The Complete Work from which this Handbook is extracted

The Keramic Gallery

BY

WILLIAM CHAFFERS

Containing several hundred illustrations, some in colour, of rare,
curious, and choice examples of Pottery and Porcelain from the
earliest times to the beginning of the nineteenth century

NEW EDITION, REVISED AND EDITED BY
H. M. CUNDALL, I.S.O., F.S.A.

Royal 8vo, cloth extra, top edge gilt, to range with the same author’s
“Marks and Monograms on Pottery”

This important book, which was long out of print and scarce, is not reprinted because of its rarity, but because it is an indispensable companion to the same author’s “Marks and Monograms on Pottery and Porcelain.”

As originally published in two volumes at 4 guineas, with the examples reproduced by the Woodbury process, it was an inconvenient book for reference, the examples being separated from the text. In this edition the illustrations are all printed in the letterpress, and are seen in conjunction with the history and description of the different potteries.

The book is not a bare reprint, but has been thoroughly edited, in many cases new or additional specimen pieces given, and the references made to the latest edition of the “Marks and Monograms,” so that the book is of the utmost use for the present day.

This work was undertaken by Mr. H. M. Cundall, I.S.O., F.S.A., and no pains have been spared to make it worthy to be in the hands of every collector as well as every library.

HANDBOOK TO KERAMICS

Chelsea Statuette, “Melpomene”

THE COLLECTOR’S HANDBOOK

TO

Keramics

Of the Renaissance and Modern Periods

SELECTED FROM HIS LARGER WORK, ENTITLED

“The Keramic Gallery”

WITH 350 ILLUSTRATIONS

BY

WILLIAM CHAFFERS

AUTHOR OF “MARKS AND MONOGRAMS ON POTTERY AND PORCELAIN”
“HALL MARKS ON GOLD AND SILVER PLATE,” ETC. ETC.

LONDON
GIBBINGS AND COMPANY, LIMITED
NEW YORK: CHARLES SCRIBNER’S SONS
1909

Printed by Ballantyne, Hanson & Co.
At the Ballantyne Press, Edinburgh

PREFACE

As “The Keramic Gallery” by the late William Chaffers forms a pictorial supplement to his book “Marks and Monograms on Pottery and Porcelain,” so likewise this work, “Handbook to Keramics,” which is an abridged edition of “The Keramic Gallery,” is intended to form a companion volume of illustrations to “The Collector’s Handbook of Marks and Monograms on Pottery and Porcelain.”

Whilst it has been found necessary on account of their size to omit some of the larger illustrations, which appear in the second edition of “The Keramic Gallery,” care has been taken to give representations, as far as possible, of each individual kind of pottery and porcelain, which have been produced in the various foreign and English manufactories from the Renaissance period down to the middle of the nineteenth century.

Brief accounts, extracted from the larger volume, of the various manufactories are also given, with a view to help in establishing the period to which any specimen may belong.

It is hoped that this little work may prove to be of assistance to the Collector in identifying those specimens of Keramics bearing no marks, which may, from time to time, be brought under his notice.

H. M. C.

CONTENTS

LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

HANDBOOK TO KERAMICS

MAIOLICA

ITALY

The painted pottery of Italy, ever since its introduction into that country in the 15th century, has been called by the Italians themselves Maiolica. In England it was in the 18th century called Raphael ware, on account of an impression which existed that Raphael himself condescended to paint on some of the ware. The idea probably originated from the fact that many designs were reproduced on maiolica by the keramic artists from engravings of Raphael and other great masters. The best period of this pottery was, however, subsequent to his death, which took place in 1520.

The term maiolica appears to be derived or rather corrupted from Maiorca, one of the Balearic Islands, noted for its pottery from a very early period. It was in the 16th century called Maiorica, and subsequently Maiolica.

URBINO

Urbino was one of the most celebrated of all the Italian fabriques, and must have had by far the most trade, although no doubt many of the specimens now attributed to this city were the works of other manufactories; there are, however, a considerable number of signed and dated pieces, and the style and touch of the principal artists engaged there may easily be detected. The best known of all the keramic artists of Urbino was Francesco Xanto Avelli da Rovigo, whose works are now so highly appreciated; he usually painted after the designs and engravings of Raphael and other great masters, but seldom adhered strictly to the grouping of the originals; he also painted subjects from Virgil, Ovid, and other poets. The marks which he placed upon his works consisted of one or more initial letters of his name, F.X.A.R., but usually the X. only, or sometimes Xanto, with the date. (See Fig. 1.)

Fig. 1.—Plateau. Marriage of Alexander and Roxana.
After Raphael. Signed and dated “Xanto, 1533.”

Fig. 2.—Plateau, with Leda and the Swan in Centre.
16th Century.

Another celebrated artist of Urbino, who flourished in the middle of the 16th century, was Orazio Fontana, whose family name was Pellipario; Fontana being a name taken in consequence of several of the family being manufacturers of vases as well as artists.

Fig. 3.—Plateau. By Alfonso Patanazzi, 1606.

The family of Patanazzi worked in the early part of the 17th century. Alfonso Patanazzi signed his pieces of the years 1606 and 1607 in full, as well as Alf. P. and A. P. (See Fig. 3.)

Fig. 4.—Vase. Apollo and Daphne. Circa 1580.

Fig. 5.—Cruet. About 1570.

GUBBIO

Gubbio, in the Duchy of Urbino, is known principally by the works of Maestro Giorgio Andreoli, who seems to have monopolised the secret of the ruby and yellow metallic lustre, with which he enriched not only his own productions but put the finishing touches in lustre on the plates of Xanto and other artists from Urbino, as well as from Castel Durante. There is no doubt that the painting of the piece and the application of the metallic lustre colours were two distinct operations, and that it was painted and the colours fixed in the muffle kiln some months before it was touched with the lustre pigments, and again subjected to another baking. Giorgio was a statuary as well as a painter of maiolica, several of his sculptures in marble being yet extant.

Fig. 6.—Plate. “Stream of Life.” 16th Century.
Signed by M^o Giorgio. Diam. 7¾ in.

Fig. 7.—Vase. By M^o Giorgio.
H. 10½ in. 16th Century.

Another painter in lustre, of the school of M^o Giorgio, has signed his pieces with the letter N., which is supposed by some to be a monogram of Vincenzio, the son of M^o Giorgio; and a painter named Perestino, of Gubbio, produced some very beautiful pieces, dated 1533 and 1536.

PESARO

Guido Ubaldo II. della Rovere, who became Duke of Urbino in 1538, was a patron of the fabrique of Pesaro. The maiolica with yellow lustre, blue outlines and imbricated borders, which are assigned to Pesaro, belong to the first part of the 16th century; many of these have portraits and scrolls inscribed with the name of the person to whom they were dedicated. When Passeri visited the town in 1718, there was only one potter, making ordinary vessels. Some years after, in 1757, he sent potters from Urbania and recommenced the manufacture.

According to M. A. Jacquemart, two artists of Lodi—Filippo Antonio Callegari and Antonio Casali—were also established here about the middle of the 18th century. The bowl and cover and dish, Fig. 9, painted and gilt with flowers, are signed by them with their initials. There was another fabrique, established by Giuseppe Bertolucci of Urbania in 1757; Pietro Lei, a painter of Sassuolo, was engaged there.

Fig. 8.—Drug Vase.
17th Century.

Fig. 9.—Bowl, Cover, and Dish.
18th Century.

CASTEL DURANTE

Castel Durante, a small town near Urbino, had a very extensive manufactory of maiolica; most of its early productions of the beginning of the 15th century are often confounded with those of Urbino, but there is evidence enough to show the beautiful character of the decorations employed there. Piccolpassi, director of a bottega for maiolica, at Castel Durante, circa 1550, wrote a treatise on the art of making and decorating it, whilst under the patronage of Guidobaldo II. The manuscript is in the Art Library of the Victoria and Albert Museum. This interesting work is illustrated with pen-and-ink sketches of all the details of manufacture and patterns of the ware, and the prices at which they were to be obtained; allusions are also made in it to other towns celebrated for the same industry; and the principal forms of the vessels are described by name.

Fig. 10.—Vase. About 1560.

Fig. 11.—Plate. About 1530.

In the year 1635 the name of the fabrique was changed to Urbania in compliment to Pope Urban VIII.; and in 1722 it was the only one which remained in the Duchy of Urbino, where articles of utility alone were made.

A great trade was carried on in pharmacy vases or Vasi da Spezieria, covered with grotesque heads, cornucopiæ, &c., designed and shaded with light blue, touched with yellow, orange, brown and green, the patterns being mostly in a bold style.

FAENZA

If not the most ancient, Faenza was one of the most celebrated of the manufactories of maiolica in Italy. It was this town that gave to the French the name by which they have to the present day distinguished their enamelled pottery, as Spain had previously supplied the name to Italy. Thus in Italy it was called maiolica from Maiorca, and in France, faïence from Faenza. The earliest dated piece now extant is probably a plate in the Musée de Cluny, dated 1475, made by Nicolaus de Ragnolis. Another specimen, in the Sèvres Museum, is inscribed “Nicolaus Orsini, 1477”; and in the same collection is a plate, signed “Don Giorgio, 1485,” probably by Maestro Giorgio.

Fig. 12.—Plaque. “Andrea di Bono, 1491.”

Fig. 13.—Plate. With an Emblem of Two Hearts pierced
with Arrows and the Motto “En Piu.”
15th Century.

The products of this fabrique retained for a long time a special character by which they are easily identified; at first the outlines of the figures were very simple and formal; the yellow lustre does not appear to have been adopted.

Fig. 14.—Plaque. Joseph sold by his Brethren.
16th Century.

In the 16th century a favourite decoration was grotesques and arabesques in blue camaïeu on yellow ground, or alternately on the two colours (see Fig. 15). The reverses of the Faenza plates are frequently light blue, with concentric circles or a spiral line in a darker colour; when white, with imbrications or zones alternately blue and yellow. Another peculiarity by which the Faenza ware is known, is the presence of red.

Fig. 15.—Plate. Arms and Arabesques.
16th Century.

DIRUTA

Many of the lustred pieces of maiolica, with light yellow lustre edged with blue, which were attributed formerly to Pesaro, have been now classed among the wares made at Diruta, from the circumstance of a plate in the Pourtalès Collection—subject, one of Ovid’s Metamorphoses, being similarly decorated with the yellow lustre, and signed by El Frate of Diruta, 1541. Some specimens have “In Deruta” inscribed at length; others have simply the letter D with a bar through it; and early pieces have the signature of the painter, El Frate, but without the yellow lustre.

Fig. 16.—Plate. Blue and White.
16th Century.

Fig. 17.—Plate. Inscribed “Sura Fiore.”
About 1520.

FORLÌ

According to Passeri there were fabriques of maiolica at Forlì in the 14th century. Its contiguity to Faenza exercised a great influence on the decoration of the ware, and the patterns on the obverses and reverses are similar. Fig. 18 has on the back “In la botega di M^o. Jeronimo da Forli.”

Fig. 18.—Plate. Christ amongst the Doctors.
Diam. 14 in. 16th Century.

Rimini is only known by a few specimens, which are actually signed, and by the mention made of its fabriques by Piccolpassi. The pieces are dated 1535, and as late as 1635.

VITERBO, RAVENNA, AND TREVISO

There were manufactories at these three places in the 16th century, but few specimens of their productions now exist. (See Chaffers’ Marks and Monograms, p. 112.) The first named is illustrated (Fig. 19) by a plateau; a man at the bottom holds a scroll inscribed “VITERBO DIOMED, 1544.”

Fig. 19.—Plateau. Diana and Actæon.
Dated 1544.

CAFAGGIOLO

This fabrique, established towards the end of the 15th century, became very important, lasting probably throughout the 16th century. The name is spelt in different ways, such as Chaffagiuolo, but Cafaggiolo is the general form.

Fig. 20.—Plateau. St. George.
Circa 1520.

Among the ornaments on this ware are frequently tablets with SPQR and SPQF (Florentinus), and on several the motto “Semper,” adopted by Pietro de’ Medici in 1470, and continued by Lorenzo il Magnifico. The device of a triangle and the word “Glovis,” meaning when read backwards “si volge” (it turns), was used by Giuliano de’ Medici in 1516, alluding to his change of fortune.

Another characteristic of this fabrique is the dark blue background of many of the pieces, and the method in which it was coarsely applied by the brush.

Fig. 20 represents the St. George of Donatello, from the bronze statue in the church of Or San Michele, at Florence.

SIENA

The earliest specimens known of this important manufactory are some wall or floor tiles of the commencement of the 16th century. They are of maiolica, ornamented with polychrome designs of chimeræ, dragons, amorini, masks, birds, &c., beautifully painted in brilliant colours, especially orange and yellow on a black ground. They vary in shape, being triangular, pentagonal, or square, to suit the geometrical designs of the wall or floor they covered; the average diameter is 5 inches. The plate in blue camaïeu on white ground, in the accompanying illustration (Fig. 21) is signed on the reverse “fata in Siena da M^o. Benedetto.”

Fig. 21.—Plate. By M^o. Benedetto.
About 1520.

After a long interval, the name of the town again appears on maiolica of a very characteristic description, accompanied by the names of the artists: Bartolomeo Terenze (or Terchi) Romano in 1727, and Ferdinando Maria Campani, 1733 to 1747, the subjects being taken from Raphael, Annibale Caracci, and other masters (see Figs. 22-24).

Fig. 22.—Plateau. Woman and Peacocks.
18th Century.

Fig. 23.—Plate. Vintage.
Signed Ferdinando M^a Campani, Siena, 1747.

Fig. 24.—Plate. Galatea.
After Annibale Caracci.
Early 18th Century.

PISA

This city was, about the middle of the 16th century, the centre of a considerable trade in the exportation of Italian fayence into Spain, and especially to Valencia, in exchange for the golden metallic lustre ware of that country. Antonio Beuter, a traveller, about 1550, praises the fayence of Pisa as well as those of Pesaro and Castelli. A specimen bearing the name “PISA,” a large vase of fine form, covered with arabesques on white ground, was in the collection of the late Baron Alphonse de Rothschild.

VENICE

Little is known respecting the Venetian maiolica of the 16th and 17th centuries, but numerous pieces exist bearing marks with Venice recorded on them. These are specimens of the 17th century with a mark of a fishhook, and from the long intervals between its use, it evidently belongs to a fabrique and not a painter. As an example of Venetian maiolica, circa 1700, see Fig. 25, a plate painted with an architectural subject.

Fig. 25.—Plate. Circa 1700.

In 1753, the Senate of Venice conceded to the brothers Bertolini the establishment at Murano of a kiln for making fayence. But it did not succeed so well as the promoters anticipated, and it was probably discontinued about 1760, as the concession was annulled by a decree of April 1763.

NOVE

In 1728, Giovanni Battista Antonibon established in the village of Nove, near Bassano, a manufactory of earthenware, and in 1732 he opened a shop in Venice for the sale of his wares. In 1741 the factory was still in a prosperous state, and carried on by his son, Pasqual Antonibon. In 1766 Pasqual took his son, Giovanni Battista Antonibon, into partnership, and in 1781 Sig. Parolini joined the concern, continuing the fabrication with great success until 1802, when they leased the premises to Giovanni Baroni, and the business was carried on under the name of Fabbrica Baroni Nove. It was prosperous for a short time, and some beautiful examples were produced.

Fig. 26.—Tureen and Cover.
18th Century.

Maiolica fina or fayence only is still continued to be made, the manufacture of porcelain, for which at one time the works were so famed, not having been revived.

FLORENCE

Of the early maiolica made here little is known, but fayence of the 18th century is occasionally met with, marked with the letter F or Fl.

Fig. 27.—Cup and Saucer.

PADUA

In a street which still retains the name of Boccaleri (makers of vases) were discovered traces of ancient potters’ kilns, and some triangular wall tiles, of blue and white maiolica alternately, of the end of the 15th or beginning of the 16th century. Among these was a plaque, 20 in. in diameter, of the Virgin and Child between two saints, surrounded by angels. The subject is taken from a cartoon by Nicolo Pizzolo, a painter of Padua and a pupil of Squarcione; on the summit of the throne is written Nicoleti, the name he usually adopted. The plaque is now preserved in the Museum of that city.

Fig. 28.—Plate. Myrrha fleeing from her Father.

Fig. 28, a plate, painted on grey ground, is inscribed on the reverse with the name of the place and the date 1548.

CASTELLI

The manufactory of Castelli, a small town in the Abruzzi, north of the city of Naples, was still flourishing towards the end of the 17th century. Francesco Saverio Grue, a man of letters and science, became about this time director of this Neapolitan maiolica fabrique. The ware was boldly ornamented with subjects, correctly designed and well painted; sometimes the landscapes were delicately heightened with gold. His sons and brothers continued to add lustre to his name for nearly a century. Francesco Antonio Grue’s works, which have dates, range from 1677 to 1722, the subjects being principally scriptural and mythological. Luigi Grue, about 1720-1740, painted landscapes and figures. Ioanes Grue or Grua painted scriptural subjects from about 1730 to 1750. Saverio Grue was the re-inventor of gilding on fayence; some of his pieces are dated 1749 and 1753. His earliest paintings are without gold, consisting of classical subjects and mottoes on plaques. C. A. Grue was a painter about the same time.

Fig. 29.—Bowl and Cover.
18th Century.

Fig. 30.—Ewer and Basin.
18th Century.

Fig. 29, a bowl and cover, painted with nude figures after Annibale Caracci; and filled in with fruit, foliage, and cartouches, is signed “Liborius Grue P.”

NAPLES

Maiolica was made in the city of Naples in the 17th century, but little is known respecting it. Examples of the fayence of the 18th century are frequently met with, signed FDV—F. del Vecchio; Giustiniani; the letter N crowned, and sometimes the letters H.F.

MONTE LUPO

The plates and dishes of coarse heavy earthenware, rudely painted with large caricature figures of soldiers and men in curious Italian costumes of the 17th and 18th centuries, in menacing and warlike attitudes, striding across the plates, holding swords, spears, and other weapons, are usually attributed to Monte Lupo, near Florence. The manufactory is still in existence.

Fig. 31, is signed on the back “Raffaello Girolamo fecit Monte Lupo 1639.”

Fig. 31.—Plate. Three Cavaliers.

MILAN

No specimens can be identified of an earlier date than the 18th century. The fayence is usually painted with grotesque figures, but sometimes with flowers and scrolls in relief, also with Watteau or Chinese subjects. (See Fig. 33.)

Some pieces, apparently of a later date, are from the manufactory of Pasquale Rubati, and usually signed with his initials.

Fig. 32.—Écuelle and Dish.
18th Century.

Fig. 33.—Ewer and Dish.
18th Century.

Fig. 34.—Cup and Plate.
18th Century.

TURIN

That there was a manufactory of maiolica at Turin in the 16th century is proved by a dish with pierced border, painted on the inside with a boy carrying two birds on a long pole; it is marked underneath—Fatta in Torino adi 12 di Setēbre 1577 (see Fig. 35). The manufactory was in existence in the first half of the 18th century and was under Royal patronage, as a large dish which was in the collection of the Marquis D’Azeglio is inscribed on the back of the rim: “Fabrica Reale di Torino GR 1737.” In the centre of the reverse is a monogram composed of F. R. T. (Fabbrica Reale Torino).

Fig. 35.—Dish.
Dated 1577.

FERRARA

Alfonso I., Duke of Ferrara, himself occasionally worked in a room attached to his palace, and is said to have discovered a fine white colour, which was adopted by the fabriques of Urbino. He died in 1534. His successor, Duke Alfonso II., summoned Camillo Fontana (son of the celebrated Orazio Fontana of Urbino) in 1567 to give new life to the manufactory. All the well-known pieces bearing the impresa of the Duke, a flame of fire and the motto “ARDET ETERNUM,” were produced at this fabrique, about 1579. At a much later period, probably late in the 17th century, there was still a manufactory here.

Fig. 36.—Plateau. The Triumph of Bacchus.
First Half of the 18th Century.

BASSANO, near Venice

A fabrique (according to V. Lazori) was founded here about 1540, by Simone Marinoni, but it is not known how long it lasted. Later pieces of the 17th century bear a certain resemblance to the Castelli ware. In 1728, a manufactory of maiolica was set on foot by the sisters Manardi, which was continued in 1735 by Giovanni Antonio Caffo; and some time after, but previous to 1753, another was carried on by Giovanni Maria Salmazzo.

GENOA

Piccolpassi speaks of Genoa as a great mart for maiolica about the year 1540. He tells us the patterns painted—arabesques, leaves, landscapes, &c.—and the prices charged, but no specimens of this early date have hitherto been identified. The fayence of the 18th century, however, is of frequent occurrence; its decoration is much the same as that of Savona, viz. rude and hasty sketches in blue camaïeu, sometimes with small caricature figures in the style of Callot. In consequence of Genoa’s maritime position, the mark selected for this ware was a beacon, by some erroneously called a lighthouse, from which some object is suspended on a pole.

Fig. 37.—Bottle.
18th Century.

Fig. 37, a bottle, painted in blue with birds and scroll ornaments, has this mark.

SAVONA

The manufactory of Savona was founded in the 17th century at the village of Albissola, situated on the coast, near Savona. The ware is generally ornamented in blue on white ground, the designs are roughly executed, and the mark, consisting of a shield of arms of the town, is often seen on the reverse. There are some other marks attributed to Savona: a double triangle with the letter S, called the “knot of Solomon” (Salomone), the sun with G.S., the falcon mark, the tower mark, and the anchor mark, so called from these emblems being depicted on the ware. Fig. 38, a basket, perforated and with two handles, is rudely painted with scrolls in yellow, blue, and green; in the centre is a cartouche with the letters S.A.G.S.

Fig. 38.—Basket.
18th Century.

LORETO

Although Santa Casa at Loreto is not strictly speaking a fabrique of maiolica, yet maiolica is actually made within the precincts of the sanctuary. Bowls are made of clay, mixed with the dust shaken from the dress of the Virgin and walls of the sanctuary, and in this form are preserved by the faithful as tokens of their visit to the shrine.

Fig. 39.—Two Bowls.

SGRAFFIATO OR INCISED WARE

The earthenware vessels with stanniferous enamel, called in Italy sgraffiato ware, have been attributed to Città di Castello. They are engraved in outline and decorated en engobe—that is, the object before being glazed is covered with a second coating of coloured slip or engobe, on which is graved the ornament or design after it has been merely dried by the air, leaving a sort of champ levé, and afterwards baked in the kiln. These fayence vases are generally enamelled in yellow, green, and brown. Fig. 40, a bowl, is decorated with foliage, on the stem are three lions seated, in full relief; round the bowl runs a wreath of yellow flowers; and within is a man wrestling with a dragon, surrounded by a wreath. There was a manufactory of this sgraffiato ware at La Fratta, near Perugia, which was continued down to a late period. Fig. 42, a basket-shaped pot, has ornaments in relief. Similar ware was also made at Pavia in the 17th century.

Fig. 40.—Bowl of Incised Ware.
About 1460.

Fig. 41.—Plate.
Diam., 11½ in. About 1540.

Fig. 42.—Red Glazed Earthenware Basket.
19th Century.

Hispano-Moresque

Fig. 43.—Vase.
Height 20¾ in. 15th Century.

SPAIN

The exact date of the introduction of enamelled pottery with lustre-pigment into Spain is unknown, but the existence of manufactures of “golden” pottery at Calatayud, in Aragon, is testified to by the Mohammedan geographer Edrisi in the 12th century.

Fig. 44.—Azulejo.

The Hispano-Moresque period, which is best known to us from the numerous specimens preserved to our time, commences with the 14th century, when the Alhambra of Granada was erected by the Moors.

The earlier pieces of the 14th and 15th centuries may be distinguished by a golden yellow metallic lustre, and blue enamel on a white ground. The designs are Moorish, consisting of diaper patterns, foliage, fantastic and other animals, shields of arms of Spanish princes, &c., and sometimes Arabic inscriptions, transformed into ornamental designs.

Fig. 43, a vase, is decorated with leaves and conventional flowers, in reddish yellow lustre and blue.

The azulejos or enamelled tiles of the Alhambra, bearing passages from the Koran, shields and other devices, are well known; they date from the beginning of the 14th century (see Fig. 44).

Malaga. The principal as well as the earliest centre for the manufacture of fayence was in this city, and the finest known specimen of Moorish fayence is the celebrated vase of the Alhambra, which is supposed to be as early as the palace itself, viz. the 14th century, and was probably made here. The colours of the decoration are a pure blue enamel, surrounded or heightened with a yellow lustre on white ground.

Figs. 45 and 46 are other specimens of the Spanish lustre ware, with shields of arms, of the 15th or 16th century.

Majorca was the next in importance as regards its ancient manufacture, but it must also have had a very extensive trade in fayence, for it was exported to almost every part of the globe. Giovanni de’ Bernardi da Uzzano, writing in 1442 about the productions of the Balearic Isles, says “the fayence of Majorca has a very extensive sale in Italy.”

Fig. 45.—Plateau.

As the keramic art in Spain declined, the Arabic inscriptions, which were perfect on the early vases like that of the Alhambra, were copied, but the painter, not knowing their signification, employed them as ornaments, until at last they became altogether confused and illegible. The arabesques were no longer in such elegant taste, and large coats of arms entirely filled the centres of vases and plates.

Valencia was also celebrated for its fayence, which may be traced back to Roman times, for Saguntum, now Murviedro, is mentioned by Pliny and others as noted for its jasper red pottery. It is impossible to discover the origin of the lustred pottery of Valencia, but it probably dates from the beginning of the 15th century, when it became the most important in Spain. The pieces attributed to this place have Christian devices; many of them bear the inscription, “In principio erat Verbum et Verbum erat apud Deum,” from the first chapter of St. John, and the eagle displayed (not in an escutcheon as in the arms of Aragon), for St. John was particularly venerated at Valencia. Of its earlier productions of the Moorish period nothing is known.

Fig. 46.—Plateau.

Fig. 47.—Dish.

Valencia has from time immemorial been celebrated for its azulejos or enamelled tiles. There are many houses of the 15th and 16th centuries still existing in the ancient cities of Spain, the walls of whose rooms are covered with tiles ornamented with borders, scrolls, and geometrical designs. The celebrity of this manufacture is maintained to the present day. Fayence of all descriptions was extensively made at Valencia throughout the 17th and 18th centuries. Fig. 47, a dish, is blue and white with a lion in the centre.

Manises, near Valencia, was also celebrated from the 16th to the 18th century. The decorations appear to be of Oriental design, executed for the most part in a rich copper-coloured lustre. Some dishes with copper-colour lustre have upon them a mark of an open hand, which may be the emblem of the place, and are dated 1610 and 1611. Fig. 48, a vase, is painted in lustre, with foliage, birds and animals, and with a rudely executed shield of arms, seemingly of Sicily or Portugal.

Fig. 48.—Vase.

Triana, near Seville. There were several fabriques here, one for the manufacture of spires or ornaments of earthenware, with which the gables of the buildings were crowned; others for the azulejos or tiles so much used in Spain, and for fayence vessels of all descriptions. Fig. 49 is a bottle in the form of a lady in the costume of the period of Louis XIV., en grande tenue; inside the fontange or top-knot of the headdress, which forms the spout, is written “Victor. I. Viva. Mi. Arno. Don. Damian. Sant. ✠.”

Fig. 49.—Bottle.
Height 14 in.

Fig. 50.—Dish.
Dated 1774.

Alcora. There was a very important fabrique of fayence at this place, carried on by the Count D’Aranda, in the 18th century.

The usual mark upon this fayence is the letter A in gold or colour.

Fig. 51.—Plaque.

Talavera, near Toledo, was one of the most important manufactories in Spain in the 17th and 18th centuries, and the word talavera was used to indicate all fayence in the same manner as fayence in France and delft in England.

Fig. 52.—Bowl.
18th Century.

Fig. 52, a bowl, is glazed, decorated within and without with a bull fight, storks, and trees, in green, orange and manganese.

CONTINENTAL FAYENCE

FRANCE

Maiolica and Fayence are essentially the same, being composed of the same material and covered with a tin glaze or opaque white enamel, which serves to hide the dingy colour of the clay, and forms a fine ground for the reception of colours.

Saint Porchaire. All the earliest writers on the subject appear to have thought that it was made in Touraine, and it was called Henri Deux ware.

The ware next became known as Faïence d’Oiron, but in 1888 it was affirmed that the factory of this pottery was at Saint Porchaire.

The distinguishing characteristics of this curious ware are, in the first place, the body, which is of a creamy white pipeclay, very compact and of fine texture, so that it does not, like the ordinary fayence, require an opaque white enamel, but merely a transparent glaze; and secondly, that instead of being painted with enamel colours over the surface, it is inlaid with coloured plates, in the same manner as the champ levé enamels or niello work in metal.

Fig. 53, a candlestick of cream-coloured ware, is inlaid with arabesques and other patterns, in dark brown and reddish brown, with reliefs of three boys, tragic masks, shields of arms of France, and the cipher of Henri II.; above are three terminal figures of satyrs; date about 1540.

Fig. 53.—Candlestick.

Fig. 54, a biberon, is inlaid with interlaced bands and scrolls, rosettes, guilloches, masks, &c., in a reddish colour; a curved band on the neck has a row of ciphers, these being the letters A. M., elegantly arranged as a decorative monogram, probably that of the Constable Anne de Montmorency.

Fig. 54.—Biberon.
Height 9¼ in.

Beauvais was celebrated for the manufacture of decorative pottery in the 14th century, and descriptions of cups of the terre de Beauvais frequently occur in early inventories. Several specimens of it are still in existence; they are of red, green, or blue glaze, with gothic inscriptions and arms of various provinces of France in relief.

Apt. The fabrication of fayence is said to have commenced here about the middle of the 18th century, principally in imitation of jasper and brocatelle marble. The manufactory of M. Bonnet was established about 1780, and marbled ware and vases of a yellow colour were produced.

Fig. 55.—Vase.

Fig. 55 is a yellow vase with masks and vine leaves.

Blois. A manufactory of fayence was in existence here throughout the 17th and 18th centuries. It was similar to that of Nevers and Rouen. Some specimens are signed Lebarquet.

Fig. 56.—Candlestick.

Avignon. A manufactory of pottery flourished here from about 1650 to 1780, but there were also potteries early in the 16th century. The pottery is of a chocolate brown, with a fine metalloid glaze like bronze or tortoiseshell. The ewers and bottles are of elegant forms, resembling those of Italy, sometimes perforated and ornamented with masks and flowers in relief, or painted yellow.

Fig. 57.—Ewer.
About 1600.

Bernard Palissy, born 1510, succeeded, after many years of diligent research, in discovering the enamel which decorates his ware. His earthenware, as well as his style of decoration and his beautiful modelling, were quite original. The natural objects represented upon his ware are true in form and colour, being mostly modelled from nature; the shells are copied from tertiary fossils found in the Paris basin; the fish are those of the Seine, and the reptiles and plants such as he found in the environs of Paris.

Fig. 58.—Dish.
16th Century.

Nevers. The earliest evidence of the making of fayence at Nevers is the foundation of a fabrique by Dominique Conrade, in the latter half of the 16th century, which was carried on by his son and grandson. In 1652, Pierre Custode established another fabrique, which was equally successful, and seven generations of his family were employed in it. Other manufactories were started in the 18th century.

The fayences of the first epoch, 1600 to 1660, have frequently been confounded with Italian maiolica, but a little attention will show the points of difference. In the Nevers ware the figures are always yellow on blue ground; the Italian figures are usually blue on yellow. At Nevers red or metallic lustre was never employed, and the outlines are always traced in manganese violet, never in purple or black. During the second epoch, the ground was a peculiar lapis-lazuli blue, like the Persian colour called bleu de Perse; it entirely covered the piece, was spotted or painted with white, or sometimes in yellow and orange, and decorated with flowers and birds. The Chinese patterns are in light blue en camaïeu, sometimes intermixed with a sort of brown lilac.

Fig. 59.—Pilgrim’s Bottle. Bleu de Perse.
2nd half of 17th Century. Height 11½ in.

Fig. 60.—Ewer. Painted with Japanese figures,
2nd half of 17th Century. Height 15⅜ in.

Fig. 61.—Pilgrim’s Bottle. Apollo and Daphne;
rev. A Bacchanalian Scene.
In blue and yellow. Height 12¼ in.

Rouen. There was a manufactory of pottery at Rouen early in the 16th century, and towards the end of the next century there were many establishments. At the commencement of the 18th century, the Chinese style pervaded all the Rouen fayence, but it was transformed or travestied and possessed a special physiognomy; the subjects were landscapes and buildings with figures, fantastic birds, dragons, &c., in blue, green, yellow, and red, bordered with the square Chinese ornaments. At a later date the decoration consists principally of flowers issuing from cornucopiæ and rococo ornaments; this sort of style is called in France “à la corne.” The paste of the Rouen fayence is heavier and thicker than that of Delft, but the designs and ornaments are full of taste, decorated in blue camaïeu and in polychrome, some in the style of Nevers, with white on bleu de Perse, but of paler colour. The pieces were frequently of large size, and included fountains, consoles, vases, &c.

Fig. 62.—Ewer.

Fig. 63.—Ewer.

Fig. 64.—Plate.

Fig. 62 is painted with polychrome decoration of landscapes, &c.; period of Louis XIV.; height 26⅜ in.

Fig. 63 is painted in blue with arabesques and flowers; period of Louis XIV.; height 9¾ in.

Fig. 64 is painted in the centre with a rose ornament, with medallions and scrolls round the rim, in blue and orange; period of Louis XIV.; diam. 10 in.

Fig. 65.—Compotier.

Fig. 66.—Compotier.

Fig. 65 is painted in polychrome; period of Louis XV.; diam. 9⅝ in.

Fig. 66 is painted with Chinese figures, &c., in polychrome; period of Louis XV.; diam. 10 in.

Strassburg[1] and Hagenau were noted for the manufacture of fayence, established by Charles François Hannong about 1709. It was called in France “poterie du Rhin,” and is of a peculiar character, and easily known, being generally decorated with flowers and scrolls in red, rose colour, and green. Charles F. Hannong was succeeded by his sons Paul and Balthasar. The former took charge of the Strassburg works, and the latter the factory which had been started at Hagenau. The Strassburg fayence works were closed in 1780.

Fig. 67.—Fountain.

Fig. 68.—Clock and Bracket.

Fig. 67, polychrome decoration, bears the initials of Paul Hannong; about 1750; height 22¼ in.

Fig. 68, in three pieces, coloured in maroon, yellow, blue and green, bears the mark of Paul Hannong; about 1750; height 3 ft. 9 in.

Moustiers. The products of the Moustiers fabriques may be divided into three periods:—

1st Epoch. Towards the end of the 17th century. The subjects are hunting scenes, &c., painted in blue; champêtre scenes and figures in costumes of the period of Louis XIV.; and mythological and biblical subjects with arabesque borders. The outlines are sometimes lightly indicated in violet of manganese.

Fig. 69.—Plateau.

2nd Epoch. From the commencement of the 18th century to about 1745. The specimens of this period are in blue camaïeu with highly finished and graceful interlaced patterns, among which are cupids, satyrs, nymphs, terminal figures, flowers, masks, &c.; canopies with draperies resting upon consoles, vases, fountains, &c.

3rd Epoch. From 1745 to 1789. The fayence is mostly painted in polychrome; the colours are blue, brown, yellow, green, and violet. The decorations are flowers, fruit, and foliage, and sometimes mythological subjects. Other patterns of this period consist of grotesque figures, and caricatures. The outlines of the designs were transferred to the surface of the ware by means of paper patterns, pricked with a fine needle and powdered over with charcoal.

Fig. 70.—Compotier.

Fig. 69, painted in green camaïeu with a rustic subject in the style of Boucher, with polychrome floral border; 1720 to 1760; diam. 11⅛ in.

Fig. 70. Compotier, painted with a central hunting subject, after Tempesta, surrounded by a floral border, and outer border of garlands, in polychrome; 1680 to 1720; diam. 10⅜ in.

Fig. 71.—Plate.

Fig. 72.—Barber’s Basin.

Fig. 71. Plate, octagonal, with curved outline, painted with central medallion of Juno standing in a landscape, surrounded by a garland, and round the border the busts of divinities within medallions, and garlands, in polychrome; 1680 to 1720; diam. 10 in.

Fig. 72. Barber’s basin, painted in polychrome with the subject of Diana and Actæon; 1680 to 1720; length 15 in.

Varages also possessed manufactories in the 18th century for fayence in the style of Moustiers, from which it is only a few miles in distance. Some of this ware bears the mark of a cross, and was called “Faïence à la Croix.” Fig. 73 is painted with rustic figures in landscape, after Wouverman; crimson and green flower border, and marked with a cross. 18th century. Diam. 11½ in.

Fig. 73.—Plate.

Marseilles. The manufacture of fayence at Marseilles, and elsewhere in the South of France, was in activity early in the 17th century. A little after 1750, twelve fabriques of pottery were in existence. In 1790 there were eleven manufactories existing, but most of them ceased about 1793, on account of the Treaty of Commerce with England. The Revolution of 1793 gave an additional blow to the keramic industry of Marseilles. In 1805 there were only three factories at work, employing twenty hands. In 1809 only one remained.

Fig. 74.—Tureen.

The fayence is much the same in character as that of Moustiers, and sometimes resembles that of Strassburg. The decorations are frequently in red or green, sometimes with Chinese designs. There is one peculiarity about the Marseillaise fayence which at once fixes its identity, and this is, three green leaves or marks painted on the backs of plates and dishes to hide the imperfections in the enamel caused by the pernettes or points of support on which they rested in the kiln. There is also a great resemblance between the early ware made here and at Genoa, in consequence of the emigration of many workmen. We learn from a complaint made on the subject by the potters of Marseilles to the Intendant of Provence in 1762, from which it seems they took a great number of apprentices at very low wages, and the wages were paid in fayence, which mode of payment they said deteriorated the quality, and caused the workmen to emigrate to Genoa. Also they complained that great quantities of Genoese fayence were imported into Languedoc and Provence, and spread over France, which was absolutely ruinous to the trade of the two provinces, and especially to Marseilles.

Fig. 74. Soup tureen, cover, and stand, with polychrome flower decoration and gilding, was made by Savy, about 1750; length of tureen, 15½ in.

Sinceny in Picardy. A manufactory was established here in 1733, by Jean Baptiste de Fayard, Gouverneur de Chaunay et Seigneur de Sinceny. Dr. Warmont (Recherches Historiques sur les faïences de Sinceny, &c., Paris, 1864) divides the products of this manufactory into three periods:—

1. Rouennaise, 1734 to 1775.
2. Faïence au feu de réverbère, 1775 to 1789.
3. Décadence de l’Art, 1789 to 1864.

The earliest pieces were painted in blue; the next in blue touched with red or green and yellow, decorated with lambrequins (mantlings), à la corne (cornucopiæ), birds, and butterflies. Chinese figures were doubtless stencilled by pricked papers and charcoal powder.

Fig. 75.—Bowl and Cover.

About 1775 a great improvement was perceptible in the fayence of Sinceny; the paste became finer in quality, the colours brighter and more varied, in more exact imitation of the porcelain of Japan. This was accomplished by what is called le feu de réverbère, in contradistinction to the old process au grand feu; the latter included only one baking, while in the other the ware was placed a second time in the kiln, and the pigments were not exposed to so great a heat, which allowed the employment of brighter colours. Table services decorated in polychrome, with branches of roses, sometimes in green camaïeu; delicate wicker baskets, watch stands, &c., were produced; they were painted with Chinese figures, rococo scrolls, and other ornaments. From 1790 the fayence au feu de réverbère was largely discontinued on account of its expensive character and the introduction of English ware at a lower price; but still, both descriptions were occasionally made.

Fig. 75 is a bowl and cover, painted in colours inside with a coronet, supported by two cupids on clouds with a flaming heart beneath, 18th century.

Lunéville. Founded in 1731 by Jacques Chambrette, it was called La Manufacture Stanislas; Jacques was succeeded by his son Gabriel and his son-in-law Charles Loyal. They made fayence of blue decoration like Nevers, and sometimes with rose and green colours like the old Strassburg ware. Large figures of lions, dogs, and other animals, of natural size, are sometimes met with.

Fig. 76.—A Pair of Rustic Figures. With polychrome decoration.
About 1775. Height 8¾ in.

Fig. 77.—Dish. In polychrome.
About 1760. Length 13¼ in.

Aprey, near Langres. Established, about 1750, by Lallemand, Baron d’Aprey. About 1780 it was conducted by M. Vilhault, who made a superior kind of fayence. The early style is that of Strassburg with rose colour, green and yellow predominating.

Fig. 78.—Plate. In polychrome.
Diam. 9⅜ in.

At Manerbe, near Lisieux in Normandy, and at Malicorne, Infreville, Château-la-Lune and Armentières, those elegant glazed earthenware pinnacles or finials which adorn the gables of old mansions in various parts of Normandy were constructed. They are 5 or 6 feet in height, being a series of small ornaments placed one above another on an iron rod; they partake of the character of the figulines rustiques of Palissy, and have frequently been sold as such.

Fig. 79.—Finial.
About 1600.

St. Clément. Established about 1750. Little is known of this fabrique. There are some specimens of the 18th century in the Sèvres Museum; also some others of later date, 1819 and 1823.

Fig. 80.—Écuelle.
With gilt scrolls on white ground.

Toulouse. Established in the 18th century. The ware is very similar in style to early Rouen pottery. A large hunting bottle, with loops for suspension, painted with blue flowers, and bearing round the neck the inscription “Laurens Basso a Toulousa Le 14 Maÿ 1756,” was formerly in the possession of the late Mr. C. W. Reynolds.

Niderviller.[2] Established in 1760, by Jean Louis, Baron Beyerlé. The ware is in the German style, potters from Germany having been employed in its production, and is remarkable for the richness and delicacy of its decoration, which most frequently consists of flowers in bouquets and garlands. His fayence figures and groups are well modelled. About 1780, four years before Beyerlé’s death, the factory was purchased by General Count Custine, and carried on by him under M. Lanfray, principally for the manufacture of porcelain, which will be subsequently referred to.

Fig. 81.—Vase.

Fig. 81. Vase with cover, one of a pair; urn shape, painted to resemble deal, with medallions containing landscapes in rose camaïeu, and borders of bay leaves. It bears the mark of Count Custine; date about 1774; height 17⅜ inches.

Douai. Two brothers of the name of Leech, from England, were engaged, in 1782, by M. George Bris, of Douai, to superintend the manufacture of English pottery on a large scale, in a factory (now a Normal School) in the Rue des Carmes. It was one of the first of the kind established in France. The chief workmen, who came originally from England, instructed pupils, who carried the new process to Chantilly, Forges, and other places in France.

Vincennes. In 1768 M. Maurin des Abiez undertook a manufacture of fayence in the manner of Strassburg, it being well known that there did not exist in France any fayence comparable to it in beauty and solidity; he had purchased the secret, and brought to Paris a staff of workmen who had been engaged at Strassburg. He acquired possession of the Château de Vincennes for twenty years. Pierre Antoine Hannong was engaged as director, and the works were carried on for four years, until 1771, when the factory got into difficulties and was closed.

Sarreguemines.[3] Established about 1770 by Paul Utzschneider. The beautiful fayence produced here is in imitation of porphyry, jasper, granite, and other variegated hard marbles, and was sometimes cut and polished by the lathe; it was also made with white raised figures on blue in the style of Wedgwood, and a third kind was red ware like the Japanese. The name is impressed on the ware.

St. Amand-les-Eaux, near Valenciennes. Founded about 1750 by M. Fauquet, and continued by his son. The latter occupied himself especially with the gilding of his ware, which gave his neighbours the opportunity of saying he melted all his louis-d’ors in making his experiments and ruined himself. In the revolution of 1789 he emigrated, and all his goods were confiscated. In 1807 he attempted to revive the fabrique, and advertised that the St. Amand works were in full activity, making white fayence in the style of Rouen.

Fig. 82.—Inkstand.

Fig. 82, an inkstand, with ink and pounce pots and drawer, painted on a grey ground with blue and white flowers under the glaze; about 1760-80.

Sceaux Penthièvre. In 1753, Jacques de Chapelle established a manufactory of a particular sort of fayence, of which he alone possessed the secret. The ware is in the style of Strassburg, its prevailing colours being pink and green; it is painted with flowers, but more carefully finished, and with landscapes and other forms of decoration.

Fig. 83.—Plate.

Bourg-la-Reine. Established in 1773 by Messrs. Jacques and Jullien, who removed hither from Mennecy. The early ware is very similar to that of Sceaux. Besides the white fayence for domestic use, more artistic pieces were produced, painted on the enamel after it had received a slight baking; this ware is principally in imitation of the Italian.

Creil. A manufactory of fine fayence, worked in the 18th century by M. S^t Criq, made opaque porcelain and stoneware in the English style, and transferred prints on to the ware.

Fig. 84.—Plate.
With a yellow border and transfer-printed landscape.

Montereau. In 1775, Messrs. Clark, Shaw, & Co., obtained letters patent to carry on a manufactory of English fayence, called Queen’s ware, from clay found in the vicinity. This ware had a very extensive sale, and dealt a severe blow to the manufacture of French fayence. It soon spread over France, and was extensively made at Toulouse, Creil, Sarreguemines, and other places.

Lille. A manufactory of fayence, was founded in 1696, by Jacques Feburier, of Tournai, and Jean Bossu, of Ghent, who made a ware à la façon de Hollande.

Fig. 85.—Dish.

Another important manufactory of fayence was established in 1711, by Barthélemy Dorez and Pierre Palissier; it continued in active work for nearly a century. A third fayence manufactory was founded in 1740 by J. Masquelier, and was continued in the same family until 1827. A fourth was established in 1744, by M. Chanou, who made a brown earthenware called terre du St. Esprit, in the English fashion. There were also two other factories here in the 18th century.

GERMANY

The pottery of Germany consists of two distinct classes: the fayence with opaque white stanniferous glaze, and that which to a great extent is called in England stoneware, in Germany Steingut, and in France grès or sandstone. These epithets exactly describe the quality of the latter ware. It is very serviceable for domestic utensils, such as drinking bottles and vessels of everyday use, and is covered with a thin transparent glaze, effected by throwing common salt into the kiln when the ware is nearly baked—the salt vaporised by the heat surrounds the vessels, and acting upon the silica of their surfaces produces a thin gloss of silicate of soda over the ware, rendering it perfectly impervious.

Nuremberg (Nürnberg). The celebrated Veit Hirschvogel, of Schlettstadt, was born in 1441, and died in 1525; he was a great potter, contemporary with Luca della Robbia, of Florence. The early pieces of pottery are somewhat like maiolica, but the colours are brighter, green predominating in many specimens; figures in relief in niches are frequently seen on vases. Several chimney-pieces of this ware of the 15th century are still in existence, one is in the castle of Salzburg, and many pieces treasured up in museums are supposed to have been made by Hirschvogel himself. The Nuremberg pottery of the 16th and 17th centuries is not uncommon. Hirschvogel was succeeded by his sons and a host of continuators. Fayence of the 18th century is also met with, painted with scriptural subjects, sometimes in blue camaïeu, sometimes in other colours.

Fig. 86.—Jug.
15th Century.

Fig. 86. Jug, of enamelled earthenware, in various colours, with figures in low relief; attributed to Veit Hirschvogel; height 13 in.

Fig. 87.—Dish.

Fig. 87. Dish, painted in the centre with Christ rising from the tomb; signed with the painter’s name Glüer, 1723.

Leipzig. In the convent of St. Paul, which was built in 1207, there was a frieze of bricks, covered with tin enamel glaze, representing in relief the heads of Saints and Apostles, 20 in. by 15 in., 2½ in. thick. On the demolition of the convent a selection of these was deposited in the Dresden Museum; they are of Byzantine character, in green enamel shaded with black; the hair, beard, and eyes of the figures are coloured.

Strehla. A manufactory for earthenware was in existence here for many centuries. A pulpit of enamelled earthenware still exists, supported by a life-size figure of Moses, ornamented with eight plaques of religious subjects and figures of the four Evangelists, bearing the name of the potter and the date 1565.

Oberdorf. A factory was carried on by a potter named Hans Seltzman; a very fine stove made by him, with an inscription and dated 1514, is in the Palace at Füssen, in Bavaria. Many other places throughout Germany were equally famous in the 16th and 17th centuries, for the manufacture of stoves, as Augsburg, Memmingen, &c.

Bayreuth. The manufacture of a brown stoneware with Renaissance medallions, arabesques, &c., in relief flourished here in the 16th century. At a later period, fine fayence was produced, painted in blue camaïeu. The designs are delicately traced with a brush on a fine paste; the forms are canettes, jardinières, &c. At the end of the 18th century a fabrique of fayence was carried on by a Herr Schmidt, who assiduously copied the English ware; there are specimens in the Sèvres Museum bearing the counterfeit mark of “Wedgwood.”

Fig. 88.—Coffee-pot.

Fig. 88. Coffee-pot and cover, chocolate coloured ground, decorated with gilt scrolls; F, the cypher of Frederick the Great, under a crown in front; about the middle of the 18th century; height 9 in.

Cologne (Köln). The stoneware made here in the 16th century is better known throughout Europe than any other description of pottery; its durability for domestic uses and the elegant character of its ornamentation in relief, caused it to be sought for everywhere. The grès de Cologne has been confounded with the grès de Flandres, which latter name is given erroneously and indiscriminately to all stoneware of German manufacture, notwithstanding the German inscriptions the pieces bear and the arms of German cities and families. The best and most highly finished decorative grès or stoneware cruches were undoubtedly made in Germany, if not at Cologne. The clay for making the Cologne ware came from Langerwehe between Düren and Aix-la-Chapelle. The manufactory was not actually in Cologne, but in the vicinity, possibly at Frechen, and at Lauenstein, where a factory was established in the 18th century.

There were also factories at Siegburg and Limburg.

All the ware was made in moulds, and it must be borne in mind that the vessels were not always made at the date indicated upon them, for the moulds were used successively through a series of years, and it is no uncommon occurrence to find two different dates upon the same piece. Some of the finest specimens known bear the name of Baldem Mennicken, a potter dwelling at Raeren in the ancient Duchy of Limburg, which town until the treaty of 1814 was part of Holland, and it is probable that the stoneware produced here indicates the origin of grès de Flandres.

Fig. 89.—Limburg Cruche.
Grey and blue. Height 8¾ in.

Fig. 90.—Raeren Cruche.
Grey and blue. Height 7¼ in.

Fig. 91.—Siegburg Canette.
Cream colour. Dated 1574.
Height 17¼ in.

Grenzhausen, in Nassau. There was a factory here about 1780, where grès or stoneware was made; it is of a fine quality and easily mistaken for the more ancient grès. The forms are usually plates, dishes, and jugs, in which the decoration consists of a fine blue enamel on grey ground, with incuse ornaments executed by hand.

Fig. 92.—Jug.

Fig. 92, a jug of reticulated pattern, is engine-turned, and enriched with brilliant enamel colours, 18th century.

Fig. 93.—Fountain.

Fig. 93, a large fountain, is purple blue and white, 16th century; height 30 in.

Kreussen, a town of Bavaria, has long been noted for its pottery. The grès of the 17th century, called Kreussener Steingut, is of a dark brown colour, in the forms of cylindrical mugs, tankards, &c., with figures in relief round them, painted in bright coloured enamel.

Fig. 94.—Tankard.

Fig. 94, a tankard, has a chocolate-coloured ground, with coloured enamel ornaments and figures of the Emperor and the Electors of Germany on horseback, dated 1696.

Bunzlau, in Silesia. Grès was made here in the 16th and 17th centuries. The products of the 18th century are distinguished by ornaments in relief, flowers, coats of arms, &c., sometimes gilt. At the present time an extensive trade is still carried on in the manufacture of chocolate and coffee pots, usually covered with a brown glaze, and lined with white. There is preserved a monster coffee-pot, 15 feet high, made at this place in the 18th century.

Harburg, on the Elbe, opposite Hamburg, is noted as the residence of Johann Schaper, who was born towards the end of the 16th century. His exquisite paintings of landscapes and figures are usually in Indian ink or sepia en grisaille, the colours being fixed by heat.

Fig. 95.—Cruche.

Fig. 95, a cruche of fine fayence, painted with a landscape in grey camaïeu, is signed “Joh. Schaper”; it has a white ground with flowers and fruit in natural colours; date about 1640; height 8½ in.

Scherzheim, in Würtemberg. The Wintergursts, father and son, were celebrated potters here, and made fayence from the beginning of the 17th century; it is from their manufactory that the table services, of which each piece represents an animal or a vegetable, were made.

Lauenstein, near Coblenz. A manufactory was established in 1760; the grès or stoneware made here was of grey and blue, ornamented with incuse patterns; it was made in large quantities, and carried by the Rhine boats to the markets in Holland, where it met with a ready sale.

Höchst, near Mainz. Enamelled fayence was made here in the beginning of the 18th century, at a factory founded by Gelz of Frankfort. The manufactory ceased in 1794, but a potter named Dahl established one in the vicinity. He made statuettes and other ornaments.

Dresden. A manufactory was established at Meissen, on the Elbe, about 12 miles from Dresden, by Augustus II., King of Poland and Elector of Saxony, for the manufacture of hard paste, or true porcelain. The experiments of Tschirnhaus and Böttcher commenced about 1706; to the latter is attributed the invention of hard paste. His first attempt produced a red ware, like jasper, which was cut and polished by the lapidary and gilt by the goldsmith. It was made from a kind of brown clay found at Meissen. This red ware, made by Böttcher, was a fine stoneware, having opacity, grain, and toughness.

Fig. 96.—Böttcher Coffee-Pot.

Another kind of pottery was made at the beginning of the 18th century, in imitation of the Japanese; it was called the red pottery of Dresden.

Teinitz (Bohemia). A manufactory was carried on in this small town in the 18th century by a potter named Welby.

Fig 97.—Plate.

Fig. 97. A plate painted in bistre camaïeu with the Discovery of Calisto by Diana. It has an elegant border in grey, with richly gilt designs, resembling the gilding of Vienna. Date about 1800.

Frankenthal. Paul Hannong, driven from Strassburg in 1753, in consequence of the Vincennes monopoly, founded a manufactory here in the following year for hard paste porcelain; he also made great quantities of fayence, usually decorated with flowers, as at Strassburg. It was called “Poterie du Rhin.”

Arnstadt (Gotha). A factory was established here about the middle of the 18th century. A fayence jug, painted in blue camaïeu, with St. George and the Dragon, coloured flowers on the sides, and a purple and green check border, is in the British Museum.

Kiel was noted for its fayence about 1770; the factory was under the direction of J. Buchwald, who had been master potter at Marieberg, 1761 to 1765; a few years after, probably in 1767 or 1768, he became director of the Kiel manufactory. The paintings of landscapes and flowers in colours are well finished.

Fig. 98.—Bishop’s Mitre Bowl.

HOLLAND AND LUXEMBURG

HOLLAND

Delft, a town between the Hague and Rotterdam, was celebrated for its earthenware at a very early period. The exact date of its commencement is not known, but there is a record of a certain Herman Pietersz, a fayence maker, being married in 1584, consequently pottery was being made in the town towards the end of the 16th century. At this period the decorated Dutch pottery showed Italian influence in its design, and it is recorded that a painter on pottery named Vroom studied his art in Italy.

After the middle of the 17th century the industry increased rapidly, and reached its greatest prosperity about 1680, when there were about thirty different factories, and the ware was decorated by highly skilled artists. No one was allowed to establish a factory unless he had obtained a licence from the Guild of S^t. Luc.

To this period belong famous potters, such as P. J. Van Kessel of “The Metal Pot”; Abram de Kooge of “The Old Moor’s Head,” who decorated landscapes in blue camaïeu; and Albrecht de Keizer, with his two sons-in-law, Jacob and Adrian Pynaker, of “The Three Porcelain Bottles,” who were the first to imitate oriental porcelain. Other potters of note at this time were the Eenhorns, father and two sons, the Kleftyns, and the five Kams.

Fig. 99.—Cruche.

By the middle of the 18th century, owing to the competition of English pottery, the Delft industry was already on the wane. In 1780 the factories were reduced to one half their former number, and by 1808 only seven existed. All these gradually succumbed, and now only one factory, “The Old Porcelain Bottle,” remains.

Fig. 100.—Teapot.

The forms of the Delft ware are very varied; among other curious efforts the potters produced musical instruments. There are four fayence violins extant, all painted in blue camaïeu, with figures in Dutch costume of the 17th century, dancing and singing, musicians and kermess scenes, in the manner of Gerard Lairesse, with cupids and Renaissance ornaments as borders.

The decorated pieces of Ter Himpelen, although rarely signed, are much prized; he painted fairs and marine subjects on square plaques, about the year 1650. So also are those of Piet Viseer, a celebrated colourist, who flourished about 1750; and of Van Domelaar, who painted Chinese landscapes, &c., about 1580.

Fig. 101.—Vase.

Fig. 99, a cruche, is painted in blue camaïeu, with a musical party, in the costume of about 1670.

Fig. 102.—Plate.

Fig. 100, a teapot, is painted in polychrome with Chinese landscapes and flowers on a black ground. It has the mark of Louwys Fictoor. Late 17th or early 18th century.

Fig. 101, a vase, is painted in blue with flowers, in imitation of a Chinese type. The mark of Ghisbrecht Lambrechtse Kruyk. Later half of 17th century.

Fig. 102, a plate painted with figures in blue, is one of a set of twelve representing the tobacco industry.

Utrecht. There was a manufactory of tiles here, founded in 1760; they were decorated in blue or violet, en camaïeu, in imitation of Delft; the manufactory was closed in 1855.

Amsterdam. A German Jew of Breslau, named Hartog, known as Hartog Van Laun, and another, named Brandeis, established a manufactory of fayence near the gate of Weesp, at Amsterdam. The ware is heavy, not very artistic, and usually in blue camaïeu. Fig. 103, a fruit dish, is painted in blue, with a man and woman seated.

Fig. 103.—Dish.

Overtoom. A manufactory of fine fayence was established in 1754, in the parish of Amstelveen, near Amsterdam; it lasted ten years. The Barons Van Haeren and Van Palland were the proprietors, and Ariel Blankers was the director. The fayence, though heavy, was of a fine white enamel and of good forms; besides table and tea services, groups of birds, modelled from nature, statuettes, &c., were made.

LUXEMBURG

An important fabrique was established at Luxemburg by the brothers Boch, in 1767, who had removed from Audun le Riche in France. They made various descriptions of earthenware, as well as fine fayence, and largely imitated the English Queen’s ware.

RUSSIA AND SWEDEN

RUSSIA

St. Petersburg. About the year 1700, Peter the Great, during his stay at Saardam, induced some potters of Delft to emigrate to St. Petersburg, where he established a manufactory. We have no information on the subject, except a notice of it in the “Connaissances Politiques,” of Beausobre, published at Riga in 1773: “There is also among the porcelain manufactories at St. Petersburg a fabrique of fayence, on the other side of the Neva, where they make every description of vessels of correct design and in good taste. A private gentleman of Revel has also established at his own cost, near this city, a fabrique of fayence, and has obtained painters and potters from Germany.”

SWEDEN

Rörstrand, a suburb of Stockholm, where a factory for earthenware was established in 1726. The works were at first under the direction of Jean Wolf. He was succeeded by C. C. Hünger. In 1772 they were managed by Nordenstople, and later by Geyer.

Fig. 104.—Butterboat.

Marieberg

Fig. 105.—Vase and Cover.

Fig. 104, a butterboat, leaf-shaped, is painted with flowers; dated 1771.

Stockholm is the same manufactory as Rörstrand, but the mark was altered when the latter town was united to the capital.

Marieberg, near Stockholm. The second Swedish pottery was established in 1750, on the expiration of the monopoly of Rörstrand, by M. Ehrenreich, under the patronage of Count Scheffer, Councillor of State. The fayence was something like Delft ware, and it was also ornamented with transfer printing.

Fig. 106.—Plate.

Fig. 105, a vase and cover, is coloured in relief; date about 1770.

Fig. 106, a plate with pierced border, has a shield of arms and flowers; dated 1768.

CONTINENTAL PORCELAIN

Porcelain has this distinguishing characteristic, that when held up to a strong light it appears translucent, unlike fayence, which is perfectly opaque. Its fracture is hard and white internally, like a broken piece of alabaster.

Porcelain of soft paste has the appearance of an unctuous white enamel like cream; it is also to the touch of a soft, warm, and soapy nature, something like the surface of fine fayence. The pâte tendre is also soft in another sense, being unable to bear so great a degree of heat in the furnace as hard porcelain. The soft paste may, therefore, be easily cut or scratched with a steel point or a file, which would have no effect upon the hard paste; it is consequently liable to become much scratched by frequent use. The hard paste or true porcelain is of the whiteness of milk; it feels to the touch of a hard and cold nature, and is somewhat heavier than the soft; underneath the plates and other pieces the rim or edge is left unpolished, or without glaze.

The painting upon porcelain is executed after the ware has been baked. Whilst in a biscuit state, the piece to be painted is dipped into a diluted glaze; it readily absorbs the water, leaving on the surface a thin coating of components which quickly dries into a solid shell, uniformly thick over all its parts, and sufficiently firm to bear handling without being rubbed off during removal into the seggar or case which protects it in the kiln.

The amateur must be upon his guard in collecting porcelain, and not place too much reliance on the marks which he may find upon the ware. When the mark is not indented on the paste, or baked with the porcelain when at its greatest heat (au grand feu), it gives no guarantee of its genuineness. The mark was nearly always affixed before glazing. It is necessary in forming a correct judgment of the authenticity of a piece of valuable china, such as Sèvres, that many things be taken into consideration: First, above all it is most important to be satisfied whether the porcelain be of hard or soft paste, and whether such description of paste was made at the particular epoch represented by the mark; then, if the decoration be in keeping with the style adopted at the time indicated, the colours, the finish, and various other indicia must also be taken into consideration.

ITALY

Florence. The first successful attempt in Europe to imitate porcelain was made at Florence as early as 1580, under the auspices of Francesco I. de’ Medici, but it was not so hard as that of China; that is to say, it was not composed of kaolin and petuntse, but was a soft paste and translucent, which is one of the principal tests of porcelain. For some reason, the manufacture of this porcelain was abandoned after the death of the inventor.

Fig. 107.—Cruet.

Fig. 107, a cruet for oil and vinegar, has scroll ornament in blue; on either spout A and O (Aceto and Olio). About 1600.

Fig. 108, a bowl, is painted inside and out with blue flowers. About 1600.

Fig. 108.—Bowl.

Doccia. The manufactory was founded in 1735 by the Marquis Carlo Ginori, contemporaneously with the manufactory at Sèvres. About 1760 it rose to great importance, and large groups were executed from the models of the most celebrated sculptors. In 1821 the moulds of the Capo di Monte porcelain were transferred to Doccia.

Fig. 109.—Teapot.

About 1860 the fabrication of the imitative Capo di Monte ware of the 18th century, in coloured mezzo-rilievo, was brought to great perfection, as well as the successful imitation of the maiolica of Xanto and Maestro Giorgio of the 16th century, by the invention and introduction of metallic lustres in the colouring.

Fig. 110.—Basin.

Fig. 109, a teapot, is painted with flowers and purple border.

Fig. 110, a basin, has a band of flowers in relief. Diameter 5½ in.

Naples—Capo di Monte. This manufactory was founded by Charles III. in 1736. It is considered of native origin, as the art, which was kept so profound a secret in Dresden, could, at that early period, have scarcely had time to be introduced here, and the character of its productions are also essentially different. The king himself took great interest in it, and is said to have worked occasionally in the manufactory. The beautiful Capo di Monte services and groups in coloured relief are of the second period, circa 1760.

Fig. 111.—Vase.

Fig. 112.—Saucer.

Fig. 113.—Cup and Saucer.

Fig. 114.—Coffee-pot.

Fig. 111, a vase, has green ornaments, on gold ground, and medallions of figures.

Fig. 112, a saucer, bears a portrait of Ferdinand IV. and legend.

Fig. 113, a cup and saucer, is painted with landscape and figures.

Fig. 114, a coffee-pot, has classical subjects.

Treviso. There was a manufactory of soft porcelain probably established towards the end of the 18th century, carried on by the brothers Giuseppe and Andrea Fontebasso.

Fig. 115.—Écuelle.

Fig. 115, an écuelle, with blue ground, has gold fret borders and oval medallions of Italian buildings, landscapes, and figures.

Fig. 116.—Cup and Saucer.

Fig. 116, the cup is painted with a garden scene, with a man and woman holding flowers, the former also holding a bird, the latter a cage.

Turin—Vinovo. Vittorio Amedeo Gioanetti established a manufactory of porcelain at Vinovo or Vineuf in 1770. Attempts in this direction had been previously made, but they were unsuccessful, and it was not until Gioanetti applied himself to the manufacture that it succeeded. The ware was noted for its fine grain and the whiteness of its glaze, as well as for the colours employed in its decoration.

Fig. 117.—Écuelle.

Fig. 117, an écuelle, is ornamented in gold, with initials and the Royal Arms.

Venice. Porcelain of soft paste was made here probably about 1720.

The “Casa eccellentissima Vezzi” was founded by Francesco Vezzi, a goldsmith of Venice. He invested the sum of 30,000 ducats in a porcelain company, amongst whose shareholders were Luca Mantovani and others. The site of the Vezzi manufactory of porcelain was at S. Nicolo in Venice. How long after Vezzi’s death it was carried on does not appear, but judging from the statements made to the Senate in 1765, it did not long survive him, and the secret of his process for making porcelain had evidently not been disclosed.

Materials for making porcelain were to be obtained in the Venetian dominions, but not such as to produce the hard or Oriental porcelain; they were therefore procured from Saxony, as were probably also some of the workmen, which will account for the fact that the “Casa eccellentissima Vezzi” produced both hard and soft paste.

The pieces made at the Vezzi manufactory are painted with masquerades, grotesque Chinese figures and decorations in relief, flowers, birds, arabesques, and geometrical patterns and colours, statuettes, &c., especially in the Venetian red which pervades all the decorations, the handles, borders, and mouldings being sometimes covered with silver or platinum, producing the effect of oxidised metal mountings. Another striking peculiarity in the decoration of porcelain of this period is a border of black or coloured diaper work formed by crossed lines, having in the interstices small gilt points or crosses bordered by scrolls. These specimens are mostly of hard paste in the form of bowls, plates, tureens, &c.

Fig. 118.—Vase and Cover.

Fig. 119.—Vase. Cozzi period.
Height 17 in.

A beautiful example of this porcelain is represented in Fig. 118, a vase and cover of hard paste painted in lake camaïeu, heightened by gold, with a continuous landscape; the peculiar border, noticed above, with marks and interlaced bands, is shown on the cover; the edges, knob, and flutings are raised and plated with silver or platinum.

After the Vezzi manufactory had ceased to exist we have no documents to prove that any efforts were made to introduce the manufacture of porcelain into Venice until December 1757, when a petition was presented to the Venetian College by Frederick Hewelcke & Co., who stated that the sale introduced and directed by them in Dresden of Saxon porcelain had been carried on in a very flourishing manner, but that in consequence of the then existing war (the Seven Years’ War, which commenced in 1756), they had been obliged to abandon Saxony and to seek refuge in a foreign country.

On the 18th of March 1758, a decree granted to the Hewelckes the privileges they had requested. It seems that the undertaking proved eventually to be unfortunate, and at the termination of that war, which had brought them to Venice, they returned to their native country.

In 1765, the Senate granted to Giminiano Cozzi, in the Contrada di San Giobbe, Venice, protection and pecuniary assistance in carrying out a manufacture of porcelain. Cozzi’s first efforts were directed towards the imitation of the Oriental ware; and a very large trade was carried on by him for nearly fifty years. He produced statuettes in biscuit, in glazed white porcelain, and coloured groups, vases, &c. The gilding on Cozzi’s porcelain is especially fine, the pure gold of the sequin having been used in its decoration.

The manufactory ceased to exist in 1812.

Nove. The manufacture of porcelain at Nove may be traced back as far as the 12th January 1752, when Pasqual Antonibon brought from Dresden a certain Sigismund Fischer to construct a furnace for making porcelain in the Saxon style.

From this time forward he continued his experiments, and must have made great progress in the art, for in February 1761 he had three furnaces, of which one was for Saxon (ad uso di Sassonia), the other two for French porcelain (ad uso di Francia).

In 1762, Antonibon submitted specimens of his porcelain to the Board of Trade, and petitioned that the patent rights which had been conceded to Hewelcke should be extended to him. At that time, the report states, Antonibon had at Nove a manufactory, rich in buildings, machinery, and tools. The capital embarked in it was estimated at 80,000 ducats, and so great was the sale of his products that he gave employment to 150 men and their families, in addition to 100 people employed in his retail business, carried on at his three shops in Venice. This extensive manufactory was, however, principally for maiolica.

Fig. 120.—Jardinière.
By Antonibon.

On the 7th April 1763, a decree was made in his favour; and he appears to have set earnestly to work in his manufacture of porcelain. His competitor, Hewelcke, shortly after deserted Venice; but he had a more formidable rival in Giminiano Cozzi, who obtained a decree for making porcelain in 1765, in which Pasqual Antonibon’s manufacture is noticed, the Senate declaring it to be the duty of the magistrate to make such arrangements as would lead to an amicable understanding between the rival manufacturers and their workmen.

Fig. 121.—Vase.

Pasqual Antonibon and his son Giovanni Battista continued the fabrication of porcelain until the 6th February 1781, when they entered into partnership with Signor Parolini. The same manufacture, con sommo onore dell’arte, was continued by them until the 6th February 1802, when it was leased to Giovanni Baroni, who produced some very charming pieces both in form and decoration; but in a few years, from being badly conducted, it began to fall off, and by degrees it went to decay and was abandoned. The “Fabbrica Baroni,” however, lingered on for more than twenty years.

Fig. 122.—Vase.

Fig. 123.—Milk-pot.

An example of the Baroni fabrique, in porcelain, with female figure handles, and painted with classical subjects, is given. (See Fig. 121.)

On 21st May 1825, the old firm of “Pasqual Antonibon and Sons” resumed the works, the actual proprietors being Gio. Batt. Antonibon and his son Francesco; they continued the manufacture of porcelain until 1835, but all their efforts to sustain it were ineffectual; they could not compete with the porcelain manufactories of France and Germany, so they were compelled to abandon the factory.

SPAIN

Madrid—Buen Retiro. This manufactory (Soft Paste), called “La China,” was founded by Charles III. in 1759, in the gardens attached to his palace, El Buen Retiro, at Madrid. It was organised by workmen whom he brought with him from Naples. The early ware produced here consequently resembles that of Capo di Monte.

Fig. 124.—Group.

The royal manufactory was taken possession of by the French, and the place converted into a fortification, which surrendered in 1812 to the Duke of Wellington. It was subsequently blown up by Lord Hill when the misconduct or perfidy of Ballasteros compelled him to evacuate Madrid.

Fig. 125.—Vase.
Height 22 in.

Fig. 126.—Vase.
With scenes from “Don Quixote.”
Height 17 in.

Ferdinand VII., on his restoration, recreated La China, at La Mancha, once a villa of the Alva family on the Manzanares; but this factory also has ceased to exist, at least as regards artistic merit.

Alcora. The Comte de Laborde, in his View of Spain, in 1808, says, “On ne fait de Porcelaine (en Espagne) qu’à Alcora et à Madrid: celle d’Alcora est très commune, on en fait très peu.” In confirmation of this assertion M. Chas. Davillier, on a visit to Spain, saw an engraving of a furnace for baking porcelain with this inscription: “Modele de four pour la porselene naturele, fait par Haly pour M. le Comte d’Aranda Alcora, 29 Juin 1756.” The works are also noticed by Don Antonio Ponz, Viaje de España, in 1793.

Fig. 127.—Plaque.

GERMANY

Dresden. The celebrated porcelain manufactory at Dresden, or rather at Meissen (in its vicinity), was established by Augustus II., Elector of Saxony, for the manufacture of true porcelain, that is, hard paste. The experiments of Tschirnhaus and Böttcher commenced about 1706, and to the latter is attributed the invention of hard paste. His first attempt was a red ware, like jasper, which was cut and polished by the lapidary, and ornamented by gilding; it was a fine stoneware, having the opacity, grain, and toughness of pottery. Later, Böttcher succeeded in discovering the mode of making true porcelain by the accidental detection of the kaolin necessary for the purpose. In consequence of this important discovery, Augustus II. established the great manufactory at Meissen, of which Böttcher was appointed Director in 1710, and about 1715 he succeeded in making a fine white porcelain. The first decorations upon this ware were very imperfect, consisting of a blue colour under the glaze, in imitation of Nankin blue porcelain. It was under Horoldt’s direction, in 1720, that paintings of a superior character, accompanied by gilding, and medallions of Chinese figures were introduced, and magnificent services completed. In 1731, Kändler, a sculptor, superintended the modelling of animals, groups, vases, &c., while other artists painted birds, insects, and copies of paintings principally of the Flemish school. The best productions emanated from the Dresden manufactory from 1731 to 1756.

Fig. 128.—Vase.

Fig. 129.—Sucrier, Cup and Saucer.
Etched by Busch.

Fig. 130.—Cup and Saucer.
Of the Marcolini period, with gros bleu ground.

Kändler modelled men and animals of the natural size, as well as peacocks, herons, pelicans, and other birds. Among the pieces produced about this time by, or under the direction of, Kändler, at Meissen was Count Bruhl’s tailor mounted upon a goat, with all the implements of his trade about him. This vain man had a great desire that his likeness should be executed in porcelain at the royal manufactory, and his request was complied with, but probably not in such a way as to gratify his vanity, for not only the tailor but his wife were thus immortalised, aere perennius, in porcelain. In 1754 Dietrich became Director, and he was succeeded in 1796 by Marcolini, whose beautiful productions are well known. Porcelain of his period is always distinguished by a star underneath crossed swords. In spite of the precautions taken at Meissen to prevent the secret becoming known—the penalty being death, or perpetual imprisonment in the Castle of Königstein—some workmen escaped to reveal it elsewhere.

Fig. 131.—Vase and Cover.
Painted with views of public buildings in Dresden.

The white Meissen porcelain was sometimes ornamented by private persons, especially by a Baron Busch, Canon of Hildesheim, who was the only person possessed of the secret of engraving with a diamond on china.

Fig. 132.—Bust of a Girl.
White porcelain.

Fig. 133.—Teapot and Saucer.
Pink ground, painted with landscapes and figures.

Berlin. This manufactory for Hard Paste was established by Wilhelm Caspar Wegeli in 1751, in the Neue Friedrichsstrasse. It was carried on for about ten years, but it never remunerated the originator, and he abandoned it in 1761, when Gottskowski, a celebrated banker, became the purchaser, and removed the works to Leipziger Strasse; assisted by his capital, they were brought to great perfection.

Fig. 134.—Group.
In plain white. Wegeli period.
Height 9 in.

Johann Ernst Gottskowski obtained the secret of porcelain from Ernst Heinrich Richard, who had been employed by Wegeli. Gottskowski did not personally manage the manufactory, but placed it under the management of the Commissioner Grunenger, which led to his employment from the year 1763 to 1786 as the head of the royal porcelain manufactory at Berlin.

In 1763, Gottskowski gave up to the king the whole of his factory of porcelain, receiving 225,000 dollars, and entering into a contract for the sale of his secrets.

Fig. 135.—Group.
Wegeli period.
Height 6¾ in.

With a view to encouraging the manufacture in his kingdom, the king made presents of superb services of Berlin china to several German princes in the year 1766. When Frederick the Great occupied Dresden, in the seven years’ war, he expatriated many of the best modellers and painters to form his royal manufactory; among these were Meyer, Klipsel, and Böhme. The king also transported great quantities of the clay and a portion of the collection. Independently of this, and the better to insure employment for the five hundred persons engaged in the processes, he restricted the Jews resident in any part of his dominions from entering into the marriage state, until each man had obtained a certificate from himself, which was only granted on the production of a voucher from the Director of the manufactory that porcelain to a given amount had been purchased, and that there was reasonable cause for granting the indulgence. Of course the Jews more readily disposed of their purchases than the general dealers, and the device was attended with favourable results. To insure the success of the establishment and extend its operations, Frederick embraced every opportunity that was presented; and it was so well supported that in 1776 seven hundred men were constantly employed, and it is said that three thousand pieces of porcelain were made daily.

Fig. 136.—Milk-pot, Cup and Saucer.

In 1769 an order was published permitting a lottery company to purchase annually to the amount of 90,000 dollars.

About 1872, the Berlin Royal Porcelain Manufactory was working seven kilns, and employing three hundred workmen; the annual produce amounted on an average to half a million finished articles, value 150,000 Prussian dollars. The superintendence was entrusted to Herr Kolbe (who succeeded Herr Frick in the direction), under whom were Dr. Eisner as chemist, Herr Mantel as master modeller, and Herr Looschen as head painter.

Fig. 137.—Lamp-stand.

Höchst, a town situated on the Main, and now in Nassau, belonged to the Electors of Mainz. A manufactory was founded in 1746 by J. C. Göltz and J. F. Clarus, two merchants of Frankfort, assisted by A. von Löwenfinck, but they were unsuccessful, and called in Ringler, of Vienna, who had escaped from the manufactory. During the Electorate of Johann Friedrich Karl, Archbishop of Mainz, their porcelain ranked among the first in Europe. About 1760 the celebrated modeller Melchior was engaged, and some very elegant statuettes and designs for vases, &c., were produced. Melchior left the manufactory about 1785, and his successor, Ries, was not so skilful, and all his figures having disproportionate heads, the so-called “thick-head” period commenced. Christian Gottlieb Kuntze was another celebrated worker in this fabrique. On the invasion of the French under General Custine in 1794, all the materials were sold by auction.

Fig. 138.—Tray and Sucrier.

Frankenthal, in Bavaria. Established in 1754, by Paul Hannong, who, having discovered the secret of hard porcelain, offered it to the royal manufactory at Sèvres, but the authorities not agreeing as to the price, the offer was declined, and they commenced persecuting him—for in that year a decree forbade the making of translucent ware in France except at Sèvres—and Hannong was compelled to go to Frankenthal, leaving his fayence manufactory at Strassburg in charge of his sons. In 1761 the factory was purchased by the Elector Carl Theodore, and it attained great celebrity, which it maintained until he became Elector of Bavaria, in 1777. It then declined, and all the stock and utensils were sold in 1800 and removed to Greinstadt. The following chronogram denotes the year 1775:—

VarIantIbVs · fLosCVLIs · DIVersI · CoLores ·
fabrICæ · sVb · reVIVIsCentIs · soLIs · hVIVs ·
raDIIs · eXVLtantIs ·
In·frankenthaL· ✴

It occurs on a porcelain plate, Fig. 139, having in the centre the initials of Carl Theodore, interlaced and crowned, within a gold star of flaming rays; radiating from this are thirty divisions, and on the border thirty more, all numbered and painted with small bouquets, en camaïeu, of all the various shades of colour employed in the manufactory.

Fig. 139.—Plate.

Fig. 140.—A Déjeuner Service.

Neudeck, on the Au, and Nymphenburg. This factory was established in 1747, by a potter named Niedermayer. Graf von Hainshausen became its patron in 1754, and in 1756 he sent for Ringler, who organised the establishment, and it was then placed under the protection of the Elector Maximilian Joseph. On the death of his successor, Carl Theodore, in 1799, the Frankenthal manufactory was abandoned, and transferred to Nymphenburg, which is still a royal establishment, and well supported. The pieces are manufactured in white at Nymphenburg, but chiefly decorated at Munich and elsewhere; that is the reason why on the same piece the Nymphenburg mark is frequently found impressed, with the mark of some other factory painted in colour.

Fig. 141.—Tankard.

Fig. 141, moulded in relief and painted with flowers; marks, the coat of Bavaria, 1765 in gold, two leaves and I. A. H. in green; height 7¼ in.

Fig. 142, painted in colours; marks, the coat of arms of Bavaria, and A incised; diameter 3¼ in. and 5¼ in.

Fig. 142.—Cup and Saucer.

Fig. 143.—Cup and Saucer.

Anspach, a town which belonged to the Margraves of Anspach and is now in Bavaria. There was a factory here about 1760.

Fig. 143 is painted with figures in colour; signed “Schelk, pinx.”; mark A in blue; diameter 3 ins. and 5¼ in.

Bayreuth was under the same rulers as Anspach, and is now also in Bavaria. There was a manufactory here in the 18th century, but little appears to be known respecting it.

Fig. 144.—Cup.

Fig. 144 is painted in colours, and gilt inside; mark, “Metzsch 1748 Bayr”; diameter 2¾ in.

Kelsterbach, in Hesse. A manufactory for pottery was founded here about 1758, where later porcelain was also made. The works only lasted about sixteen years.

Fig. 145.—Harlequin.

Fig. 145 is painted in colours; mark, H. D. under a crown, in blue; height 6¾ in.

Thuringia. In the middle of the 18th century a number of small porcelain factories sprang up in this district. It is said that they owe their origin to a chemist named Macheleid, who discovered by accident a deposit of kaolin, and obtained permission from the Prince of Schwarzburg to establish a factory at Sitzenroda, which in 1762 was removed to Volkstedt.

Fig. 146.—Cup and Saucer.
Diam. 2¾ in. and 5¾ in.

Closter, or Kloster, Veilsdorf, or Volkstedt. The porcelain manufactory of Sitzenroda was transferred to Volkstedt, in Thuringia, in 1762, where it was farmed by a merchant named Nonne, of Erfurt, who greatly enlarged and improved the works. About the year 1770 it was carried on by Greiner. In 1795 more than 120 workmen were employed.

Fig. 147.—Teapot.

Fig. 148.—Tray.

Fig. 148 is moulded in rococo style, and painted with flowers; mark, shield of Saxe-Meiningen between C. V.; length 12½ in.

Rudolstadt. The factory at Volkstedt was afterwards removed to Rudolstadt, near Jena. Gotthelf Greiner had the direction of several of the other Thuringian manufactories; he died in 1797.

Fig. 149.—Milk-pot and Cup and Saucer.

Fulda, in Hesse. A factory was established here about 1763 by Arnandus, Prince-Bishop of Fulda, for the manufacture of porcelain. The best artists were employed, and many grand vases, figures, and services of a fine white paste and handsomely decorated were produced.

Fig. 150.—A Peasant.

Fig. 151.—A Peasant.

Fig. 152.—Cup and Saucer.

Fig. 153.—Coffee-pot.

Fürstenberg. In Brunswick, established in 1750, by the help of Bengraf, who came from Höchst; he died the same year, and Baron von Lang, a distinguished chemist, undertook the direction of the works, under the patronage of Carl, Duke of Brunswick. The manufactory was carried on by the Government up to the middle of last century.

Fig. 154, a bust of Augusta, Duchess of Brunswick, grand-daughter of King George II., is in white biscuit; mark, F in blue, a running horse, and W; height 20½ in.

Fig. 154.—Bust.

Fig. 155—Medallions.
In white biscuit.

Fig. 155. Portraits of O. D. Beckmann and A. L. Schlötzer; marked with a running horse and F; length 2⅞ in.

Ludwigsburg, in Würtemberg. Established by J. J. Ringler in 1758, under the patronage of Carl Eugene, the reigning duke. It was celebrated for the excellence of its productions and the fine paintings on its vases and services, as well as for its excellent groups. This factory ceased in 1824.

Fig. 156.—Chocolate-pot.

Fig. 156 is painted with figures of Hope and Music in panels; mark, double C under a crown, in blue; height 5¼ in.

Fig. 157.—Coffee-pot.

Fig. 157 is painted in lake camaïeu, with a landscape and buildings after Claude, and has a gilt, arabesque and scroll border.

Regensburg, or Ratisbon. This factory was established about 1760.

Fig. 158.—Cup and Saucer.

Grossbreitenbach. A factory was established here about 1770 by Greiner. The demand for his porcelain was so great, that not being able to enlarge his works at Limbach, he started this as well as Veilsdorf and Volkstedt.

Fig. 159.—Milk-pot.

Fig. 159 is grey blue ware in imitation of Wedgwood, with classical group in white relief, bearing a wreath with the cypher F. G. C. under a crown; marks, “Breitenbach et Limbach,” and “Gruber”; height 4 in.

LIMBACH

Fig. 160.—Sucrier, Cover, and Stand.

Limbach, Saxe-Meiningen. This manufactory was also under the direction of Gotthelf Greiner. It was established about 1762.

Fig. 160 is painted with flowers; mark, two letters L crossed; diameters 4⅞ and 8¼ in.

Gera. A manufactory was founded here about 1780.

Fig. 161.—Sugar Basin.

Fig. 161 is painted with festoons of pink flowers; mark, G in blue; height 6¼ in.

Fig. 162.—Cup, Cover, and Saucer.

Fig. 162 is grained in imitation of oak, with medallions painted with views, “Schloss aus dem Kohlenhofe” on cup, and “Lauchstaedt vor dem Brunnen” on saucer; signed, “Rühlig Fec”; mark, G in blue; diameters 3 and 5¼ in.

Baden-Baden. A porcelain manufactory was established in 1753 by the widow Sperl and workmen from Höchst, with the patronage of the reigning Margrave, under Pfälzer. It ceased in 1778.

GOTHA

Fig. 163.—Figure of Bacchus.
In white biscuit.
Height 11 in.

Gotha. Founded in 1780 by Rothenberg, and afterwards (1802) conducted by Henneberg.

Rauenstein, in Saxe-Meiningen. A factory for hard paste was established here in 1760.

Fig. 164.—Cup and Saucer.

Fig. 164 is painted with flowers; mark, R—n; diameters 3 and 5 in.

Wallendorf, in Saxe-Coburg. There was also a factory for hard paste established by Greiner and Haman here in 1762.

Fig. 165 is painted in dark blue, and with leaves in relief; mark, W, in blue; height 10 in.

Fig. 165.—Vase.

AUSTRIA

VIENNA

This manufactory for hard paste was founded about 1717. There are several traditions as to its origin: one is that a musician named La France, and a billiard-marker, named Dupuis, brought with them to Vienna, in October 1717, a certain Cristofle Conrad Hünger, who had been employed at Meissen as an enamel painter and gilder, and that in the following year they were joined by a man named Stölzel of Meissen, who was possessed of the secret, and became director. Another that it was a private enterprise set on foot by Claude du Pasquier, who obtained from the Emperor Charles VII. a privilege for twenty-five years. Major Byng Hall (Adventures of a Bric-à-Brac Hunter), however, says that it was established in 1718 by Claude Innocenz de Blaquier, who engaged one Stenzel or Stölzel to co-operate with him. With this object in view De Blaquier proceeded secretly to Meissen, where he contrived to scrape acquaintance with the arcanist in a coffee-house. He engaged with Stenzel in a game of billiards, taking care to lose, and thus he secured his object. Stenzel after some slight hesitation, accepted an offer of a thousand dollars to be paid yearly.

Fig. 166.—Cabaret.

De Blaquier had to contend with many difficulties owing to his not being possessed of the secret, and at the end of the second year Stenzel not having been paid regularly according to his contract, returned to Meissen, after having maliciously destroyed many of the models. The works had consequently to be suspended. But De Blaquier, being a man of energy and determination, endeavoured by numerous experiments to discover the porcelain mixture, and his efforts were finally crowned with success.

Fig. 167.—Milk-pot.

After twenty-five years’ labour De Blaquier decided in 1744 to offer the works to the Government.

The young Empress Maria Theresa resolved to support the factory, which promised to give occupation and profit to her subjects, honour and gain to the State. She therefore commanded that it should be taken by State contract from its owner, and that De Blaquier should receive the direction with a salary of 1500 florins a year.

Fig. 168.—Plate.

From 1747 to 1790 was the best period for figures and groups, while from 1780 to 1820 painting on china became celebrated, the subjects being taken from paintings by Watteau, Lancret, Boucher, Angelica Kauffmann, and others.

In 1785 the most important improvements were made under the Baron de Lorgenthal or Sorgenthal; artists of the highest talents were employed, a first-rate chemist named Leithner was engaged to prepare the colours and gilding, the chefs d’œuvre of the early masters were copied, while the gilding was brought to a perfection which has never been surpassed.

Fig. 169.—Cup and “Trembleuse” Saucer.
18th Century.

After the death of the Baron in 1805, Neidermayer became Director. The manufacture continued in its flourishing condition until about 1815. From the year 1784 to the date of its extinction, it was the custom to mark every piece with the number of the year, which circumstance may be of great service to the connoisseur who seeks early specimens of Vienna porcelain. It is stamped without colour underneath the piece—or rather indented, the first numeral being omitted; thus the number 792 stands for 1792; 802 for 1802; and so on.

From 1827, under the direction of Scholtz, who followed Niedermayer, the manufactory began to decline, and what with economy, indifferent workmen, and bad artists copying from French models its doom was sealed. It gradually dwindled down to a second-rate factory, and in consequence of the great annual expense it was discontinued in 1864. The books on art belonging to the factory, and all the drawings of its most successful period, together with many of the models, the library, and the keramic collection, were given to the Imperial Museum in Vienna, to be retained as a lasting memorial of its celebrity.

Fig. 166 is painted in camaïeu on purple ground, and gilt; mark, shield crowned; length of tray 12 in.

Fig. 167 is painted in colours and gilt, with busts of ladies, entitled “L’Hérisson” and “Fantaisie Moderne”; mark, the shield in blue; height 6 in.

Fig. 168 is painted in colours, with two nymphs in a landscape playing with the infant Bacchus; mark, the Austrian shield of arms, in blue; the painting attributed to Fürstler.

Schlaggenwald, in Bohemia. This manufactory was established in the year 1810. George Lippert was the owner in 1842, and much improved the industry. Some pieces are marked “Lippert & Haas.”

Fig. 170.—Cup and Saucer.

Fig. 170 is painted in colours, with medallions containing figures of Justice; mark, S; diam. 2½ and 5 in.

Herend, in Hungary. There was a manufactory of porcelain here towards the end of the 18th century, but particulars concerning its origin are not known.

Fig. 171 is painted in oriental style, with flowers, &c.; late 18th century.

Fig. 171.—Portion of a Cabaret or Breakfast Service.

SWITZERLAND

Nyon, on the lake of Geneva. A manufactory was in full work here towards the end of the 18th century. It is said to have been established by a French flower painter named Maubrée, and several Genevese artists painted on the porcelain, occasionally marking it with a “G” or “Geneva” in full; but there never was a manufactory of china at Geneva itself.

Fig. 172.—Cup and Saucer.

Zürich. Established here in 1763 by a few Zürich gentlemen, with the aid of a workman, named Spengler, from Höchst. Another German, Sonnenschein, a sculptor, was employed to model figures and groups. The factory was not a financial success. In 1793 the works were sold to a potter named Nehracher, and on his death in 1800 the works ceased.

NYON

Fig. 173.—Cup and Saucer.
With mark, fish in blue.

Fig. 174 represents a soldier trampling on a Turk and unveiling a lady, martial and love trophies on the ground.

Fig. 174.—A Group.

HOLLAND

Weesp. The first manufactory for porcelain in Holland was at Weesp, near Amsterdam. It was established in 1764 by the Count Cronsfeldt-Diepenbroick, who had by some means obtained the secret of the composition of hard paste. After existing seven years, the factory was closed in 1771. Notwithstanding the unsuccessful result from a commercial point of view, it was reopened by a Protestant minister, the Rev. De Moll, of Oude Loosdrecht, associated with some capitalists of Amsterdam, but the next year it was removed to Loosdrecht. The decorations are very much of the Saxon character.

Fig. 175.—Ewer.
With mark, W.

Fig. 176.—Coffee-pot.
Mark, a cross and dots.

Oude Loosdrecht, situated between Utrecht and Amsterdam, was the next town where porcelain was successfully made. It sprang from the ashes of Weesp, and in 1772 became a company, with the Rev. De Moll at its head; after his death, in 1782, the concern passed into the hands of his partners, J. Rendorp, A. Dedel, C. Van der Hoop, Gysbz, and J. Hope, and was by them removed, in 1784, to Oude Amstel. The ware is of fine quality, decorated in the Saxon style; specimens are frequently met with, having gilt borders and a light blue flower between green leaves.

Fig. 177.—Vase.

Fig. 178.—Panel.
Mark, M : o L. in blue.
Width 12¾ in.

Amsterdam. Fig. 179. Painted in lake camaïeu with birds and trees; the mark, lion, in blue.

Fig. 179.—A Pair of Bottles.

Oude Amstel. On the death of the Rev. De Moll in the year 1782, the manufactory of Loosdrecht was removed to Oude Amstel (Old Amstel), near Amsterdam, and carried on with redoubled zeal by the same company, directed by a German named Däuber, about 1784. It flourished under his direction for a few years, and produced a fine description of porcelain, but it gradually declined, in consequence of the large importations from England which inundated the country. In 1789 it came into the hands of J. Rendorp, C. Van der Hoop, and Gysbz, still remaining under Däuber’s direction, but it was entirely demolished at the close of the 18th century.

Fig. 180.—Teapot and Sucrier.

Fig. 181.—Sucrier.

The Hague. About the year 1775, a porcelain manufactory for both hard and soft paste was opened at The Hague, under the direction of a German named Leichner or Lynker. The works ceased in 1785 or 1786.

Fig. 182.—Plate.
Of soft paste.

Fig. 182 bears the mark of a stork in blue; diam. 9½ in.

BELGIUM AND LUXEMBURG

BELGIUM

Tournai. Established in 1750 by Peterinck. For some time previous to 1815 the works were carried on by M. Maximilien de Bettignies, who, in consequence of the annexation of Tournai to Belgium, ceded it in that year to his brother Henri, and established another factory at St. Amand-les-Eaux. Soft paste, which has been discontinued for many years in every other fabrique in France, is still made at both places, and they consequently produce the closest imitations of old Sèvres pâte tendre.

Fig. 183.—Cup and Saucer.
With the early mark in gold.

Fig. 184 is painted in blue; mark, crossed swords and three crosses; diam. 9½ in.

Fig. 184.—Plate.

Fig. 185.—Salt-cellar.

Fig. 185 is painted with birds; mark, crossed swords and four crosses, in gold; height 4⅜ in.

Brussels. There was a manufactory of hard paste porcelain here towards the end of the 18th century.

Fig. 186.—Milk Jug.
Signed L. Cretté.

Fig. 187.—Teapot.

LUXEMBURG

A factory for hard paste porcelain was established at Sept Fontaines about 1806, by the brothers Boch. Both pottery and porcelain were made here, including plates, vases, figures, &c.

LUXEMBURG

Fig. 188.—Two Figures of “The Seasons.”
With mark, B. L.

RUSSIA

At St. Petersburg, an Imperial china manufactory was established in 1744, by the Empress Elizabeth Petrowna, with workmen from Meissen. Catherine II. patronised the works, and in 1765 enlarged them considerably, under the direction of the minister, J. A. Olsoufieff, since which this fabrique has held a distinguished place among European manufactories. The paste is hard and of a blueish cast, finely glazed, and it betrays its Dresden origin.

Fig. 189.—Cup and Saucer.
With the mark of the Emperor Paul.

Fig. 190.—Verrière.

Moscow, 1720. The potter Eggebrecht, who had undertaken a manufactory of delft at Dresden, by direction of Böttcher, had, after that was discontinued, left to go to Moscow, and, being acquainted with some of the processes for making porcelain, commenced manufacturing it at Moscow.

Fig. 191.—Statuette.
Mark, G in blue.
Height 8 in.

Fig. 192.—Cup and Saucer.
With view of Moscow. Mark, A. Popoffe’s initials.

A porcelain manufactory was established at Twer, by an Englishman named Gardner, in 1787, and another by A. Popoff.

Korzec, in Volhynia. About 1803, Mérault, a chemist of the Sèvres manufactory, went to direct the fabrique at Korzec, taking with him a laboratory assistant named Pétion. After carrying it on for a few years, Mérault abandoned the direction, and returned to France.

Fig. 193.—Pâte dure Cup and Saucer.
Painted with a portrait of a lady, en grisaille, with gilt borders.
Mark, Eye within a triangle.

Baranowka, in Volhynia. A small factory existed here at which the porcelain clay found in the neighbourhood was used.

Fig. 194.—Milk Jug.
Mark, the name of the town.

SWEDEN

Marieberg. This manufactory produced porcelain (soft paste), as well as fayence. In quality as well as in decoration the porcelain is like that of Mennecy-Villeroy in France. The industry was established by Ehrenreich, under the patronage of Count Scheffer, Councillor of State, in 1750, and altogether ceased about 1780.

Fig. 195.—Custard Cup and Cover.
Mark, M.B. combined.
Height 3¼ in.

DENMARK

Copenhagen. This manufactory was commenced by an apothecary of the name of Müller, in 1772, and Baron von Lang, from the Fürstenberg manufactory, is said to have been instrumental in forming it. The capital was raised in shares, but the factory not being successful, the Government interfered, and it became a royal establishment in 1775, and has remained so ever since.

Fig. 196.—Cabaret.
With portraits of Raphael, and other celebrated painters.

Fig. 197.—Cabaret.

FRANCE

St. Cloud. A factory was established here about 1695 for the production of porcelain, at which time M. Morin was proprietor, and M. Chicanneau director of the works.

Fig. 198.—Jug.

According to letters patent of 1702, granted to the heirs of Chicanneau, his widow, Barbe Courdray, and her children, were interested in the works; their father had made many experiments and attempts to discover the secret of true porcelain, and from the year 1696 had produced some nearly equal to the porcelain of China. His children, to whom he imparted the secret, successfully continued the fabrication, and were permitted to manufacture porcelain at St. Cloud, or in any other part or parts of the kingdom, except Rouen and its faubourgs. In 1712 a renewal of the patent took place for ten years, and in the meantime the widow Barbe Courdray married a M. Trou.

Fig. 199.—Statuette.
Astronomy seated, holding the sun.

In 1722 letters patent were granted for twenty years more to Jean and Jean Baptiste Chicanneau, Marie Moreau, the widow of Pierre Chicanneau (third son) and Henri and Gabriel Trou, children of Barbe Courdray by her second marriage. About this time serious disagreements occurred between the two families, and they separated, Gabriel and Henri Trou remaining at St. Cloud, patronised by the Duke of Orleans; while Marie Moreau opened another establishment in the Rue de la Ville l’Évêque, Faubourg St. Honoré, directed by Dominique François Chicanneau. In 1742 another arrêt granted privileges for twenty years to both these establishments, and Marie Moreau dying in 1743 left Dominique her business.

The manufactory at St. Cloud was destroyed by fire (the act of an incendiary) in 1773, and the manufacture ceased, the proprietors not being able to raise sufficient funds to rebuild it.

Chantilly. This manufactory was founded in 1725 by Ciquaire Cirou, under the patronage of the Prince de Condé, as appears by letters patent dated 1735, who was succeeded by Antheaume and others. The porcelain was highly esteemed, and there was hardly any object which they did not produce, from the lofty vase to the simplest knife handle. The Chantilly pattern was a great favourite for ordinary services; it was called “Barbeau,” and consisted of a small blue flower running over the white paste.

Fig. 200.—Dish.
Mark, hunting horn and P, in gold.
Diameter 12 in.

Fig. 201.—Pair of Figures.

Rouen. Louis Poterat, Sieur de St. Ètienne, of St. Sever, at Rouen, obtained letters patent in 1673, stating that he had discovered processes for fabricating porcelain similar to that of China, and wares resembling those of Delft; but the former was of a very rude character and never arrived at any perfection.

After the establishment at St. Cloud had commenced selling porcelain, the proprietors of the Rouen manufactory appear to have revived their porcelain in the hopes of competing with them, but with no good result.

Mennecy-Villeroy. This important manufactory was established in 1735 by François Barbin, under the patronage of the Duc de Villeroy. The early specimens are similar to the porcelaine tendre of St. Cloud, of a milky translucent appearance.

Fig. 202.—Sugar Basin and Stand.

Barbin was succeeded about 1748 by Messieurs Jacques and Jullien, and the manufactory continued in a flourishing state until 1773, when on the expiration of the lease it was removed to Bourg-la-Reine.

Fig. 203.—Group of Children.

Sceaux Penthièvre, near Paris. Established in 1750 by Jacques Chapelle; it was situated opposite the Petit Châtelet, and was under the patronage of the Duc de Penthièvre. It was carried on by Glot in 1773. The Prince-Protector died in 1794, but the production of pâte tendre ceased before that time.

Fig. 204.—Cup and Saucer.

Fig. 205.—Milk-pot.
Mark, S. X.

Arras. Established in 1782 by the Demoiselles Deleneur, under the patronage of M. de Calonne, Intendant de Flandre et de l’Artois; it only lasted a few years.

Fig. 206.—Seau.
Mark, A. R.

Boulogne-sur-mer. Established by M. Haffringue, in the 19th century, with the kaolin of Limoges.

Fig. 207.—Plaque.
White biscuit.

Fig. 208.—Sucrier.
White biscuit.

Étiolles (Seine-et-Oise), near Corbeil. Established in 1768, by Monnier, for soft paste porcelain. The works lasted only a short time.

Fig. 209.—Cup and Saucer.
Mark, E. Pellevé, 1770.
Diameter 2½ and 5 in.

Lille. Established in 1711 by Barthélemy Dorez and Pierre Pelissier, his nephew, natives of Lille. The porcelain (pâte tendre) of this time was like that of St. Cloud, but in the Delft style, the favourite ornamentation being Chinese designs. At a later period (in 1784) a manufactory of hard porcelain was established by Leperre Durot, under the patronage of the Dauphin; it was styled “Manufacture Royale de Monseigneur le Dauphin.” The porcelain of Leperre Durot is richly adorned with gold and with carefully painted bouquets of flowers.

Fig. 210.—Cup and Saucer.
With mark, crowned Dolphin.

M. Roger succeeded Leperre Durot, and in 1792 he sold his interest in the works to Messieurs Regnault and Graindorge; they were, however, soon ruined, and the establishment was closed.

Bourg-la-Reine. Started in 1773 by Messieurs Jacques and Jullien, who removed thither on the expiration of their lease at Mennecy. It was in active existence, making china purely of an industrial character, in 1788.

Fig. 211.—Custard Cup.
Mark, B. R.
Height 3¼ in.

Clignancourt. Established in 1775 by Pierre Deruelle, under the patronage of Monsieur le Comte de Provence, brother of the king (afterwards Louis XVIII.).

Fig. 212.—Milk-pot and Cover.
Fig. 213.—Cup and Dish. Fig. 214.—Milk Jug.

Lunéville. A factory called “Manufacture Stanislas” was established in 1731. It lasted only a short time, but a later manufactory, founded about 1769, was celebrated for its productions.

Paul Louis Cyfflé, sculptor, obtained, in 1768, letters patent for fifteen years, by virtue of which he established another manufactory for superior vessels of the material called terre de Lorraine, and in the following year a new privilege was granted for making groups and statuettes with his improved paste, under the name of pâte de marbre.

Orleans. Established by M. Gerréault in 1753, under the protection of the Duc de Penthièvre; the porcelain first made here was of the soft paste, but hard paste was subsequently produced. Gerréault was succeeded by Bourdon fils about 1788, Piédor, Dubois, and lastly, Le Brun, from 1808 to 1811.

Niderviller. Established about 1760 by Baron de Beyerlé. After successfully carrying on this branch for several years, he attempted hard porcelain in 1768, and procured potters and artists from Saxony. Three or four years before his death, which happened in 1784, the estate was bought by General de Custine. This new proprietor continued the fabrique, under the direction of M. Lanfray, who paid especial attention to the production of fine porcelain; the fabrication of statuettes was greatly increased.

ORLEANS

Fig. 215.—Bowl, Cover, and Stand.
Mark, heraldic label in blue.

Fig. 216.—Milk-pot and Cover.
Mark, double C under coronet, in blue.
Height 6½ in.

After the decapitation of the unfortunate de Custine, his estates, being forfeited to the Republic, were sold on the 25 Germinal, An X (1802), to M. Lanfray, and carried on by him until his death in 1827, when the manufactory was sold to L. G. Dryander, of Saarbrücken. For many years he continued to make porcelain, as well as fayence groups and statuettes, but the distance of his fabrique from the kaolin of St. Yrieix prevented him from competing successfully with those of Limoges, and this branch was abandoned.

Boissette, near Melun. A factory was established in 1777 by Jacques Vermonet père et fils, but it lasted only a short time.

Fig. 217.—Teapot.

Caen, Normandy. Established and supported by some of the principal inhabitants, at the time of the French Revolution (about 1793), when several workmen from Sèvres came to join it. It was carried on for a few years, but no market being found for the ware, the factory was discontinued at the commencement of the last century. It is hard paste, and equal to that of Sèvres, and of the same forms.

Fig. 218.—Cup and Saucer.
With “Caen” stencilled in red.

Valenciennes (Nord). By an Order of Council, dated 24th May 1785, M. Fauquet was permitted to carry on a manufacture of porcelain at Valenciennes. He was originally established at St. Amand in the manufacture of fayence as early as 1775, and probably carried on both works simultaneously.

Fig. 219.—Cup and Saucer.
Mark, F. L. V., in cipher, in blue.
Diam. 3¾ and 6¼ in.

St. Amand-les-eaux. Founded by M. Maximilien de Bettignies in 1815, for the manufacture of pâte tendre porcelain like the old Sèvres. He was formerly proprietor of the Tournai manufactory, which he ceded to his brother Henri when that city became re-annexed to Belgium.

Strassburg. About the year 1752, Paul Hannong obtained the secret of true porcelain from Ringler, and started a factory here, but in consequence of the monopoly of Sèvres he was compelled to relinquish it, and in 1753 removed to Frankenthal, where he greatly flourished under the protection of the Elector Palatine Carl Theodore.

Fig. 220.—Cup and Saucer.
Mark, J. H.
Diam. 2⅝ and 5⅝ in.

Marseilles. An important manufactory of porcelain was established here by Jacques Gaspard Robert about 1766. Porcelain was made also by Honoré Savy and Veuve Perrin, but was only of secondary importance. The works were closed about the period of the French Revolution in 1793.

Paris. Rue Thiroux. Established in 1778 by André Marie Lebeuf, and the ware was called “Porcelaine de la Reine.”

Fig. 221.—Sucrier.
Mark, crowned A.

Paris. Rue de Bondy. Opened in 1780 by Dihl and Guerhard, under the patronage of the Duc d’Angoulême, and the ware was called “Porcelaine d’Angoulême.”

Fig. 222.—Ewer and Basin.

Paris. Rue Fontaine au Roi. This factory, called “De la Courtille,” was established in 1773 by Jean Baptiste Locré, who was afterwards joined by Russinger in 1784. The latter during the Revolution became sole director.

Fig. 223.—Part of a Tea Service.

Paris. Faubourg St. Honoré. A factory was established here by Veuve Chicanneau, née Marie Moreau. The teapot, Fig. 224, was probably made at these works.

Fig. 224.—Teapot.
Mark, V^e M. & C.

Paris. Pont-aux-Choux. In 1784, Louis Honoré de la Marre de Villars opened an establishment for the manufacture of porcelain in the Rue des Boulets, Faubourg St. Antoine. It was afterwards disposed of to Jean Baptiste Outrequin de Montarcy and Edmé Toulouse, who in 1786 obtained a brêvet from the Duke of Orleans, Louis Philippe Joseph, and authority to sign the productions with the letters L. P., and to take the title of Manufacture de M. le Duc d’Orléans. They were afterwards established in Rue Amelot, au Pont-aux-Choux, by which name the porcelain is generally known.

Fig. 225.—Teapot.

The former name ceased in 1793, with the condemnation of the Duke of Orleans, and the objects subsequently produced were inscribed merely “Fabrique du Pont-aux-Choux.”

Paris. Rue de Crussol. Established in 1789 by Charles Potter, an Englishman, and the ware was called the “Prince of Wales’s China.”

Fig. 226.—Cup.

Paris. Belleville. Originally established in 1790 by Jacob Petit; but later removed to Fontainebleau. The products of the first period were much esteemed, being well painted and well modelled, bearing Petit’s mark; but the proprietor unwisely altered his original plan and imitated Dresden, counterfeiting also the mark of the crossed swords. Jacob Petit also made biscuit figures, birds’ nests, flowers, &c.

Fig. 227.—Watch-stand.
Plain white of rococo form.
Mark, J. P. in blue. Height 5 in.

Paris. Rue du Faubourg St. Denis. Fabrique de Charles Philippe Comte d’Artois, afterwards Charles X. This manufacture was the most ancient of all those established in Paris. Hannong of Strassburg, who brought into France the secret of hard porcelain, formed the first establishment in 1769. Having obtained the protection of Charles Philippe, Comte d’Artois, it was called by his name. The factory belonged actually to Bourdon des Planches, who continued the manufacture of hard porcelain, &c., but the works were closed in 1810.

Vincennes. There was a porcelain manufactory here in 1786, quite apart from the royal factory. It was directed by M. Le Maire, probably the same who founded that in Rue Popincourt, which was ceded to M. Nast in 1783. There were four establishments at Vincennes; the first by the brothers Dubois, subsequently transferred to Sèvres; the second by Maurin des Aubiez, in 1767; the third by Pierre Antoine Hannong; and the fourth that described above.

Fig. 228.—Cup and Saucer.
Mark, H. L. L., in gold .
Diam. 2½ and 5 in.

VINCENNES AND SÈVRES

The history of the celebrated manufactory at Sèvres must be traced back to that of St. Cloud, which was founded as early as 1695. Here Louis XIV. accorded his patronage and favour by granting exclusive privileges. In 1735 the secret of the manufacture was carried, by some of the workmen, to Chantilly, and for a time continued there by the brothers Dubois. They left in a few years, taking with them their secret, and settled at Vincennes, where a laboratory was granted them, but after three years they were dismissed.

In 1745, a sculptor, named Charles Adam, formed a company, and the scheme was approved of by the king, privileges being accorded them for thirty years, and a place granted for their works in the Château de Vincennes. In 1753 the privileges of Charles Adam were purchased by Eloy Brichard, and Louis XV. took a third share; hence the factory became a royal establishment. Madame de Pompadour considerably encouraged the ceramic art, and it arrived at the height of perfection. The buildings were found too small to meet the increasing demands for the beautiful productions, and in 1756 the works were removed to a large edifice at SÈVRES built expressly for the company.

A favourite decoration of Vincennes porcelain was flowers and birds, on a beautiful bleu de roi ground, and cupids painted in camaïeu of a single colour.

Fig. 229.—Vase.
Bleu de roi ground, with panels with birds in gold.
Mark, double L enclosing a dot, in gold.
Height 9¼ in.

In 1760 the king became sole proprietor, and M. Boileau was appointed director.

In 1769, after Macquer had brought the making of hard paste to perfection, the manufacture was successfully established at Sèvres, and both descriptions of china continued to be made until 1804, when, Brongniart being director, soft paste was altogether discontinued, and declared to be “useless in art, of expensive manipulation, dangerous to the workmen, subject to great risk in the furnace, &c.”

Fig. 230.—Cup and Saucer.
Bleu de roi ground, with white medallions enclosing birds in gold.
Mark, double L, in blue.
Diam. 2⅝ and 5⅜ in.

The principal colours used in decorating the ground of the Sèvres vases were:—

1. The bleu céleste, or turquoise, invented in 1752 by Hellot.

2. The rich cobalt blue, called bleu de roi, of which there were two varieties, the darker being designated gros bleu.

3. The violet pensée, a beautiful violet from a mixture of manganese, one of the rarest decorations of the pâte tendre.

Fig. 231.—Vase.

4. The rose Pompadour (called in England rose Du-Barry), a charming pink or rose colour invented in 1757 by Xhrouet of Sèvres.

5. The clear yellow or jonquille, a sort of canary colour.

6. The vert pré, or bright grass green.

Fig. 232.—Écuelle.
Dated 1771.