supply of pure oxygen, the habit soon becomes a second nature, and we instinctively feel uncomfortable upon entering an ill-ventilated room. In northern climates, economic considerations often interfere with the highest sanitary regulations. Householders, school boards, and church trustees frequently save fuel at the expense of health.

We may, however, by spending much time in poorly ventilated rooms, become so accustomed to the depressing influence of the impoverished atmosphere that we suffer a sort of semi-stupor without being conscious of the fact. How great a wrong is inflicted upon children in the school-room and in the crowded factory, by subjecting them, day after day, for months and years, to a vitiated atmosphere, laden with the poisonous exhalations from lungs and skin! Their growing bodies are stunted and their awakening intellects dulled, and the seeds of disease and weakness are implanted to develop into a harvest of wretchedness and misery in later life.

Sea Air.—When the breeze is off the ocean, the air is practically free from the exhalations of animals, the smoke and soot of chimneys, and the gases of sewers. The curative value of sea-air is well known. It comes richly laden with ozone, and its effect upon sojourners at the sea-side is very stimulating. Many persons are not strong enough to endure sea-bathing, yet gain much benefit from the sea-air.

Mountain Air.—The air of the mountains is pure. It is usually still, and seldom foggy. Being more rarefied than that of the low-lying valleys, it contains less oxygen in proportion to volume, but its lesser density gives to the oxygen greater activity.

The body loses heat less rapidly in rarefied atmospheres, so that there is probably less need of heat-production on the mountain than on the plain, combustion being less active. The rapid and great variations of temperature of the mountain regions stimulate the vital processes and contribute to the curative agencies of those altitudes.

Night Air.—There is a prevailing prejudice against night air. By many persons out-door air is shut out of the sleeping room as if it were pestilential. Analysis as well as experience shows that the most vitiated and unwholesome night air is that which has been breathed over and over again in a close sleeping apartment. Admit the outside air freely if you desire health. Guard against draughts, and use just enough bed covering for comfort.

Air of the School-Room.—A plentiful supply of pure air is desirable wherever there are people to breathe it. In no place is it more important than in the school-room. Confined for six hours each day during the period of life when the best health conditions are required for the proper growth of mind and body, the child thus robbed of the needed oxygen is wronged. The adult who voluntarily subjects himself once or twice a week for two hours to the poisonous atmosphere of church, lecture hall, or theatre, may experience a temporary headache, but is soon revived after reaching the fresh air. The child, ignorant of the wrong he is made to suffer, and incapable of providing better conditions, breathes the poisonous exhalations from fifty pairs of lungs, day after day, and thus has sown in his system the seeds of disease.

Illuminating Gas.—Many persons die every year by inhaling illuminating gas. People unacquainted with the use of gas fixtures often blow out the light instead of turning the key. A prevailing custom in some families is to keep the light burning low during the night. A variation of pressure in the pipes, or a sudden draught of air, extinguishes the slender flame, and gas escapes into the room, often with fatal results.

Leaky pipes or faulty fixtures may have the same effect. If the key be loose, tighten the screw that holds it in place. If there is a leak in the pipe or joint, which may be determined by applying a match, a gas-fitter should at once be summoned. Delay is dangerous and may prove fatal.

If a room be heavily charged with gas, get the windows and doors open as soon as possible. Do not go near with a light, lest an explosion follow. Naphtha and benzine are also highly explosive. When either is used to clean clothing, the work should be done in the open air, and never where the fumes may come in contact with the fire of stove or range, or with the flame of candle or lamp.

Gas burners, oil lamps, sperm candles, all forms of illuminants, consume the oxygen of a room and increase the carbonic acid. An oil lamp of ordinary dimensions gives off as much carbonic acid as an adult person. A man, seated in a room of moderate dimensions and using a good oil lamp, will require 6,000 cubic feet of fresh air every hour in order to keep the air from becoming vitiated beyond the point of wholesomeness. Gas from coal, coke, or charcoal fires is as dangerous as illuminating gas.

Heaters, ranges, stoves, and furnaces should be kept in complete order, so that no gas shall escape. Its entrance into a bedroom is often so stealthy as to stupefy the unconscious sleeper and destroy life without awakening him.

Sewer Gas.—Of all forms of vitiated air in cities, none is responsible for such serious derangement of health as that which is polluted by the air or gas from sewers and waste pipes. Some physicians and sanitarians hold that sewer air is often the direct cause of typhoid fever, scarlet fever, diphtheria, and cholera. Others maintain that the sewers and pipes furnish favorable breeding places for the germs of these diseases, which germs are carried through the air and produce their effects. The important matter is to keep the waste pipes flushed and well trapped. Some precautions against sewer gas are treated in the chapter on Dwellings.

Influence of Climate and Temperature.—Diarrhœal diseases, both of adults and children, are most frequent during hot weather. In July, August, and September there are from ten to twelve times as many cases as at other seasons of the year. Proper diet and suitable clothing will go far toward protecting the individual from the ill effects of climate and season.

The mortality from consumption and other forms of lung diseases is greatest in March and April, and least in August and September. September and October claim the greatest number of deaths from typhoid fever, followed closely by August and November. The mortality from diphtheria and croup is highest in November and December, and lowest in August and September. Of suicides, the largest number occur in May, and the fewest in February.

Hygienic Value of Winds.—Prof. Dexter, of the University of Illinois, has made a careful study of the effects of calms on the records of the public schools, the police courts, and the penitentiaries. All air movements not exceeding four miles an hour are regarded as calms. Over 497,000 observations were considered and tabulated. These show that during calm weather the absence from school on account of illness is three times as great as that during all other kinds of weather, including the very cold, wet, and windy. During calms, the criminal records show less disorder and violence, more policemen are laid off, more errors are made by clerks in banks, and more deaths are reported. This is in accordance with the principle that oxygen is the great source of mental and physical energy. When oxygen is deficient, we are less capable of action, either for good or evil. The slowly-moving air-currents of a large city are robbed of their oxygen, and vitiated by the exhalations of thousands of men and animals. A brisk wind brings in a fresh supply of vitalized air to take the place of the old, and to promote physical and mental energy. Old Boreas is a better friend than we have been wont to believe.

Nature’s Balance.—By a wise provision of nature, the carbonic acid, which is so destructive to all animal life, constitutes the chief food of plants. These absorb the carbon and give out oxygen, and in this way the animal and vegetable kingdoms tend to preserve the balance of nature. Except for this wonderful provision, the human family would be threatened with annihilation.

WATER

Water in the Human Body.—Taken as a whole, the human body consists of about seventy-one parts of water in the hundred. When we consider how large a quantity of water is given off daily, not only through the kidneys and intestines, but through perspiration, sensible and insensible, and through the vapor breathed out from the lungs, it becomes clear that the food must contain a large proportion of water to supply the daily loss.

The proportions of water are not always quite the same, nor does the identical water present in any part of the body at any given moment remain there. There is a constant movement, a continual renewal going on in the body, and water helps to accomplish this renewal. By means of the watery substances, the saliva, the bile, and other juices of the stomach and intestines, the solid nutritive parts of the food are dissolved, and pass into the blood to renew the waste, and to keep up that continual current called life. Water is also useful in carrying off the worn out and useless materials which pass out through the fluid excretions and through the vapors from the lungs and skin.

Water in Food.—The amount of water contained in many articles of food that appear quite solid is generally surprising to those unacquainted with the chemistry of foods. In one hundred pounds by weight, fresh oatmeal contains 5 pounds of water. Corn and barley meal, wheat flour, peas, and beans contain 14 pounds; rice 15; bread 40; potatoes 75; grapes 80; parsnips 81; beets 82; apples 83; carrots and cabbages 89; onions 91; lettuce 96.

Of the animal foods, butter contains 10 pounds of water in one hundred; bacon 22; cheese 34; eggs 72; lean meat 73; fish 74; milk 86. By cooking, most foods lose a part of their natural moisture. The eatable part of a mutton chop contains 70 per cent of water before cooking, and 54 per cent after.

Daily Requirement.—Scientific sanitarians have estimated the daily requirement of water for a person at from twelve to sixteen gallons. The British War Department aims to provide each soldier with fifteen gallons daily. In cities the daily allowance per capita is fifty gallons and upwards, which provides for animals, manufacturing purposes, fires, sewerage, etc., as well as for drinking, cooking, bathing, and other wants of man.

Sources of Supply.—The importance of an abundant supply of pure water is becoming more and more apparent each year. The numerous and serious epidemics throughout the country whose sources have been traced to the use of impure water leave no room for question on this point. Most cities draw their supplies from rivers and lakes. If these sources are kept free from sewage and the waste of manufacturing establishments the water is likely to be pure and wholesome. Subsiding reservoirs and filtration beds are needed to take out the mud occasioned by rains, and to catch up whatever floating matter may be carried into the basins. Muddiness is not always an indication of unwholesomeness, nor is clearness a proof of purity. Germs of disease have been found in the clearest water. Whenever there is the least suspicion of unwholesomeness, all water used for cooking and drinking should be boiled. It is not safe to trust to the theory, held by some, that a running stream, even if polluted, will in flowing a distance of twelve or fifteen miles purify itself.

Wells, which are the chief source of supply in the country, should be kept away from barnyards, stables, cesspools, and the waste waters from dairy and kitchen, to preserve them from pollution. Many cases of typhoid fever and other serious diseases have been directly traced to a violation of this rule. The ground surrounding the well should be raised so as to throw all surface water twelve or fifteen feet away from the well. See also what is said on this subject in the chapter on Dwellings.

Springs usually furnish the purest and best water. Coming from a considerable depth, spring-water loses, in its passage through the earth, most if not all its organic matter, and rises to the surface clear, cool, pure, and sparkling. The spring should be walled and covered, and otherwise protected from surface drainage.

Cisterns.—Rain-water collected in the country, and under favorable conditions, is comparatively pure and wholesome. In the cities, it contains such a large amount of organic matter and other impurities, washed out of the air and off the roofs by the rain and snow, that it is generally unfit for drinking without being filtered. On account of its softness, rain-water is very desirable for washing and other domestic purposes, but owing to the absence of mineral constituents it is flat and insipid to the taste. In New Orleans and other southern cities, where cisterns are largely used, the water is rendered cool and palatable by the use of large quantities of artificial ice.

Ice.—It was formerly supposed that in the process of freezing all deleterious matter contained in the water was excluded. Several outbreaks of disease in New England led to an investigation, which showed that the ice used had been taken from ponds whose waters contained large quantities of sewage and other impurities. A change in the source of the ice supply resulted in an immediate check of the disease. Recent research has shown that typhoid bacilli, after being frozen in a block of ice for 103 days, may still be alive when released.

Diseases Caused by Drinking Polluted Water.—A polluted water supply affects not one, but usually many persons, and notable epidemics have resulted. In consequence, more diligent inquiry has been instituted by Municipal, State, and National Boards of Health, and the evidence adduced is of the most positive character. Typhoid fever, cholera, dysentery, and diarrhœa have been clearly traced to the use of impure drinking water, and other related diseases are suspected of having a similar origin, although the evidence is not so conclusive.

Appearance.—A drinking water should be clear and bright. When shaken in a glass or bottle, bubbles should rise quickly and break immediately. If the bubbles move slowly, or seem to hang for some time in the water, they are probably due to the presence of decaying organic matter, and the water is of questionable purity. A slight cloudiness in the appearance of the water, following a rain, may be due to the presence of a small quantity of earthy matter, and not seriously affect its wholesomeness, but if the discoloration looks like that occasioned by a drop of milk the water should be avoided until carefully tested.

Smell.—A good water should have no smell. To this end, the cisterns or other receptacles must be kept perfectly clean. The purest and best waters will soon become foul if stored in unclean vessels.

Taste.—Water having a disagreeable taste is apt to be unwholesome. In order that we may derive from it proper nourishment, water, like other parts of our food, should be pleasant to the taste. And yet, the taste is by no means a satisfactory test of purity. The purest of all water is distilled water, which, by reason of the absence of all mineral matter and air, has a flat and insipid taste. The cleanest rain-water is also insipid. Boiled water is not much better, for while the boiling process may have destroyed all poisonous or noxious germs, and rendered the water absolutely wholesome, it also drove off the natural gases which gave to the water a pleasant taste. Boiled water may be re-aerated by pouring from an ordinary sprinkling can several times.

Hard Water.—Hardness is a serious drawback, whether the water be used for cooking, bathing, or for washing clothes. Food cooked by boiling in hard water is, as a rule, not so well prepared. Greens take on a gray color. Tea is never so good made from hard water. For cleaning the skin, hard water is not nearly so efficient as soft. Linens are never of a good color when washed in hard water.

Boiling hard water before using it improves it. A pinch or two of carbonate of soda, or of borax, is helpful in washing. A little table salt improves it for cooking most vegetables.

Filtration.—The following is a simple home-made filter. Take a large flower-pot, and soak it thoroughly in clean water. Stop up the hole in the bottom with a cork, in which insert a glass tube about three or four inches long. The top of the cork and tube should be nearly flat with the inside bottom of the pot. Put in a layer of sharp, clean sand about two inches deep, then two inches of small gravel, and three inches of well-burnt animal charcoal. On the top of this another layer of sand, and then another layer of gravel. The gravel, sand, and charcoal should be thoroughly washed before using. If the flow of water is too rapid, it may be checked by laying several flat pieces of glass upon the layers of sand. At reasonable intervals, the sand, gravel, and charcoal must be taken out, washed thoroughly, heated in the oven, and replaced in the pot, which must also be soaked in boiling water. This filter will remove nearly or quite all of the inorganic matter held in suspension in the water, but it is not to be depended upon to remove dangerous microbes and other germs of disease. If the water be thoroughly boiled for half an hour and cooled before being filtered, all danger will be removed.

There are many inexpensive filters on the market. They all become clogged, in a little while, and need to be cleaned or renewed. The cleaning of the one described above is so simple that any housekeeper could do it satisfactorily.

FOOD AND DRINK

Why We Eat.—During the early period of life, and until we reach maturity, food is necessary not only to repair the daily waste, but for the nurture and growth of the body. The intense bodily activity of childhood is attended with a large consumption of material and a great amount of waste. The food is converted into blood, which circulates through the arteries of the body, carrying the nutritive particles to the remotest parts, and returns through the veins, conveying the waste and worn out matter to be expelled from the system.

Quantity of Food.—Placing the average weight of an adult man at one hundred and forty-four pounds, the average daily amount of food and drink needed would be six pounds, or about one-twenty-fourth the weight of his body. Food should be taken in sufficient quantity to repair the waste, and no more. Most persons habitually eat and drink more than they need, while a few eat less than they should. Those who lead very active lives, or live much in the open air, require more food than the old, the inactive, and the sedentary. Habit, too, has much to do with the quantity of food taken. Over-indulgence in eating is the fruitful cause of a long train of evils. The appetite is pampered by tempting viands, and the stomach is overtaxed with work. The sensation of hunger is Nature’s demand for food; the lack of such sensation should suggest abstinence.

Mixed Diet.—In infancy the digestive powers are weak and undeveloped, and food must be taken in its simplest form. Milk alone, at this period of life, seems best adapted to sustain life and growth. After this period has been passed, no single article of food furnishes all the principles necessary to support the growth, repair the waste, sustain the strength, and preserve the health. A mixed diet, therefore, becomes necessary.

Feeding Children.—There is no greater error in the management of children than that of giving them animal diet too early. That portion of the digestive apparatus intended to dispose of this kind of diet is in an embryonic condition up to a certain age, and in the efforts of digestion, inflammation, possibly convulsions and death, may follow as the immediate result.

Impaired digestion acquired in childhood is apt to continue through life. The structure of the human body being so largely dependent upon good, wholesome food taken at proper intervals, the importance of laying a good foundation in childhood needs no argument.

The practice of allowing children to eat at short intervals through the day is exceedingly deleterious. Cakes, nuts, fruit and other good things, in carefully regulated quantities, should form a part of the regular meal, when the children are old enough to have them, and should not be eaten between meals. When it is remembered that one-half of all the children born into the world die before reaching the age of sixteen, the importance of children’s diet becomes apparent.

Selection.—In the selection of food, reference should be had to climate, season, occupation, and suitability. The races of the far North subsist largely on the blubber of seals and other fatty substances. In the winter season, persons living in the temperate zones require more of the heat-producing foods, and in summer, fruits and vegetables are more largely used. The man who leads an active out-door life consumes more oxygen, and requires not only more food, but of a kind that will rapidly build up muscle and impart strength. And not the least consideration, in the selection of food, is that of suitability or adaptation to the individual’s condition or peculiarity. “What is one man’s meat is another man’s poison,” says the old proverb. Most persons have found that certain fruits or vegetables or other articles of diet, which are generally considered wholesome, do not agree with them. It is important that each individual should study his peculiarities, in this respect, and abstain from eating or drinking those things which experience has shown will produce discomfort.

Happy is the man whose digestion is so perfect that he is never reminded that he has a stomach. But even those who cannot boast of such enviable powers of digestion, may yet, by a proper amount of exercise and the regulation of their diet, build up health and strength, and lead lives of usefulness and happiness, free from the many ills growing out of improper eating.

Proper Food.—Life is conditioned upon the proper supply of food. Men may, and do, exist upon very unsuitable food. To be able to do a good day’s work within the hours of a reasonable working day is every man’s birthright. Many men, like Esau of old, sell their birthright for a mess of pottage. Unlike him, however, they are not pressed by stress of hunger, but, merely to please the palate for five minutes, they burden the digestive organs for five hours, and repeat the process day after day. The comparison, therefore, is rather complimentary to Esau.

Constituents of the Body.—As already remarked, a large part of the human body is water. The body of a man weighing one hundred and fifty pounds contains less than fifty pounds of solid matter. The blood, brain, and nerves are about eighty per cent water; the muscles, nearly eighty per cent; and even the bones and the teeth contain a large percentage of water. Man may be deprived of solid food for a day or more without suffering, and, in some instances, persons have subsisted for several weeks on water alone, but to be deprived of water for ten or twelve hours causes much suffering.

The animal and vegetable kingdoms supply the organic substances which constitute a large part of the material commonly known as food, and which sustain the body in life and strength.

In addition, various inorganic substances enter into the human structure, prominent among which are salt, lime and iron. Salt is so important to animal life that herds of wild animals have been known to travel many miles to the salt-licks, or springs, in search of it. Some persons, from habit, use it to excess in seasoning their food. Lime and iron are taken into the body through the food. Iron forms about one part in a thousand of human blood.

Classification of Foods.—For increasing weight and producing heat, the fatty portions of meat, butter, and lard, together with wheat, Indian corn, and sugar, are best adapted; for muscle-making, lean meat, peas, beans, oatmeal; for brain and nerves, shell-fish, lean meats, peas, and beans. Those who lead an active, bustling life, especially if they take an abundance of out-door exercise, will naturally crave strong food in unstinted supply. The busy brain-worker, who is housed all day, and scarcely rises from his chair, needs to be much more careful in his diet. Coarse bread, lean meats, and fruits should constitute his chief dependence, with very limited use of butter, oils, and sugar.

Proper digestion depends upon the power of appropriating the food supplied, and this, in turn, upon the needs of the system. The best of food cannot be properly digested when it is not needed. All that the system requires will be used, and the rest will be cast out by the organs of excretion, which are often overtaxed, and the vital forces wasted, in the effort. The liver especially is burdened in its effort to carry off the excess of carbonaceous matter from the blood, and biliousness is the result. On the approach of warm weather, when the air has less oxygen to consume the food, this is particularly true.

Quantity.—We should eat to live, not live to eat. More people suffer from over-eating than from eating too little. Many thin people are large eaters, and stout people are often small eaters. The young generally eat more than the old. Not only are their powers of digestion better, due in part to the great amount of exercise they take, but they need food for growth, as well as to repair the waste. Franklin’s prudent rule was to leave off eating with a good appetite.

Economy of the life forces requires that each person should strive to find out just how much food he requires to support his strength and repair the waste. One ounce more than is required is a triple waste,—a waste in the original cost, a waste of muscular force in digesting it, and a waste of nerve and vital force in getting rid of it.

Cereals and Their Food Value.—Dr. H. W. Wiley, Chief of the Bureau of Chemistry in the United States Department of Agriculture, in speaking of the substitutes for meat, says: “In so far as actual nourishment is concerned, the very cheapest and best that can be secured is presented by the cereals, viz., Indian corn, wheat, oats, rye, rice, etc. These contain all the nourishment necessary to supply the waste of the body and the energy and heat necessary to all animal functions and hard labor, in a form well suited to digestion, and capable not only of maintaining the body in a perfect condition, but also of furnishing the energy necessary to the hardest kind of manual labor. The waste material in cereals is very small, and, as compared with that in meats, practically none at all. In fact, the ordinary wastes, such as the bran and germ, are among the most nutritive components of the cereals, and both health and economy would be conserved, as a rule, by their consumption, instead of rejecting them as in the ordinary process of milling. The ordinary cereals of commerce contain only about ten per cent of waste, and this is an exceedingly small proportion, as compared with the percentage in meats.

“If meats should be used more for condimental purposes, as in the making of soups, stews, etc., and not more than once a day, as one of the staple articles of the table, it would be better, in my opinion, for the health and strength of the consumer, and especially would it be a saving in the matter of household expenses.

“It is well known that men who are nourished very extensively on cereals are capable of the hardest and most enduring manual labor. Meats are quickly digested, furnish an abundance of energy soon after consumption, but are not retained in the digestive organism long enough to sustain permanent muscular exertion. On the other hand, cereal foods are more slowly digested, furnish the energy necessary to digestion and the vital functions in a more uniform manner, and thus are better suited to sustain hard manual labor for a long period of time.

“The cereals contain all the elements necessary to the nutrition of the body, having in themselves the types of food which are represented by the fats, the nitrogenous or protein bodies, and the carbohydrates. In addition to these, they contain those mineral elements of which the bony structure of the body is composed, viz., lime and phosphoric acid. If, therefore, man were confined to a single article of diet, there is nothing which would be so suitable for his use as the cereals. Starch and sugar are primarily the foods which furnish animal heat and energy, and hence should be used in great abundance by those who are engaged in manual labor. The workingmen of our country, especially, should consider this point, and accustom themselves more and more to the use of cereals in their foods. When properly prepared and properly served they are palatable, as well as nutritious, and their judicious use in this way would tend to diminish the craving for flesh, which, however, it is not advisable to exclude entirely from the diet. By persons whose habits of life are sedentary, requiring but little physical exertion, starch and sugar should be eaten more sparingly.”

Preparation of Foods.—No country equals our own in the abundance and quality of materials for the table, and probably no other compares with it in the ignorance and carelessness displayed in its cooking. A large part of the sickness, discomfort, and unhappiness of life finds its source just here. In many well-to-do families the whole matter is relegated to ignorant and incompetent servants whose only interest in the household is of a financial character, and that is entirely one-sided. The mistress is often more ignorant on this subject than the servant, and the “queen of the kitchen” reigns supreme.

Among the middle and lower classes, where the mistress is herself the cook, the results are no better. Being without proper early training, or growing up with the idea that it is not genteel to work, she comes to her task wholly unprepared, and an ill-fed, sickly family is the result. In many cities and towns, cooking schools are found, but the graduates do not compare with those who graduated from their mothers’ kitchens, in the days when domestic labor was respected. The mind of the ambitious cooking-school graduate is too often concerned with the pretty pastries and dainty desserts that please the eye and pamper the appetite, instead of mastering the art of properly preparing the bread, meat, and vegetables, and the other substantial things.

Bread.—So important a part does bread play in the physical economy that it is often called the staff of life. In cities and towns and in many country villages the baker supplies the general need. Yielding to the popular demand for white bread, he uses flour that has been robbed of its most nutritious properties, and introduces unwholesome substances to make it light and white. The best bread is that in which the starch cells are most completely burst. The making of wholesome, palatable, home-made bread is becoming a “lost art” even among farmers’ wives and daughters. The corner grocery and the baker’s wagon furnish the freshly-baked loaf, the housewife is spared some trouble, and the household loses what should be one of the most healthful, nutritious, and appetizing elements of the daily supply of food. In parts of the South and West, the large use of hot bread is the cause of much indigestion and ill health.

Meats.—Broadly speaking, there are two methods of treating meats. By the first, it is the aim to keep the juices within the meat, as in baking, broiling, and frying. By the second, the object is to extract the juices and dissolve the fiber, as in the making of soups and stews. In order to imprison the juices and thus develop the flavor, the meat must be subjected to intense heat for a short time, so as to coagulate the outer layers of albumen, and afterward a more moderate heat should be employed to complete the cooking. To extract the juices, meat should be cut into small pieces, put into cold water, and slowly raised to the boiling point.

Roasting is probably the best method of cooking meats, especially large, thick pieces. Frying is the worst method, as the heated fat penetrates the meat, dries and hardens it, and renders it indigestible. The American frying-pan is, beyond question, the most deadly instrument that can be named. The sword may claim its thousands, or even its tens of thousands, but the frying-pan numbers its victims by the millions. And yet the skilled French cook robs even this destructive implement of its terror, and furnishes the table not only with meats but with whatever else has been fried, free from soaking grease, finely flavored, and above all, thoroughly digestible. The fault must therefore be ascribed to the cook, and not to the frying-pan.

In an address on “Home Economies Among the Poor People of New York,” the Rev. Dr. William S. Rainsford declares that living expenses are entirely too high. “The poor families of New York are in a tight place. Food is not so cheap as it should be. Fish, for instance, should be sold in New York for half its present price.

“Because of these things it is growing more and more difficult for young persons to marry. You have no idea how dangerous this is.

“Another reason for suffering among the poor is that the girls don’t know how to cook. One of the best ways to hold even a fairly good man—not a blackguard, but an average man—is to know how to cook.

“This whole country is cursed by bad cooking. It is worse in the rural districts. It makes my heart sick to see the beautiful children, up to ten years, of the Tennessee and Carolina regions, with the shade of frying-pans spreading over their faces, killed by grease—vicious and expensive grease.”

In commenting upon the above, a prominent daily says: “Dr. Rainsford is by no means the first man to hold that bad cooking is responsible for many of the sins that men commit. It is well known that a disordered stomach has a corresponding effect upon the brain, causing men to hold views and commit deeds which they would think of only with horror under normal conditions; but this class of missionary work, as it really is, has been much neglected by reformers in the past. They are giving it more attention now, and the cooking-schools, despite the ridicule heaped upon them by the comic writers, are doing good work toward raising the standard of American cooking.”

Veal and Pork.—These are regarded as less wholesome than beef or mutton. Both should be well cooked, and ham, sausages, and other forms of pork should never be eaten raw or imperfectly cooked, on account of the danger of introducing the animal parasite which produces in the human body a serious and painful disease known as trichiniasis.

Superfine Flour.—Chemists tell us that the process of bolting removes from the flour not only the outer woody fiber, but also the lime needed for the bones; the silica for hair, nails and teeth; the iron for the blood; and most of the nitrogen and phosphorus required for muscles, brain and nerves; and leaves only the starch which supplies fat and fuel.

Experiments made upon animals show that fine flour alone, which is chiefly carbon, will not sustain life for more than a month, while unbolted flour supplies all that is needed for every part of the body. Wholesomeness and nutrition are sacrificed to that which pleases the eye, alike by the baker and the housewife, so that the fragrant, appetizing bread of our grandmothers is almost unknown.

Potatoes.—Potatoes are largely composed of starch, which supplies only fuel for the capillaries. Analysis shows that they contain only one part in one hundred of muscle-making material, and less than that of phosphorus for brain and nerves.

Animal Food.—Many vegetarians denounce the use of all animal food as constituting an unnatural diet, oppose the slaughter of animals on moral grounds, and declare that vegetables, fruits, and nuts furnish all the elements necessary to the growth, strength, and health of the body.

That a person may subsist, and even be strong and healthy, without the use of animal food is proven by the lives of many vegetarians in all ranks of society. It is recorded of Louis Cornaro, a Venetian nobleman, that for fifty-eight years his daily allowance was twelve ounces of vegetable food and a pint of light wine. In many countries the low wages paid for labor and the high price of meat compel the working classes to depend largely upon a vegetable diet. The Spanish peasant is happy on coarse bread, onions, olives, and grapes. The Italian fares sumptuously on macaroni, polenta, olives, and fruits. Over two millions of people in France and other parts of Southern Europe subsist chiefly on bread made from chestnuts, the annual crop being estimated at fifteen million dollars.

In England and other countries in Northern Europe, the eating of meat is largely a question of wages. With the increase of prosperity, it has been observed, there is a corresponding increase in the use of animal food. In Spain, France, Italy, and the warmer portions of Europe, the cooling acids of the fruits and the less-heating elements of the vegetable kingdom are better suited to the climatic needs of the people.

Probably in no other country is so much meat eaten as in America. The supply here is greater, and wages, as a rule, are better. Many physicians and others interested in domestic science are of the opinion that the health of the people generally, and of those leading inactive or sedentary lives in particular, would be better if less animal food were eaten.

Salted meats are not as nutritious as fresh. The brine absorbs the rich juices of the meat and hardens its fibers. Long-continued use of salt meats, without fresh vegetables, produces scurvy, formerly very prevalent on shipboard, in prisons, and in the army.

Nutrition.—The conversion of food into flesh, bone, brain, and nerve matter, and the other parts of the human body, is comprised in four somewhat distinct processes: Digestion, Absorption, Circulation, and Assimilation. We are apt to think of digestion as a process belonging only to the stomach, but it begins when food is put into the mouth, and continues until the waste is finally excreted from the bowels. The alimentary canal, or food passage, including the mouth, gullet, stomach, small and large intestines, is a tortuous passage, some thirty feet in length.

Mastication.—The first step is that of mastication, or chewing. There are sixteen teeth in each jaw. The front teeth are designed for cutting, and the rough, broad surfaces of the back teeth adapt them for grinding. The structure of the teeth would indicate that man was intended to eat both animal and vegetable food.

The Teeth.—The proper mastication of the food demands that the teeth be kept in good order. After eating, they should be brushed with a soft brush and tepid water in order to remove the particles of food that may be wedged between them or lodged in the crevices. By reason of the heat and moisture of the mouth, these particles soon putrefy, which not only renders the breath unpleasant, but promotes the decay of the teeth.

The enamel, or outer covering of the teeth, if destroyed, is not formed anew. Sharp acids corrode it. Gritty tooth powders, metal tooth picks, and other hard substances scratch or crack it. Sudden changes from hot to cold, in food or drink, tend to destroy it. Do not attempt to crack nuts or hard grains with the teeth.

The Saliva.—The food should not be swallowed until it is thoroughly ground with the teeth. While mastication is in progress, the salivary glands moisten the food and fit it for admission to the stomach. This saliva is the first chemical solvent, and is an important factor in the process of digestion. If the food is not retained in the mouth long enough to become thoroughly ground and properly mingled with the saliva, the work of the stomach will be increased. Persons who bolt their food, and wash it down with water or other liquid, thereby dilute the natural juices of the mouth and stomach, impose upon the latter organ a task for which it is not adapted, and throw the entire digestive machinery out of gear.

The sense of taste being largely dependent upon the saliva, the natural flavors of the food are not fully developed, the food seems insipid, and there is created a taste for pungent sauces and spices which over-excites the digestive organs. Poisonous substances are often swallowed in mistake, which, if retained in the mouth long enough to determine their taste, would be rejected without injury.

The Stomach.—The most important organ of digestion is the stomach. This is a pear-shaped pouch, having a capacity of about three pints. The walls are thin and yielding, and often become unnaturally distended by those who habitually gormandize. Its construction clearly shows that the work of grinding and mashing the food was intended to be performed before it entered the stomach.

The gastric juice, another chemical solvent, is here poured upon the food, which, as rapidly as it is prepared, is passed into the intestines. The time required for the stomach to perform its work varies from one to five hours, according to the quantity and character of the food and the digestive power of the individual. The delicate network of blood vessels which underlies the mucous membrane of the stomach takes up all those elements of the food that are ready to be absorbed.

The Intestines.—The small intestines are continuous with the stomach, and, though very different in shape, are like it in general structure. The bile, which is secreted by the liver, unites with the pancreatic juice, and enters the intestines through a duct about three inches below the stomach. By the joint action of these two fluids, the fatty elements of the food are prepared for absorption. From the mucous membrane, or inner lining of the small intestines, still another juice or fluid flows, whose office is to supplement the work, first, of the saliva in converting starch into sugar; next, of the gastric juice in digesting the albuminoids; and, lastly, of the pancreatic juice and bile in emulsifying the fats. The work of digestion is completed in the small intestines. The indigestible parts of the food are passed into the large intestines, and expelled from the body.

Absorption.—The liquefied food, in its passage through the stomach and small intestines, has been prepared by the various juices for its absorption by the blood vessels and the lacteals, whose minute mouths throng this part of the alimentary canal. The food elements thus absorbed are conveyed to the right auricle, or first chamber of the heart.

Conditions Affecting Digestion.—The quality, quantity, and temperature of the food, and the condition of mind and body, all have an influence upon digestion. In the selection of food, only such articles should be allowed as are fresh, pure, and wholesome. Bread should not be eaten warm. It is more easily digested after being baked a day or two. Flesh of animals recently slaughtered should be thoroughly cooled, and never cooked while yet warm and quivering with life.

Cooking renders many articles of food not only more wholesome and palatable, but also more digestible by reason of the increased temperature. The natural heat of the stomach is about ninety-nine and one-half degrees, at which temperature the operations of digestion are best promoted. Hot soups are therefore a good introduction to the meal. A small glass of ice-water will retard digestion for half an hour.

Sudden joy, anger, grief, or other strong emotion or excitement checks digestion. If the tongue is parched and the mouth dry, the flow of saliva is restrained and the first step in the process of digestion is hindered. The coating of the tongue reflects the condition of the stomach, hence the frequent request of the physician to see the tongue of the patient.

Bodily fatigue destroys appetite and hinders digestion. The expression “I am too tired to eat” is not uncommon.

Intervals for Meals.—Frequent eating is as bad as rapid eating or over-eating. The organs of digestion require periods of rest, in order to renew their strength and restore the juices essential to their perfect operation. No person, except infants and the sick, should require food oftener than once in four hours. If the stomach is in good working order, it will usually complete its task in two hours, unless the food is too great in quantity or too indigestible.

No one should take more than three meals a day, and, to insure sound refreshing sleep and allow the stomach to recover its tone, the last meal should be the lightest and easiest to digest. Dyspeptics and others affected with stomach troubles will find benefit in restricting themselves to two moderate meals a day. Numerous cases are cited of notable cures effected by adopting a regimen of only one meal each day.

Regularity.—Whatever the interval between meals, be it four, five, or six hours, there should be regularity. The stomach, like the mind, forms habits, and the habit of regularity in eating will beget the habit of regularity in digesting and recuperating. The practice of parents in giving children cakes, fruits, and sweetmeats between meals is reprehensible. As a result of habit, many persons grow to feel that a dinner is not complete without a substantial dessert. The mistake consists, not always in the dessert, for that may be as wholesome and nourishing as any part of the meal, but in first fully satisfying the demands of hunger, and afterwards imposing upon the stomach the extra burden of digesting the dessert.

Rest.—For every disease of every organ the first condition is rest. Broken bones and lacerated muscles must have release from active duty or there can be no cure. The vital organs, when diseased, must have all the repose consistent with the operations of life. For affections of the heart, the circulation should be reduced, and all excitement and stimulation to over-action be removed.

Excessive physical or mental exertion, whether immediately before or after meals, interferes with digestion. If before, the energies of the blood will be directed to the part of the body in most active exercise, and cannot suddenly be withdrawn. If after, they will be diverted before having performed their legitimate part in the process of digestion. A short period of relaxation before, and of absolute repose after meals, is most favorable to the proper action of the stomach. The repose should not be carried to the extent of sleeping, for in sleep the stomach, as well as the rest of the body, seeks release from duty.

Drink.—Thirst warns us that the blood is too thick, or that it contains some acrid matter which should be eliminated. Free perspiration makes large demands upon the fluids of the body, and copious draughts of water are required to supply the lack. In this way the system is flushed, the clogged pipes and pores are opened, the waste matter removed, and the system made healthy. In cities the water is usually introduced into houses through lead pipes. Herein lies a danger, and the purer the water and the newer the pipe, the greater the danger. The water gradually corrodes the metal and holds a small quantity of it in solution. After a few months of service, an insoluble coating forms upon the inner surface of the pipe, and protects it from further corrosion. It is a wise precaution to run off the water that has lain in the pipes over night, or during the temporary absence of the family, before using.

Coffee and Tea.—The Americans drink more coffee and the English more tea, per capita, than any other nation. As to the wholesomeness of these beverages opinions are greatly at variance. Used in moderate quantities, and especially by persons who lead an active out-door life, no harm is likely to ensue. Many persons drink them for the taste, which is often heightened by the use of cream and sugar, and never stop to question whether they are injurious or otherwise. Such persons usually drink too much. If either produces wakefulness, it should not be used before retiring at night, and if the nerves are unduly stimulated, at any time, its use should be discontinued. Tea should be steeped, not boiled. It contains a certain proportion of tannic acid which is dissolved by boiling, and when drunk, produces a deleterious effect upon the mucous membrane of the stomach, causing dyspepsia with its attendant evils. Children should not be permitted to drink either tea or coffee.

Intoxicants.—While alcoholic preparations may, in rare cases, be prescribed by the physician, their use as a beverage finds no support in science or in experience. There are many who use liquors and tobacco and who yet live to an old age. It is also true that many reach old age without their use. Comparing the lives of a thousand persons who drink and smoke, with a thousand others under the same conditions who do not use liquors or tobacco, it will be found that the latter are not only longer-lived, but are also more healthy. Probably no better test of the question of health and longevity can be found than the experience of the life insurance companies. By them, all intoxicants and tobacco are looked upon with disfavor.

Circulation.—The blood is the most important and the most abundant fluid of the body. It constitutes about one-twelfth of the entire weight of the person. To the eye it appears as a simple fluid, varying in color from a bright scarlet to a dark purple. Under the microscope, it is seen to consist of a clear, colorless fluid in which float a multitude of corpuscles, or solid discs. These corpuscles are so minute that thirty-five hundred, arranged side by side, will extend only one inch, and fourteen thousand, placed one upon the other, would not exceed one inch in height. There are also white corpuscles which are fewer in number, larger, and globular in form.

The size and shape of the blood corpuscles in man differ from those in animals. So important and well-defined is this difference in point of law that the guilt or innocence of criminals has often hung upon the results of a scientific examination of the blood found upon the garments of the suspected person.

Coagulation.—The coagulation, or thickening of the blood, when it leaves the living tissues, is a principle of the greatest importance to life. Without it, the slightest injury might prove fatal. In minor injuries, the blood coagulates, thus closing the mouths of the injured blood vessels, and bleeding ceases spontaneously.

The Heart.—The great center of the circulatory system is the heart. With ceaseless energy it drives the blood through the arteries to every part of the body, laden with the life-giving elements absorbed from the food and vitalized by the oxygen in the lungs. In the outward flow of the blood each part of the body appropriates the particular elements which it requires. The return of the blood through the veins brings with it the waste and cast-off particles of the bones, muscles, and tissues, to be expelled through the lungs, except such elements as exude through the pores of the skin. By this unceasing round of waste and repair, the entire body, it is believed, is renewed every seven years, and some parts are replaced several times within that period. From the moment a human being begins to live, he begins to die.

Action of the Heart.—The alternate contraction and dilation of the muscles of the heart constitute the heart-beats or throbs of the pulse. These vary with the individual. In the average adult, the number of beats is seventy-two per minute. In the cases of Bonaparte and Wellington the number was less than fifty. Heat, food, and exercise increase its action, as cold, fasting, and sleep diminish it. Emotion of joy, grief, and fear also exert a modifying influence.

It is a matter of wonder how the silent forces within a tree can lift from the soil, through its minute pipes, and extract from the air, through the small pores of the leaves, the many tons of material that go to make up the giant of the forest. The tons of physical energy bound up in that small organ, the human heart, is a matter no less marvelous. Estimating the amount of blood expelled by each contraction of the ventricles of the heart at four ounces, we have a total of twelve tons a day, or over four thousand tons in a year.

Assimilation.—The crowning act in the conversion of lifeless food into living tissue takes place in the meshes of the capillary network, and is called assimilation. This process is alike mysterious and wonderful. By a peculiar power of selection, each bone and muscle and tissue appropriates that portion of the blood which it needs for its own development or for the repair of the waste, and applies it in such a manner as to preserve the form and size and strength of the part, ever maintaining a proper balance of the two sides of the body, unless thwarted in its operation by some act of the individual.

Adulteration of Food Products.—National, State, and Municipal Boards of Health, and food inspectors may do much to preserve health, but when they have done all that it is possible for them to do, much will still remain for the individual. With the products of the world exposed for sale in our markets, with the advertising pages of our magazines and newspapers filled with irresistible arguments in favor of some newly-discovered breakfast food or new preparation of canned goods, the need of individual knowledge and caution daily increases.

There is cause for congratulation in the fact that those articles which constitute the larger portion of our food are but little adulterated. In the States that impose legal penalties the proportion of adulterated products is quite low. The value of a stringent law is seen in the decrease of the adulteration of cream of tartar, which, in Massachusetts, fell from forty-two per cent in samples examined in 1879, to five per cent in 1898. Spices, flavoring extracts, and canned goods afford the most promising field for adulteration.

The substitution of ingredients is prompted wholly by a desire for gain, and consists in the substitution of a cheaper for a more expensive article. It is, therefore, a question of ethics rather than of health. If the horse-radish is largely turnip, and the apple-butter chiefly pumpkin, if the currant or raspberry jelly is made of the rich juices of the parings and cores of apples, strained, colored and delicately flavored, who will say that the cheaper fraud is not as wholesome as the more expensive genuine article? In some instances there is an actual advantage to health in the substitution, but this does not justify the deception. Pure, fresh oleomargarine, however wholesome, should not be sold for butter, any more than shoddy cloth should be sold for pure wool.

Dangers to Health.—The contents of tin cans are sometimes affected by the action of the acids upon the tin or the solder. Food should not be allowed to stand in a tin can after being opened. Milk, cream, and butter are quick to take up germs of disease. Scarlet fever and typhoid fever have, in many instances, been traced to this source. The utmost cleanliness and care should be exercised in their handling.

The Diet Cure.—Over-indulgence in eating is the source of many disorders of the system. It is well, at all times, to keep within the limit of the powers of digestion. The way to give the stomach rest is to eat less food and at longer intervals.

Obesity is the result of the accumulation of the fatty properties of the blood in excess of what is needed to repair the waste of the system. The fattening process will be stopped by cutting off the supplies. A restricted diet, the avoidance of fat-producing foods, vigorous perspiration as the result of exercise, and frequent bathing, followed by friction, will be attended by a decided reduction of the superfluous fat. A merchant in England who had reached the enormous weight of four hundred and fifty-seven pounds put himself upon a diet of four ounces of animal food, six ounces of bread, and two pounds of liquid in twenty-four hours. In one week he had reduced his weight thirty pounds, and in six months he had lost one hundred and thirty-four pounds.

In France, there is a method of treatment known as “The Grape Cure.” Persons in Paris, broken down by the excitements and dissipations of the city, go off among the vineyards, breathe the pure country air, and live on grapes. From eight to twelve ounces of bread, with grapes at discretion, constitute their daily allowance of food and drink. By this treatment the impurities of the system soon pass off through the kidneys, the bowels, the lungs, and the pores of the skin, and pure, wholesome blood takes the place of that which was diseased.

The Water Cure.—The importance of water can hardly be overrated. No life, whether animal or vegetable, is possible without it. By water all food is dissolved, and so penetrates the system and nourishes the tissues. By water the waste particles of matter are carried off through the skin, the lungs, and the other secreting or excreting organs.

While the waters of many of the spas contain medicinal properties, a large part of the virtue claimed for the springs is due to the free flushing of the system. It is the fad, while sojourning there, to drink frequently and copiously. Any other pure, wholesome water would be nearly, if not quite, as beneficial, if used in the same quantities and under the same conditions.

CLOTHING

Influence of Dress on Health.—While this aspect of the subject of dress receives far less consideration than it deserves, its importance is to be measured only by the importance of human life and by the value that attaches to a state of perfect health. Like fresh air, pure water, and bright sunshine, health is only appreciated when it is gone. The behests of fashion often make sad inroads upon it, but the seductive siren lures us on until we can no longer follow. With scanty strength we then worship at the shrine of Hygeia, but this queenly goddess governs with stern rule, and is often unresponsive to our petitions.

Temperature.—There is a constant interchange between bodies or substances of different temperatures when they are in touch one with the other. The warmer give off heat which is absorbed by the colder, and in this way they tend toward equalization. The normal heat of the average human body is 98.4 degrees, Fahrenheit. When it is exposed to a temperature lower than this, it must be protected by clothing to retard radiation of the body-heat, and thus prevent not only the chilling of the surface but also more serious disorders of the internal organs. In very hot countries, clothing is worn as a protection against heat. The head, especially, needs protection from the sun’s rays.

Warmth.—From the standpoint of health, no other property of dress is so important as that of warmth. While certain garments are described as being warm and others as being cool, it is a well-known fact that articles of clothing possess neither warmth nor coolness in themselves. By reason of certain chemical processes constantly going on within the body, there is produced a degree of natural heat, commonly called animal heat.

The body in health seldom varies more than one or two degrees from the normal standard. Conditions of climate, season, exercise, age, or sex have but slight influence upon the average temperature of the body. By conduction, radiation, and evaporation, any excess of heat is quickly reduced. More than seventy per cent of the whole amount of animal heat lost passes through the skin.

Evaporation from the skin is very rapid, and may lead to too sudden cooling of the body. A person who, after exercise that has produced free perspiration, stands in a current of cool air, is apt to take cold. The dryer the atmosphere, the more rapid is the cooling process. The most uncomfortable and oppressive atmospheric condition is that in which the air is heavily laden with moisture and the temperature high. Evaporation from the body is then slow, and the sensation of heat is oppressive.

It is a mistaken notion that clothing keeps the cold out. Its purpose is to keep the heat in, or, in other words, to prevent the rapid radiation of heat. We speak of warm clothing and of cool clothing. That clothing is warm which retards the giving off of heat from the body. The Indian wraps a blanket about his body to keep it warm; we wrap a blanket around a piece of ice to keep it from melting.

Any clothing that prevents the rapid escape of heat from the body is said to be a bad conductor, and is called warm. Woolen textures rank first among dress materials as poor conductors, and are therefore best adapted for winter clothing. Silk and cotton come next. Linen is a good conductor of heat; that is, it carries off the heat from the surface of the body very rapidly, and produces a sensation of coolness; therefore, all dress materials made from flax are said to be cool.

Materials.—The principal materials used for clothing are wool, cotton, linen, and silk. These differ greatly in weight, texture, warmth, porosity, power to absorb moisture, and in other less important qualities.

In a climate so changeable as that which prevails in most parts of the United States, the body, and especially the trunk, should be protected at all seasons from sudden chill by the use of under garments containing wool. Even in the warmest weather it will be found that a light woolen fabric absorbs the perspiration, and is more agreeable to the skin than cotton. The wearing of a flannel band, eight to ten inches in width, buttoned around the waist next to the skin, will prove an excellent protection to the kidneys and the abdominal region. Silk is light and soft, and as it retards the giving out of heat from the body, is worn for under garments, especially by those to whom wool is irritating or otherwise unpleasant. Rubber cloth is useful for rain coats, but as it prevents evaporation of the perspiration, it increases the liability to chill, and renders the wearer uncomfortable except in cold weather.

Animal Heat.—The bird is warmer than the air in which it moves; the fish possesses a higher temperature than the water. As before remarked, chemical changes are constantly going on in the system which give rise to this result. Even plant life is subject to this law. A delicate thermometer placed among a cluster of geraniums about to burst into flower will show a temperature a degree or two higher than the surrounding air.

Warm-Blooded Animals.—Those animals possessing well-developed lungs and large breathing capacity are usually active in movement, and are classed among the warm-blooded animals. They comprise birds, quadrupeds, and man. The animals possessing small lung development are for the most part inactive, and are cold to the touch, indicating a low temperature. Such are the frog, toad, lizard, snake, and tortoise.

These facts show the connection between respiration and animal heat, the temperature being in proportion to the amount of oxygen consumed. Birds have the largest lung development in proportion to size, are most active in movement, and indicate the largest amount of animal heat.

Adaptation to Climatic Conditions.—The Polar bear suffers from the heat of the Temperate zone, and would not survive a week in the Torrid. The African lion would fare no better were he suddenly transported to the Frigid zone. Man alone, of all the animal creation, is able to adapt himself to the extremes of heat and cold. By changing his clothing, shelter, and food, he is able to create for himself an artificial climate wherever he may choose to reside. No Arctic winter has been found too cold for a Peary, Nansen, or Greely to withstand, and no African plain or jungle too hot for a Livingstone or Stanley to explore.

Evaporation.—The temperature of the body is regulated by means of perspiration. Heat induces perspiration, and its evaporation lowers the temperature of the body. Cold retards perspiration, and the heat is retained within. The principle of evaporation is illustrated in the manufacture of artificial ice. Men who labor in glass works, iron and steel foundries, and in the engine rooms of large steam vessels are exposed to great heat, yet enjoy as good health as those who are engaged in other occupations. Persons have been known to remain several minutes in an atmosphere heated above the boiling point, without materially increasing the temperature of their own bodies.

Perspiration goes on continually, night and day. This fact emphasizes the importance of a complete change of clothing upon retiring at night, so that the clothing worn during the day may be thoroughly aired. In like manner, the clothing worn at night, together with the sheets, blankets, and pillows, should be aired, and, if possible, exposed to the sun for a time, before the bed is made up.

Color of Clothing.—The color of our dress is not wholly a matter of pleasure to the eye. In general, it is known that white is cool and black is warm. Scientific experiment has shown that cloth of the same material, when exposed to the rays of the sun, absorbs heat in the following proportions: white, 100 heat units; light yellow, 102; dark yellow, 140; light green, 155; Turkey red, 165; dark green, 168; light blue, 198; dark blue, 206; black, 208. When not exposed to the sun, the color has little or no influence upon the absorption of heat.

The color of underclothing has practically but little influence upon the amount of heat radiated from the body, but the color of the outer dress has much to do with regard to the amount of heat absorbed from the sun’s rays.

Absorption of Moisture.—The property of absorbing moisture is of much importance in the hygiene of clothing. The best material for clothing to be worn next to the skin is that which, while retaining the natural heat, or giving it off very slowly, absorbs the moisture from the body, and diffuses it through its meshes. The skin is thus relieved of the cooling effect of this evaporation, which might prove harmful.

Porosity.—The ventilating property of clothing, or the ease with which air passes through its meshes, is called porosity. The most porous of dress fabrics is flannel, which is, at the same time, the warmest. Its porosity, as compared with that of linen, is as 100 to 58.

Impermeability to Water.—As a protection against rain, the simple mackintosh, or the mackintosh cloth, is the best. The latter is more pleasing to the eye, but the outer wool covering absorbs enough moisture to add somewhat to the weight of the garment, which is a slight disadvantage.

All waterproofs present this serious evil, that while they exclude the outer moisture, they prevent the escape of the natural moisture from the surface of the body. This, however, is, generally speaking, a lesser evil than to expose the body to storm and cold, with the risk of serious illness. It is not unusual to add to the waterproof the further protection of an umbrella. In such case, the discomfort of excessive perspiration may be relieved by occasionally loosening a button or two about the neck and chest.

Underclothing.—Taking all things into consideration, wool is, without doubt, the best material for garments worn next to the skin. In cold weather it maintains the natural heat of the body. In warm weather it quickly absorbs the free perspiration, giving off the moisture through its meshes, and thus preventing the too rapid evaporation from the surface of the body, which tends to produce chill and other resulting disorders. It also serves to protect the body from the hot rays of the sun, and from the heat of boilers and furnaces. No other substance so effectually modifies the evil effects of sudden and rapid changes of temperature. In the extreme cold of the polar regions and in the oppressive heat of the tropics, it is alike satisfactory. The thickness of the texture and the closeness of the weave must be determined by the climate and the season.

Disadvantages of Woolen Undergarments.—With all their advantages, woolen undergarments are not wholly free from disadvantages. The most common criticisms are that they are heavy, less cleanly than linen, and they sometimes produce irritation. For an equal weight, wool is the warmest of all dress materials. For summer wear, only that which is thin, light, and loose in web is usually chosen. Light flannel suits have become very fashionable for summer outing, both for men and women.

Woolen undergarments rapidly absorb the excretions from the skin. The water soon evaporates, but the more solid portions are held in the fibers of the garment. Woolen underwear should be washed as frequently as that of cotton, linen, or silk. Unfortunately for the health of the individual, it does not show dirt so quickly as the other materials, and, by the lower classes, is often washed less frequently than it should be.

The therapeutic value of flannel depends in no small degree upon its power to stimulate the skin. It is this that makes it popular with the old, and with those whose circulation is sluggish. For the delicate, the scrofulous, and the rheumatic, flannel undergarments are especially desirable.

Another objection might be urged to the use of woolen underwear, in that it so often shrinks and becomes hard when washed. It is possible, however, to have flannels and other woolen goods come from the wash as soft and light as when they went in. Care should be taken not to subject them to sudden and extreme changes of temperature while washing and drying.

Effects of Tight-Fitting Underwear.—A woolen shirt or undervest, quite loose, will be much warmer than a like garment of the same material, close-fitting. In the loose garment, there is a constant stratum of air between the body and the clothing. This air has almost the same effect as an additional garment. It acts as a non-conducting medium between the surface of the body and the external atmosphere.

Material loosely woven is warmer than the same material closely woven. Clothing worn in successive layers is warmer than the same quantity of material woven in a single layer. Two shirts worn, the one over the other, will afford more warmth than the same quantity of wool or cotton or silk woven into one garment.

Underwear should be light and porous, and permeable to air. Very fine materials densely woven are not so healthful as those that are more open.

Night Attire.—Night is the time for rest, not only from mental toil and physical labor, but also rest for the functions of the body, so far as possible. To this end, it has been recommended that the evening meal be eaten long enough before retiring to enable the digestive apparatus to have completed its work.

For many persons, cotton and linen are found to be more restful, for night wear, than garments made of wool. Even when woolen underclothing is worn with comfort and satisfaction during the day, there is, to some persons, a pricking sensation, a slight surface irritation, in the use of woolen night wear which is destructive of rest. The activities of the skin, as well as the other bodily functions, require a measure of repose.

The old, the delicate, and the very young may use a light woolen night-dress outside that of linen or cotton. If comfort demands the use of wool next to the skin, it should be light in weight, finely woven, and with a smooth surface.

Cleanliness and health alike demand that no part of the clothing worn during the day should be worn while sleeping. The garments worn in the day should be thoroughly aired and dried during the night, and the moisture absorbed by the night clothing should be allowed to evaporate, and the garments ventilated during the day. In cold climates and in cases of sickness, weakness, or of delicate constitution, the dress of the night as well as of the day must be adapted to the requirements of the case.

Hats.—In the advancement from barbarism to civilization, the head was the last part of the body to be covered. Nature originally furnished, in the form of a thick mat of hair, all the covering that was necessary for the head. Baldness was then unknown. While the demands of modern society must be complied with, and hats must be worn, the nearer we can approach to Nature’s plan the better.

A hat should be light, loose, and well ventilated. A heavy hat presses with undue weight upon the scalp. A tight-fitting hat interferes with the free circulation of the blood. A hat that is close in its texture, prevents the escape of the heated air within, and not only produces a sense of oppression but is believed to be the most fertile cause of baldness. Silk hats for men are especially objectionable on this ground. All close hats should be supplied with efficient means of ventilation. The head, like any other part of the body, perspires, and if the hat is removed in a cooler atmosphere or in a current of wind, a cold in the head is apt to follow.

The chief cause of baldness is pressure of the hat, which constricts the blood vessels and so interferes with the nutrition of the hair bulbs. It is probable, also, that the shutting off of air and light by the hat promotes baldness. An unhealthy condition of the scalp results, the sign of which is an excess of dandruff.

Baldness is almost unknown among savages, who wear no hats, and is comparatively rare with men in the tropics where very light hats are worn. Laborers are less prone to baldness than business or professional men. They generally wear soft hats or caps, which are often pushed to the back of the head, so that the scalp gets plenty of light and air. There is no good reason why, if properly treated, the hair should not last as long as the man. Wear a soft, loose, well-ventilated hat, and wear it as little as possible, and never keep it on in the office or house.

In hot weather and in tropical climates hats should be of a light color, with a considerable crown and ample brim. In the United States, the ordinary straw hats, if not too closely made, answer every requirement. For the intense heat of Africa or India, more elaborate head-gear is found necessary. The ill effects of special exposure to the sun’s heat may be reduced by wearing, in the crown of the hat, a thin sponge, or even a handful of grass or leaves, or other light, porous substance.

From the standpoint of health, but little criticism can be made against the head-gear of women. Nature has provided them with a splendid covering of hair for warmth and protection. The woman’s hat, or bonnet, is largely an object of adornment. Fashion, at times, dictates an unequal distribution of its weight, or an over-burden of ornament, or a lack of protection to the eyes, but, for the most part, it is light, loose, and admits of free ventilation. Veils are more or less injurious to the eyes, and if worn so as to cover the nose and mouth, prevent the free escape of the exhalations from the lungs. The dyes used in veils have, in some instances, been productive of face eruptions and other disorders.

The Neck.—The improper clothing of the neck is responsible for much ill-health. The high collars for men, the tight-fitting high collars and neck bands for women, the scarfs, handkerchiefs, and other neck apparel in winter produce an excess of heat. Cold air is inhaled, and the result is some form of sore throat.

Fashion makes greater demands upon the powers of endurance, or resistance, of women than of men. To go warmly clad through the day, and then to put on a ball or party dress, exposing the neck and shoulders to repeated currents of cold air, requires a degree of vitality that many do not possess, and the physician’s and undertaker’s labors are increased by the victims of fashion.

The neck should be comfortably clad, and kept at the normal temperature as nearly as possible. It is the sudden change from an over-heated neck and chest to that of the opposite extreme that causes the trouble. The boy who, with scarf tightly wrapped about his neck, fights his mimic battle with snowballs until the perspiration flows from every pore, and then throws aside jacket and scarf while he rests, and the girl who, in furs and tippet, skates until she becomes thoroughly heated, and takes off her wraps while she stops to breathe, have many imitators among the older boys and girls in the world.

As to the proper amount of covering for the neck, much depends upon habit, and not a little upon individual requirement. The important point is to preserve uniformity, and to guard against sudden changes. The sailor with neck freely exposed is fully as exempt from colds as is the soldier whose neck is more warmly clad. If they should suddenly exchange their manner of dress, the result would be disastrous to both.

The important blood-vessels that supply the face, head, and brain, and the jugular veins which return the blood to the heart, all pass through the neck. The clothing about the neck should therefore be loose, so as to allow the freest passage of the food, breath, and blood, and the fullest movement of the head.

Male Attire.—While appearance demands that the outer clothing should be neat-fitting, comfort and health require that it should be sufficiently loose to admit of the freest movements of the body. It should be as light as possible to insure proper protection from the cold. Weight does not always count for warmth. Many persons prefer light flannels as outer garments for warm weather.

The trousers should be supported from the shoulders by suspenders. Belts involve more or less constriction of the abdomen, and are injurious. Men suffer greater disadvantage from their use than women. The practice of wearing a belt during the summer months is especially objectionable.

Female Attire.—Healthful and proper clothing implies, (1), the protection of the body against extremes of heat and cold, and the maintaining of an equable temperature in every part; (2), the absence of all superfluous material and needless weight; and (3), the non-interference with the normal functions of the body.

Mrs. Woolson, a writer on Dress and Health, says: The limbs have not half the amount of covering which is put upon the trunk of the body. Many garments have no sleeves, or sleeves that terminate a few inches below the shoulders. As to the legs, the clothing which should increase in direct ratio to the distance from the body to the feet, diminishes in the same ratio. Thin drawers, thinner stockings, and wind-blown skirts which keep up constant currents of air supply little warmth to the limbs beneath. The feet, half-clad and pinched in tight shoes, are chilled in consequence.

The trunk of the body has as many zones of temperature as the planet it inhabits. Its frigid zone is above, on the shoulders and chest; for, although the dress-body extends from the neck to the waist, most, if not all, of the garments worn beneath it are low-necked. The temperate zone lies between the shoulders and the belt, for that region receives the additional covering of undervest, corset, and chemise. The torrid zone begins with the belt and bands, and extends to the limbs below; for all the upper garments are continued below the belt, and all the lower garments come up as far as the belt, so that the clothing over the whole hip region must be at least double what it is over any other section. But it is more than double; it is quadruple, for the tops of all these lower garments have a superfluous fullness of material which is brought into the binding by gathers and plaits.

It will be observed from the above that the three rules laid down for a perfect dress are all violated. First, the unequal preservation of heat; second, the excessive weight, largely supported by the waist; and, third, the constriction of the waist and pressure upon the abdomen caused by the gathering of so many garments at this point.

The Petticoat.—Petticoats are objectionable in several ways. They seriously impede movement. They involve an unnecessary expenditure of muscular force by hampering the action of the lower limbs. They stir up and accumulate the dirt of the streets, or drag through mud and slush, often occasioning wet ankles and engendering disease. Thick woolen drawers reaching to the feet, or, better still, the one-piece underwear which covers the entire body except the head, hands, and feet, would furnish more warmth and distribute it more equally than the “many petticoat” plan, and save the weight and secure freer movement by enabling the wearer to dispense with one or more of these objectionable garments. This would add greatly to the comfort of the wearer, reduce the weight of the nether garments, prevent in large measure the undue heat of the abdominal region, and would not materially change the appearance of the outer dress.

Tight Lacing.—It is said that Hippocrates earnestly reproached the ladies of his time for too tightly compressing their ribs, and thus interfering with their breathing powers. Fashion and Health must be sworn enemies, for they have not come much nearer together since. We smile at the Chinese lady who cramps her foot until it is neither fit to look upon nor to walk upon. Yet, the tortures she endures are no greater than those voluntarily assumed by many American women at the behest of the same tyrant, Fashion.

The unnatural constriction about the waist and abdomen involves every vital function. It compresses the lower part of the lungs, diminishes their capacity, and thus interrupts the proper oxidizing of the blood. It cramps the heart, and often results in fainting and swooning, to say nothing of the more permanent results of impeded heart action. It forces out of shape and place the liver and stomach, restricts the flow of the bile and other stomachic juices, and seriously interferes with the important function of digestion. It restricts the action of the intestines, producing constipation, with all its attendant evils. It presses upon the blood vessels leading to the bowels and the lower extremities, diminishes the circulation, produces cold feet, and often causes varicose veins. And, worst of all, those delicate organs peculiar to women are so crushed by the unnatural pressure, and so obstructed in their normal action, that the function of motherhood is most seriously impaired, the poor deformed woman becomes the victim of untold suffering, and the wretchedness entailed upon the race is widespread and far reaching.

A Deformity.—The devotee of feminine fashion will doubtless resent the intimation that she is deformed, or is likely to become so. A missing finger or hand, a shortened arm or leg, an inverted foot or curved spine—these are set down as deformities. In short, any wide departure from the normal human structure must be classed as a deformity.

The bony framework of the thoracic cavity in its natural shape is an irregular cone, whose apex is at the neck, and whose widest part, or base, is formed by the spread of the lower ribs. By constantly compressing the waist, the flexible lower ribs yield to the pressure, and after a time become fixed in this unnatural position, and that which was the base of the cone becomes the apex, and the widest part is now near the top. From the standpoint of anatomy, the latter condition can be nothing less than a deformity.

Are Corsets Ever Necessary?—For any unnatural or unhealthy conditions, the physician or specialist alone must prescribe. There is no reason why the bones and muscles of a woman, as well as a man’s, should not support the upper part of the body without artificial aid. As remarked in another chapter, the body acquires habits. After wearing corsets or stays for a time, their absence will doubtless suggest a lack of support, for the muscles have become weakened from a lack of use.

The skirts and other garments should be supported from the shoulders, and not from the waist. To this end, an under jacket, close-fitting, but in no sense compressing the body, loose in texture so as to be permeable to the air, with straps over the shoulders, should be worn. To this, by means of buttons, all the lower garments should be attached. No steel or other stiff supports should be tolerated. With this system in general use for a generation, the amount of suffering saved would be incalculable, and the advantage to the race would be beyond compute.

The Feet.—In so far as the health is affected by the dress, next to the evils of tight lacing come the evils of tight shoes. The feet being remote from the heart, the circulation of the blood at this point is not as free as in other parts of the body. This in itself tends to beget cold feet, and at once suggests the advantage of warm stockings and stout shoes in order to keep out the cold and wet, and to induce a freer current of warmth-producing blood.

The small foot is almost as much an object of worship as the small waist. The temptation to cramp it by tight and ill-fitting shoes is great, and is not wholly confined to the weaker sex. Large shoes may be ill-fitting and injurious, as well as small ones, often rubbing the skin and producing blisters and sores.

The shoes should be close-fitting but not tight, thus allowing free circulation of air as well as of blood, and also the freest action of the bones and muscles. Like other parts of the dress, the shoes must be adapted to the season. In cold and wet weather the soles should be thick so as to keep out the dampness. The maxim, “Keep the feet warm and the head cool,” is none the less good because it is old.

Rubbers.—Tight-fitting rubbers impede circulation, and, on this score, are objectionable. But the disadvantages of wet or damp feet are far greater. Through the winter and spring months the streets and pavements are rarely free from dampness, and light rubbers or sandals should be worn. Persons who are exceptionally susceptible to colds need to be doubly careful to keep the feet dry and warm.

Stockings.—The stockings, too, should be stout and warm. For most persons, wool is the best material. If the rough surface is uncomfortable to the skin, those of a smoother surface may be tried. A thin silk stocking with a woolen one of moderate thickness outside will make no more bulk than a single heavy woolen stocking, and will be found equally warm.

Some persons when about to undergo extreme exposure to cold wrap the feet with a thickness or two of tissue paper, either under or outside of the stocking. Being impervious to the air, paper is not to be recommended for general use.

The physical annoyances and discomforts growing out of ill-clad feet are such as to demand that great care be given to this part of the dress. Corns, bunions, and in-growing nails are so common that it is a rare thing to find a person who is free from these afflictions.

Heels.—Heels of moderate height are desirable. High heels throw the foot into the front of the shoe, cramp the toes, and destroy the natural action of the foot. The French heel, so coveted by many ladies, is an abomination. It is not only too high, but, being placed under the arch of the foot, defeats Nature’s purpose in the construction of the arch. Children under twelve years should not wear heels.

Wide Soles.—The width of the sole should always be greater than the width of the foot. With the foot clad in a close-fitting, stout stocking, stand upon a cardboard or piece of stiff paper, bearing the weight of the body upon this foot. With a pencil held in a vertical position, have some one draw the outline of the foot upon the paper. When purchasing a pair of shoes, apply this outline to the soles, and see to it that they are larger at every point than the outline. This will go far toward securing comfort.

Infants require to be warmly clad. The heat-producing powers of the organism are feeble. Clothing should be of a kind and of sufficient quantity to prevent the undue waste of natural heat. Children are often clad too thinly, and exposed to cold before they are strong enough to bear it. The “hardening” process to which some foolish mothers resort is accountable for no small amount of infant mortality. The other extreme is equally reprehensible. Aim to maintain an equable temperature of the room as well as of the body; avoid sudden changes, and keep the child out of draughts. Clothing of fine soft wool, as a rule, is the best.

Evenly Distributed.—The body of the child usually is too warmly clad, while the arms and neck are often insufficiently covered. The long skirts of infants are objectionable because they keep the legs too warm and hamper them in their movements, so essential to their growth and development.

Weight.—The weight of the clothing of all persons, of whatever age, should be as light as is compatible with comfortable warmth, but it is a matter of double importance to infants and young children.

Constriction.—Many young mothers have done their infant children incalculable injury by tightly pinning about their tender bodies the swathing band and the upper parts of the skirts. The heart and lungs, stomach and liver, as well as the rest of the body, need room for growth. Instances are recorded of infants having died from being deprived of sufficient room to breathe properly. Here again, the opposite extreme must be avoided. Socks that come well up on the legs should be provided. The dress should not be so loose about the neck as to admit cold draughts of air to the chest or spine. As with older persons, the petticoats and nether garments should be suspended from the shoulders as soon as the child is old enough to walk. The increase in the average life of the American is largely due to the better care of the children.

BATHS AND BATHING

Why We Bathe.—The first object of bathing is cleanliness. The importance of this object is so widely recognized as to have passed into a proverb, “Cleanliness is next to godliness.” A second object of the bath is to stimulate the functions of the skin. A large amount of waste matter is thrown off through the pores, and unless removed by frequent bathing, soon becomes clogged, and sickness ensues. A third object is the pleasurable exhilaration which attends a plunge into the swimming pool, stream, or surf. The street urchin, with no ungovernable desire for cleanliness, and with little thought of the importance of keeping his cuticle in good working condition, plunges into the nearest stream long before the summer days have tempered the water to such a degree as to beguile his older brother.

The Skin.—In order that the advantages of bathing may be fully understood, it is necessary that we have some knowledge of the nature and structure of the outer covering of the body. This garment is soft, pliable, close-fitting, and quite thin, yet sufficiently strong to resist the ordinary contact with surrounding objects.

The skin is composed of two layers, the outer, called the epidermis, or cuticle, and the inner, called the cutis, or true skin. The two layers are closely united. When, from a burn or other cause, a blister is formed, a watery fluid separates the cuticle from the true skin.

The cuticle is very thin, and is composed of minute flat cells, arranged layer upon layer. These, as they are worn out, fall from the body in the form of fine scales. When the cuticle in the palms of the hands or other parts of the body is subjected to severe pressure, or friction, it becomes thick and hard, and better adapted to manual labor.

The cutis, or true skin, is firm, elastic, and very sensitive. Its surface is covered with minute elevations called papillæ. These contain the blood vessels which supply the waste of the skin, and also the nerves which are largely concerned in the sense of touch.

Its uses.—The skin, which seems like a very simple membrane in structure, is, in reality, a very complex and elaborate organ. With its numerous blood-vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerves; its millions of papillæ and pores and sweat ducts; its innumerable hair-follicles with their sebaceous glands and muscles; its odoriferous glands and special pigment-bearing cells, it is well equipped to perform the various duties assigned it.

First, it serves to protect the softer parts of the body which lie underneath it. Secondly, it regulates the temperature of the body by preventing, on the one hand, the too rapid radiation of natural heat, and, on the other hand, by reducing the temperature through the process of perspiration. Thirdly, through its millions of pores, it is constantly throwing off the useless materials found in the excretions of the perspiration and the sebaceous glands.

In order that the skin may perform its functions properly, it must be perfectly clean, the pores must be kept open, and the sweat glands free to throw off all the effete matter and prevent its accumulation within the system. While soap and water are necessary and helpful, free perspiration induced by vigorous bodily exercise or artificial heat will also enable the glands to cast off the more solid substances which accumulate at the bottom.

An eminent French physician has discovered that the annoying odors from the skin which characterize certain persons have their seat in the bottom of the sweat sack, and can be successfully removed by free perspiration followed by a bath.

In addition to the general benefits to the health, of systematic, vigorous exercise and the bath, they will give freshness of color to the skin, prevent the coming of wrinkles, and give to the face a beauty such as no paint or powder can approximate. If ladies with sallow complexions and shrunken countenances would substitute exercise and bathing for facial massage, the benefits of which last only so long as its use is continued, the results would be much more satisfactory.

Many of the common diseases of the skin which destroy the beauty of the complexion are believed to be due to certain microbes. If the skin were kept, by exercise and bathing, in a thoroughly healthy condition, these microbes would find no lodgment, or, gaining a temporary foothold, would readily yield to judicious hygienic treatment.

The Hair and Nails.—These, properly considered, are appendages of the skin. The hair follicles are hollow receptacles, from the bottom of which the hair grows. Alongside each hair follicle are two glands, called the sebaceous glands, which provide the hair with a natural oil or grease, and prevent excessive dryness. This sebaceous matter tends to keep the skin flexible, and serves to protect both skin and hair from the acridity arising from perspiration. The hair serves as a protection, shielding the brain from extremes of heat and cold, and moderating the force of blows upon the head.

The nails not only serve as a protection to the ends of the fingers, but also enable us to grasp more firmly, and to pick up small objects. Well-kept nails contribute much to the beauty of the hand. They are not only an indication of cleanliness but also a mark of refinement.

The Perspiratory Glands.—The skin is provided with numerous sweat-glands which consist of very small tubes with globe-like coils at their deeper extremity. It is estimated that there are 2,800 of these glands to the square inch of the surface of the body.

These glands or pores of the skin are, day and night, constantly excreting a watery fluid. Ordinarily this evaporates as rapidly as it is formed, and the process is called insensible perspiration. Under the influence of heat or exercise the flow is more abundant, and appears upon the surface of the body in the form of minute, colorless drops. This is known as sensible perspiration.

This excretion consists of about ninety-eight parts of water and two parts of solid matter. The quantity of perspiration varies with the temperature, the occupation of the individual, and other circumstances. In an adult, the daily amount is about thirty ounces, or more than nine grains a minute.

Benefit of Perspiration.—Besides freeing the blood of a large amount of water, with the effete matter it contains, perspiration serves to reduce the temperature of the body. This function is most active in hot weather, and the cooling process is proportionally increased, thereby contributing to the comfort of the individual. A partial or temporary check of this excretion is usually attended with headache, fever, and other unpleasant symptoms, and its total interruption is fatal. For the purposes of experiment, rabbits and other small animals have been covered with a coating of varnish, and death invariably ensued in from six to twelve hours.

Importance of Bathing.—As the watery portion of the perspiration evaporates, the solid matter is left on the surface of the skin, and soon clogs the mouths of the pores. The scales of the worn-out cuticle also accumulate, and further impede the action of the skin. These impurities must be removed, not only from motives of cleanliness but also from considerations of health.

General Effects of the Bath.—Bathing, in every form, increases the activity of the internal machinery. It increases the rate of respiration, the activity of the heart, the rapidity of the circulation, the combustion in the tissues, and the perspiration through the skin. This increased activity causes a degree of exhaustion, and makes demand upon the vital forces. The reaction that follows more than restores the depleted vitality, and the bath serves as a tonic to the system.

A Satisfactory Experiment.—A prominent Philadelphia merchant gives the following as a result of his experience: “For a number of years I was troubled with indigestion, and a feeling of general depression. My muscles were soft and flabby, and I was easily fatigued. I was seldom free from colds and their many discomforts. Although there were several gymnasiums near my place of business, I felt that I could not take the time for practice. My condition gradually grew worse, and the drugs and medicines I took did me no good. In sheer desperation, I concluded to see what a little exercise and bathing would do. I chose the early morning and the late evening, as interfering least with business. Upon rising in the morning, and with slight encumbrance of clothing, I devote fifteen minutes to such simple body movements as give exercise to the muscles of the arms, legs, upper and lower trunk, and expand the chest. Then I stand in the bath tub, and with a large sponge filled with cold water, I quickly drench the head, neck, chest, and every part of the body, and, after drying with a soft towel, I give myself a vigorous rubbing with a coarse towel, which produces a delightful glow that lasts for several hours. At night, just before retiring, I again devote ten or fifteen minutes to exercise, and enjoy sound refreshing sleep.

“Since I began this plan of exercise and bathing, some five years ago, my digestion has been excellent, and I enjoy my meals, and seldom ask myself whether it is safe for me to eat this or that, as I used to do. I accomplish much more labor, with less fatigue than formerly, and with none of the old-time languor and depression. My mind is clear and alert, and to my cold sponge bath I ascribe the fact that I rarely have a cold.”

Temperature of the Body.—By a wonderful provision of nature, the temperature of the surface of the body is preserved at about 98.4 degrees Fahrenheit, whether the individual resides in the arctic regions or within the limits of the torrid zone. The range of the internal heat of the body is not very great. A deviation of seven degrees from the normal is dangerous. If the temperature of the body rises to 109 degrees or falls to 76, death is almost sure to follow.

Temperature and Kinds of Baths.—From the standpoint of temperature, baths may be classed as hot, warm, tepid, cool, and cold. A hot bath has a temperature ranging from 98 degrees to 112 degrees Fahrenheit; a warm bath from 92 degrees to 98 degrees; a tepid, from 85 degrees to 92 degrees; a cool bath from 60 degrees to 75 degrees; and a cold bath from 60 degrees down to the freezing point of water.

Tepid, warm, and hot baths are employed, not only for cleansing the body, but to diminish blood pressure and to reduce nervous excitability. The hot bath is used in restoring warmth to the body in certain cases of shock, and to remove the effects of exposure to a low temperature.

When the water is of about the same temperature as the body, the effects are neither stimulating nor depressing. In some forms of sleeplessness, a tepid bath taken just before retiring has been found to be effective. In such cases, the body should be covered by the water for ten or fifteen minutes, and quietly dried with a soft towel, without vigorous rubbing or friction.

Hot Bath.—The cold bath stimulates, the hot bath facilitates function. Both hot and cold baths increase the combustion going on within the body. The immediate effect of a cold bath is to chill the surface of the body. This sensation is promptly conveyed by the nerves of the skin, through the spinal cord, to the brain. Respiration and circulation are at once increased, and the temperature of the interior of the body is raised.

The effect of a hot bath is to raise the temperature of the surface of the body and the temperature of the blood. As in the case of a cold bath, the respiration and pulse are quickened, and the escape of carbonic acid from the lungs is increased.

Warm baths can be borne for a longer time than cold baths, but if the temperature be very high they deplete the system rapidly, and faintness is apt to occur. The warm or hot bath leaves the skin in a very delicate condition, susceptible to chill from exposure followed by internal congestion. The bather should dress quickly after a warm or hot bath, and spend a half hour or more in a warm room so as to allow the body to assume its normal temperature, or he may go from the bath to bed, and cover up well.

Popular Error.—The belief is current that it is extremely dangerous to enter a cold bath when the body is heated or perspiring. The bracing effects of the bath are most manifest if taken while the individual is warm. The clothing should be removed quickly, the plunge or douche boldly taken, and immediately followed by a vigorous rubbing with a coarse towel.

Some years ago, an eminent physician, desiring to test the effects of the cold bath when the body is warm, made a series of observations upon himself. The following is his statement: “Every afternoon a free perspiration was produced by a brisk walk in the sun. As soon as the clothing could be cast off, and while the body was still freely perspiring, a plunge was taken into a fresh water bath of about 60 degrees Fahrenheit. No ill result followed. On the contrary, the sensation which immediately followed the bath, and which continued for six or eight hours afterward, was exceedingly pleasant. The health remained perfect, and the weight decidedly increased during the two months the practice was continued. There is probably no danger to a healthy person in this practice, but it is considered advisable to immerse the head first, to avoid increasing the blood pressure in the brain too greatly, which might result if the body were gradually immersed from the feet upward.”

The douche consists of a stream of water, hot or cold, which is made to strike the body with force. Its value consists partly in the impact of the water, and partly upon its temperature. It is an exhaustive method of treatment, and must be used with caution.

The Scottish Douche consists in the use of alternating streams of hot and cold water, which produces a powerfully stimulating action. Hot and cold affusion are mild forms of the douche.

The Shower Bath differs from the douche in the division of the streams of water, causing it to strike the body with less force. This method, too, should be used with caution, especially by persons who are not robust.

The Needle Bath is a form of fine shower bath. The bather stands within a coil of pipes perforated with very small holes through which the finely divided streams of water impinge upon every part of the body.

The Vapor Bath combines the two agents, warmth and moisture. The patient sits in a small cabinet or other confined space, into which steam from a boiler or kettle is conducted. In some instances, the head is enclosed so that the vapor may be breathed, but more frequently the head and face are shut out from the vapor-inclosed chamber. The vapor bath can be borne much better than the water bath, the temperature often ranging from 120 degrees to 150 degrees Fahrenheit. Various forms of steam or vapor cabinets are advertised in the popular magazines at small prices. The Russian Vapor Bath consists of a vapor bath of high temperature, followed by a cold douche, and is useful where a quick reaction is desired. The Galvanic Bath and the Electro-magnetic Bath consist merely of a bath of water through which a gentle current from a battery is passed. This is so arranged that the current passes from the water through the body, and affords a powerful stimulant to the skin.

Various forms of medicated baths are employed for specific purposes, but these should not be used except upon the advice of a physician.

Air Bath.—The Hot Air Bath, since the days of ancient Rome, has been not only a popular luxury but also a means of treating disease. Unclad, the bather sits in a room heated to a temperature of 120 degrees to 150 degrees. A glass of cold water is sometimes taken to stimulate free perspiration, after which the bather reclines on a marble slab and is shampooed by an attendant. The body is then thoroughly washed with hot water, and rubbed down with a horse-hair glove. This is followed by a cold shower-bath or douche, after which one is rubbed dry, dresses, and reclines for half an hour on bed or couch.

Sun Bath.—The value of sunshine to animal and vegetable life is apparent to all. Plants become blanched and tender, and lack hardihood, if left without sunlight. Fishes in the subterranean lakes are dwarfed, and have no eyes. Tadpoles kept in the dark never develop into full-grown frogs. Men, growing up in mines or in dark prison cells, are sallow and ill-formed. When Fashion smiles upon brown arms and a tanned face, health is improved, and the darker skin is rendered more hardy and better able to resist exposure.

Sand Baths have, at different times, been held in high esteem. The patient is buried in sand, except his head, and exposed to the full rays of the sun. The surface irritation caused by the sand, combined with the effect of the heat, produces a copious perspiration.

Mud Baths and Pine Baths are popular in parts of Germany. In the former, the body of the patient is imbedded, for a time, in the thick paste or mud deposited by some of the mineral springs, or formed of a mixture of moor-earth and water. In the Pine Baths, a strong decoction is made of the fragrant limbs and tops of the resinous pine trees, which, blended with water, has a stimulating action on the skin.

Surf Bathing.—Sea bathing is more invigorating than fresh water bathing. Persons who cannot bathe in fresh water are often benefited by surf bathing. The stimulating action of the salt water, the impact of the waves, the exhilaration and excitement occasioned by the incoming breakers, and the wholesome exercise which usually attends a sea bath, all contribute to the benefit of surf bathing.

While the danger of chilling and taking cold are less in sea bathing, yet the usual precautions should be observed. If warm, do not wait to cool off before going into the water. This is always hazardous. Plunge boldly in, taking care to wet the head, neck, and face as quickly as possible. Exercise to keep up the circulation. Dive through the rollers, or jump up to prevent being overwhelmed by them. If, after being in the water a few minutes, there is a growing sense of chilliness which cannot be overcome by exercise, the bather, for his own safety, should withdraw at once, however enjoyable the occasion, and seek comfort in dry, warm clothing. A prolonged stay at the sea-shore will enable him to renew his bath daily, and gradually increase its length. At most, it should not exceed thirty minutes. Persons of vigorous constitution may take two dips a day with advantage. A short rest should follow the bath, whenever possible. But if reaction is not established by rubbing and putting on dry clothing, it should be restored by taking a short brisk walk before the rest.

Salt-Water Bath at Home.—Aside from the tonic effects of the sea-air, and the absence of business anxiety and the change in food and habits which a temporary residence at the sea-side involves, a good substitute for the sea-bath may be had by the use of an inexpensive preparation of salt which may be found at almost any drug store.