Photo, Ridge Studio; Courtesy Ogden Chamber of Commerce

A great ledge in Ogden Canyon near Ogden, Utah. The rock, still retaining its stratification, was deposited layer upon layer horizontally mostly as sand upon the floor of a sea which covered the region fully 25,000,000 years ago. That the sea was of very early Paleozoic (i.e., Cambrian) age has been proved by fossils in associated strata. Long after their deep burial and consolidation within the earth, the strata were subjected to tremendous mountain-making pressure, notably altered to a rock called “Quartzite,” raised high above sea level, and tilted almost vertically. Then through long ages (millions of years) overlying rocks of great thickness have been cut away (eroded) by weathering and stream action, laying bare the ledge as we see it to-day.

Popular Science Library

EDITOR-IN-CHIEF
GARRETT P. SERVISS

AUTHORS
WILLIAM J. MILLER HIPPOLYTE GRUENER A. RUSSELL BOND
D. W. HERING LOOMIS HAVEMEYER ERNEST G. MARTIN
ARTHUR SELWYN-BROWN ROBERT CHENAULT GIVLER
ERNEST INGERSOLL WILFRED MASON BARTON
WILLIAM B. SCOTT ERNEST J. STREUBEL
NORMAN TAYLOR DAVID TODD
CHARLES FITZHUGH TALMAN
ROBIN BEACH

ARRANGED IN SIXTEEN VOLUMES
WITH A HISTORY OF SCIENCE, GLOSSARIES
AND A GENERAL INDEX
ILLUSTRATED

VOLUME THREE

P. F. COLLIER & SON COMPANY
NEW YORK

Copyright 1922
By P. F. Collier & Son Company
MANUFACTURED IN U. S. A.

GEOLOGY

The Science of the Earth’s Crust

BY

WILLIAM J. MILLER
Professor of Geology, Smith College

P. F. COLLIER & SON COMPANY
NEW YORK

[PREFACE]

I

In the preparation of this book the author has attempted to present, in popular form, the salient points of a general survey of the whole great science of geology, the science which deals with the history of the earth and its inhabitants as revealed in the rocks.

The use of technical and unusual terms has been reduced to a minimum compatible with a reasonable understanding of the subject by the layman. Each of the relatively few scientific terms is explained where first used in the text, and a glossary of common geological terms has been appended.

The matter of illustrations has received very careful attention, and only pictures, maps, and diagrams are used which actually illustrate important features of the text. A special point has been made to introduce only cuts of simple construction comparatively free from technicalities. Nearly every illustration is accompanied by a really explanatory title.

A number of the pictures are from the author’s collection of photographs, and many of the line-cuts have either been made or considerably modified by the author. Among the numerous sources of illustrations, special mention should be made of the United States Geological Survey, the New York State Museum, the American Museum of Natural History, the University of Chicago Press, and various individuals, full credit being given wherever due.

William J. Miller.

Northampton, Mass.

[CONTENTS]

[LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS]

[CHAPTER I]

INTRODUCTION

E

EARTH features are not fixed. The person of ordinary intelligence, surrounded as he is by a great variety of physical features, is, unless he has devoted some study to the subject, very likely to regard those features as practically unchangeable, and to think that they are now essentially as they were in the beginning of the earth’s history. Some of the most fundamental ideas taught in this book are that the physical features of the earth, as we behold them to-day, represent but a single phase of a very long-continued history; that significant changes are now going on all around us; and that we are able to interpret present-day earth features only by an understanding of earth changes in the past.

Geology, meaning literally “earth science,” deals with the history of the earth and its inhabitants as revealed in the rocks. The science is very broad in its scope. It treats of the processes by which the earth has been, and is now being, changed; the structure of the earth; the stages through which it has passed; and the evolution of the organisms which have lived upon it.

Geography deals with the distribution of the earth’s physical features, in their relation to one another, to the life of sea and land, and human life and culture. It is the present and outward expression of geological effects.

As a result of the work of many able students of geology during the past century and a quarter, it is now well established that our planet has a definitely recorded history of many millions of years, and that during the lapse of those eons, revolutionary changes in earth features have occurred, and also that there has been a vast succession of living things which, from very early times, have gradually passed from simple into more and more complex forms. The physical changes and the organisms of past ages have left abundant evidence of their character, and the study of the rock formations has shown that within them we have a fairly complete record of the earth’s history. Although very much yet remains to be learned about this old earth, it is a remarkable fact that man, through the exercise of his highest faculty, has come to know so much concerning it.

The following words, by the late Professor Barrell, admirably summarize the significance of geological history. "The great lesson taught by the study of the outer crust is that the earth mother, like her children, has attained her present form through ceaseless change, which marks the pulse of life and which shall cease only when her internal forces slumber and the cloudy air and surf-bound ocean no more are moving garments. The flowing landscapes of geologic time may be likened to a kinetoscopic panorama. The scenes transform from age to age, as from act to act; seas and plains and mountains of different types follow and replace each other through time, as the traveler sees them succeed each other in space. At times the drama hastens, and unusual rapidity of geologic action has, in fact, marked those epochs since man has been a spectator upon the earth. Science demonstrates that mountains are transitory forms, but the eye of man through all his lifetime sees no change, and his reason is appalled at the conception of a duration so vast that the milleniums of written history have not accomplished the shifting of even one of the fleeting views which blend into the moving picture."[A]

[A] Central Connecticut in the Geologic Past, pp. 1-2.

Or in the words of Tennyson:

There rolls the deep where grew the tree.
O, earth, what changes hast thou seen!
There where the long street roars, hath been
The stillness of the central sea.
The hills are shadows, and they flow
From form to form, and nothing stands;
They melt like mist, the solid lands,
Like clouds they shape themselves and go.

The following statement of some of the more definite important conclusions regarding earth changes may serve to make still clearer the general scope of the science of geology. The evidences upon which these conclusions are based are discussed in various parts of this book. For untold millions of years the rocks at and near the earth’s surface have been crumbling; streams have been incessantly sawing into the lands; the sea has been eating into continental masses; the winds have been sculpturing desert lands; and, more intermittently and locally, glaciers have plowed through mountain valleys, and even great sheets of ice have spread over considerable portions of continents. Throughout geologic time, the crust of the earth has shown marked instability. Slow upward and downward movements of the lands relative to sea level have been very common, in many cases amounting to even thousands of feet. Various parts of the earth have been notably affected by sudden movements (resulting in earthquakes) along fractures in the outer crust. During millions of years molten materials have, at various times, been forced into the earth’s crust, and in many cases to its surface. Mountain ranges have been brought forth and cut down. The site of the Appalachian Mountains was, millions of years ago, the bottom of a shallow sea. Lakes have come and gone. The Great Lakes have come into existence very recently (geologically), that is to say, since the great Ice Age. A study of stratified rocks of marine origin shows that all, or nearly all, of the earth’s surface has at some time, or times, been covered by sea water. Over certain districts the sea has transgressed and retrogressed repeatedly. Organisms have inhabited the earth for many millions of years. In earlier known geologic time, the plants and animals were comparatively simple and low in the scale of organization, and through the succeeding ages higher and more complex types were gradually evolved until the highly organized forms of the present time, including the human race, were produced.

The rocks of the earth constitute the special field of study for the geologist because they contain the records of events through which the earth and its inhabitants have passed during the millions of years of time until their present conditions have been reached. All the rocks of the earth’s crust may be divided into three great classes: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic.

Igneous rocks comprise all those which have ever been in a molten condition, and of these we have the volcanic rocks (for example, lavas), which have cooled at or near the surface; plutonic rocks (for example, granites), which have cooled in great masses at considerable depths below the surface; and the dike rocks which, when molten, have been forced into fissures in the earth’s crust and there cooled.

Sedimentary rocks comprise all those which have been deposited under water, except some wind-blown deposits, and they are nearly always arranged in layers (stratified). Such rocks are called strata. They may be of mechanical origin such as clay or mud which hardens to shale; sand, which consolidates into sandstone; and gravel, which when cemented becomes conglomerate. They may be of organic origin such as limestone, most of which is formed by the accumulation of calcareous shells; flint and chert, which are accumulations of siliceous shells; or coal, which is formed by the accumulation of partly decayed organic matter. Or, finally, they may be formed by chemical precipitation, as beds of salt, gypsum, bog iron ore, etc.

Metamorphic rocks include both sedimentary and igneous rocks which have been notably changed from their original condition. Traces or remains of plants and animals preserved in the rocks are known as fossils. The term originally meant anything dug out of the earth, whether organic or inorganic, but for many years it has been strictly applied to organic remains. Many thousands of species of fossils are known from rocks of all ages except the oldest, and more are constantly being brought to light, but these represent only a small part of the life of past ages because relatively few organic remains were deposited under conditions favorable for preservation in fossil form. The fossils in the rocks are, however, a fair average of the groups of organisms to which they belong. It is really remarkable that such a vast number of fossils are imbedded in the rocks, and from a study of these many fundamental conclusions regarding the history of life on our planet may be drawn.

As early as the fifth century B. C., Xenophanes is said to have observed fossil shells and plants in the rocks of Paros, and to have attributed their presence to incursions of the sea over the land. Herodotus, about a century later, came to a similar conclusion regarding fossil shells in the mountains of Egypt. None of the ancients, however, seemed to have the slightest conception of the significance of fossils as time markers in the history of the earth. (See [discussion below].)

In the Middle Ages, distinguished writers held curious views regarding fossils. Thus Avicenna (980-1037) believed that fossils represented unsuccessful attempts on the part of nature to change inorganic materials into organisms within the earth by a peculiar creative force (vis plastica). About two centuries later, Albertus Magnus held a somewhat similar view. Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519), the famous artist, architect, and engineer, while engaged in canal building in northern Italy, saw fossils imbedded in the rocks, and concluded that these were the remains of organisms which actually lived in sea water which spread over the region. During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, many correctly held that fossils were really of organic origin, but it was commonly taught that all fossils represented remains of organisms of an earlier creation which were buried in the rocks during the great Deluge (Noah’s Flood). William Smith (1769-1839), of England, was, however, the first to recognize the fundamental significance of fossils for determining the relative ages of sedimentary rocks. This discovery laid the foundation for the determination of earth chronology which is of great importance in the study of the history of the earth. (See [discussions below].)

Organic remains, dating as far back as tens of millions of years, have been preserved in the rocks of the earth in various ways. A very common kind of fossilization is the preservation of only the hard parts of organisms. Thus the soft parts have disappeared by decomposition, while the hard parts, such as bones, shells, etc., remain. In many cases practically complete skeletons of large and small animals which lived millions of years ago have been found intact in the rocks. Fossils which show none of the original material, but only the shape or form, are also very abundant. When sediment hardens around an imbedded organism, and the organism then decomposes or dissolves away, a cavity or fossil mold only is left. Casts of organisms or parts of them are formed by filling shells or molds with sediment or with mineral matter carried in solution by underground water. Only rarely have casts of wholly soft animals been found in ancient rocks. In other cases both original form and structure are preserved, but none of the original material. This is known as petrifaction which takes place when a plant or hard part of an animal has been replaced, particle by particle, by mineral matter from solution in underground water. Not uncommonly organic matter, such as wood, or inorganic matter, such as carbonate of lime shells, has been so perfectly replaced that the original structures are preserved almost as in life. The popular idea that petrified wood is wood which has been changed into stone is, of course, incorrect. It is doubtful if flesh has ever been truly petrified. In many cases mainly the carbon only of organisms has been preserved. This is also true of plants where, under conditions of slow chemical change or decomposition, the hydrogen and oxygen mostly disappear, leaving much of the carbon with original structures often remarkably preserved. Fine examples are fossil plants in the great coal-bearing strata. Much more rarely entire organisms have been preserved either by freezing or by natural embalmment. Most remarkable are the species of mammoths and rhinoceroses, extinct for thousands of years, bodies of which, with flesh, hide, and hair still intact, have been held in cold storage in the frozen soils of Siberia, or other cases. Insects have been perfectly preserved in amber, as, for example, in the Baltic region. This amber is a hardened resin in which the insects were caught while it was still soft and exuding from the trees. Finally, we should mention the preservation of tracks and trails of land and water animals. Thousands of tracks of long-extinct great reptiles occur in the sandstones and shales of the Connecticut Valley of Massachusetts. The footprints were made in soft sandy mud which hardened and then became covered with more sediment.

Few fossils occur in other than the sedimentary rocks. Most numerous, by far, are fossils in rocks of marine origin, because on relatively shallow sea bottoms, where sediments of the geologic ages have largely accumulated, the conditions for fossilization have been most favorable. Among the many conditions which have produced great diversity in numbers and distribution of marine organisms during geologic time are temperature, depth of water, clearness of water, nature of sea bottom, degree of salinity, and food supply. River and lake deposits also not uncommonly contain remains of organisms which inhabited the waters, but also others which were carried in. “Surrounding trees drop their leaves, flowers, and fruit upon the mud flats, insects fall into the quiet waters, while quadrupeds are mired in mud or quicksand and soon buried out of sight. Flooded streams bring in quantities of vegetable debris, together with carcasses of land animals drowned by the sudden rise of the flood” (W. B. Scott).

In the study of the many changes which have taken place in the history of the earth, a fundamental consideration is the determination of the relative ages of the rocks, especially the strata. How can the geologist assign a rock formation of any part of the earth to a particular age in the history of the earth? How can it be proved that certain rock formations in various parts of the earth originated practically at the same time? There are two important criteria. First, in any region where the strata have not been disturbed from their normal order, the older strata underlie the younger because the underlying sediments must have been deposited first. Now, the total thickness of the stratified series of the earth has been estimated to be no less than 200,000 feet and only a small part of this is actually present in any given locality or region. It is, therefore, evident that the order of superposition of strata is in itself not sufficient for the determination of the relative ages of all the strata in even a considerable portion of a single continent, not to mention its utter inadequacy in building up the geological column of the whole earth. When, however, the second criterion, namely, the fossil content of the strata, is used in direct connection with the order of superposition, we have the real basis for determining the relative ages of strata for all parts of the earth. The discovery of this method was very largely due to the painstaking field work in England by William Smith about the beginning of the nineteenth century.

It is a well-established fact that organisms have inhabited the earth for many millions of years and that, through the geologic ages, they have continuously changed, with gradual development of higher and higher types. Tens of thousands of species have come and gone. Accepting this fact, it is then clear that strata which were formed at notably different times must contain notably different fossils, while strata which accumulated at practically the same time contain similar fossils, allowing, of course, for reasonable differences in geographical distribution of organisms as at the present time. Each epoch of earth history or series of strata has its characteristic assemblage of organisms. In short, “a geological chronology is constructed by carefully determining, first of all, the order of superposition of the stratified rocks, and next by learning the fossils characteristic of each group of strata.... The order of succession among the fossils is determined from the order of superposition of the strata in which they occur. When that succession has been thus established, it may be employed as a general standard” (W. B. Scott). It should, however, be borne in mind that precise contemporaneity of strata in widely separated districts can rarely, if ever, be determined because of the very great length of geologic time and the general slowness of the evolution of organisms. Rocks carrying remarkably similar fossils may really be several thousand years different in age; but this is, indeed, a very small limit of error when one considers the vast antiquity of the earth. Much very accurate and satisfactory work has been done, especially in Europe and North America, in correlating strata and assigning them to their places in the geological time table (see [below]), but a vast amount of work yet remains to be done before the task is complete.

Certain types or species of organisms are much more useful than others in the determination of earth chronology. Best of all for world-wide correlations are species which were widely distributed and which persisted for relatively short times. Thus any species which lived in the surface waters of the ocean and was easily distributed over wide areas, while, at the same time, it existed as such only a short time, is the best type of chronologic indicator.

The known history of the earth has been more or less definitely divided into great eras and lesser periods and epochs, constituting what may be called the geologic time scale. In the accompanying table the era and period names, except those representing earlier time, are mostly world-wide in their usage. Epoch names, being more or less locally applied, are omitted from the table. Very conservative estimates of the length of time represented by the eras and the most characteristic general features of the life of the main divisions are also given.

PRINCIPAL DIVISIONS OF GEOLOGIC TIME

(Modified after U. S. Geological Survey.)

Era.	Period.			Characteristic life.	Millions of years estimated
Cenozoic	Quaternary.			“Age of man.” Animals and plants of modern types.	3 to 5.
	Tertiary.			“Age of mammals.” Rise of highest animals except man. Rise and development of highest orders of plants.
Mesozoic	Cretaceous.			“Age of reptiles.” Rise and culmination of huge land reptiles (dinosaurs), of shellfish with complexly partitioned coiled shells (ammonites), and of great flying reptiles. First appearance (in Jurassic) of birds and mammals; of cycads, an order of palm-like angiospermous plants, among which are palms and hardwood trees (in Cretaceous).	5 to 10.
	Jurassic.
	Triassic.
Paleozoic	Permian.			“Age of amphibians.” Dominance of club mosses (lycopods) and plants Primitive flowering plants and earliest cone-bearing trees. Beginnings of back-boned land animals with nautiluslike coiled shells (ammonites) and sharks abundant.	17 to 25.
	Pennsylvanian.
	Mississippian.
	Devonian.			“Age of fishes.” Shellfish (mollusks) also abundant. Rise of amphibians and land plants.
	Silurian.	“Age of Invertebrates.”		Shell-forming sea animals dominant, especially those related to the nautilus (cephalopods). Rise and culmination of the marine animals sometimes known as sea lilies (crinoids) and of giant scorpionlike crustaceans (eurypterids). Rise of fishes and of reef-building corals.
	Ordovician.			Shell-forming sea animals, especially cephalopods and mollusk-like brachiopods, abundant. Culmination of the buglike marine crustaceans known as trilobites.
	Cambrian.			Trilobites and brachiopods most characteristic animals. Seaweeds (algæ) abundant. No trace of land animals found.
Proterozoic	Algonkian.			First life that has left distinct record. Crustaceans, brachiopods, and seaweeds.	25 to 50+
Archeozoic	Archean.			Organic matter in form of graphite (black lead), but no determinable fossils found.

The length of time represented by human history is very short compared to the vast time of known geological history. The one is measured by thousands of years, while the other must be measured by tens of millions of years. Just as we may roughly divide human history into certain ages according to some notable person, nation, principle, or force as, for example, the “Age of Pericles,” the “Roman Period,” the “Age of the French Revolution,” or the “Age of Electricity,” so geologic history may be subdivided according to great predominant physical or organic phenomena, such as “the Appalachian Mountain Revolution” (toward the end of the Paleozoic era), the “Age of Fishes” (Devonian period), or the “Age of Reptiles” (Mesozoic era).

In the study of earth history, as in the study of human history, it is important to distinguish between events and records of events. Historical events are continuous, but they are by no means all recorded. Records of events are often interrupted and seemingly sharply separated from each other.

[CHAPTER II]

WEATHERING AND EROSION

A

All rocks at and near the surface of the earth crumble or decay. The term “weathering” includes all the processes whereby rocks are broken up, decomposed, or dissolved. A mass of very hard and seemingly indestructible granite, taken from a quarry, will, in a very short time, geologically considered, crumble ([Plate 1]). During the short span of the ordinary human life weathering effects are generally of very little consequence, but during the long ages of geologic time the various processes of weathering have been slowly and ceaselessly at work upon the outer crust of the earth, and such tremendous quantities of rock material have been broken up that the lands of the earth have everywhere been profoundly affected.

Most of us have noticed buildings and monuments in which the stones show marked effects of weathering. A good case in point is Westminster Abbey, London, in which many of the stones are badly weathering, some of the more ornamental parts having crumbled beyond recognition since the building was erected in the thirteenth century. In many countries, tombstones and monuments only one or two centuries old are so badly weathered that the inscriptions are scarcely if at all legible.

What are some of the processes of nature whereby rocks are weathered? In cold countries, and often in mountains of generally mild climate regions, the alternate freezing and thawing of water is a potent agency in breaking up rocks where the soils are thin or absent. On freezing, water expands about one-tenth of its volume and exerts the enormous pressure of over 2,000 pounds per square inch. Nearly all relatively hard rock formations are separated into more or less distinct blocks by natural cracks called “joints” ([Plate 8]). Very commonly the rocks also contain minute crevices, fissures, and pores. Repeated freezing and thawing of water which finds its way into such openings finally causes even the most resistant rocks to break up into smaller and smaller fragments. A very striking example of difference in climatic effect upon a given rock mass is the obelisk in Central Park, New York. For many centuries this famous monument stood practically without change in the dry, frostless climate of Egypt, but very soon after its removal to the moist, frosty climate of New York, it began to crumble so rapidly that it was necessary to cover it with a coating of glaze to protect it from the atmosphere.

Temperature change, especially in dry regions, is also an important agency for mechanical breaking up of rocks. On high mountains and on deserts, a daily range of temperature of from 70 degrees to 80 degrees is frequent. Due to heat absorption, rocks in desert regions, during the day, not uncommonly reach temperatures of fully 120 degrees, while during the night, due to heat radiation, their temperature falls greatly. During the heating of the outer portion of the rock, the various minerals each expand differently, thus setting up a series of stresses and strains tending to cause the minerals to pull apart. The outer portions of the rocks which are subjected to unstable and relatively rapid temperature changes, often crack or peel off in slabs or flakes, this process being called exfoliation. Stone Mountain in Georgia, and some of the mountains of the southern Sierra Nevada range in California, are excellent examples of mountains which are being rounded off by exfoliation. The principle is the same as that which causes the “spalling” of stones in buildings during fires.

Masses of débris consisting of more or less angular rock fragments of all sizes commonly occur at the bases of cliffs and mountains. They represent materials which have weathered off the ledges mainly by frost action and temperature changes.

Where electrical storms are frequent, lightning often shatters portions of rock ledges. Many such cases have come under the writer’s observation in the Adirondack Mountains of New York. The total effect of lightning as a weathering agency is, however, relatively small.

Another minor weathering effect is the mechanical action of plants. The principle is well illustrated by the breaking or tilting of sidewalks by the wedging action of the growing roots of trees. In many places the roots of plants growing in cracks in rocks, exert powerful pressure causing the rocks or blocks of rocks to wedge apart.

Let us now briefly consider some of the chemical processes of weathering. The solvent effect of perfectly pure water upon rocks is very slight and slow. But such water is not found in nature because certain atmospheric gases, especially oxygen and carbonic acid gas, are always present in it, and they notably increase the solvent power of the water. Such water has the power to slowly but completely dissolve the common rock called limestone which consists of carbonate of lime. This material is then carried away by the streams. Rocks, like certain sandstones which contain carbonate of lime cementing material, are caused to crumble due to removal of the cement in solution. Carbonic acid gas in water also has the power to chemically alter various minerals in many common rocks and thus the rocks fall apart and the carbonates which result from the action usually are carried away in solution. One of the most important changes of this kind takes place when the very common mineral feldspar is attacked by water containing carbonic acid gas and the mineral alters to a soluble carbonate, kaolin (or clay) and silica.

The oxygen, both of the air and that which is contained in water, is a very important chemical agent of decomposition of many rocks. Water at the surface and the upper part of the crust of the earth as well as moisture in the air are also important chemical agents which bring about rock decay. We are all familiar with the rusting of iron which is due to the chemical union of the iron with oxygen, thus forming an iron oxide which in turn commonly unites with water from air or earth. Now, many rocks contain iron, not as such, but held in combination with other substances in the form of various minerals, and this iron of the rocks, where subjected to the oxygen and moisture of air or water, slowly unites with the oxygen and water to form a hydrated iron oxide which is essentially iron-rust. The minerals containing considerable iron are, therefore, decomposed and the rocks crumble. There are various iron oxides, usually more or less hydrated, ranging in color from red through brown to yellow, and these constitute probably the most common and striking colors of the rocks of the earth. The gorgeously colored Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone River is a very fine example of large scale coloring due to development of much hydrated oxide of iron during the weathering of lava rock, the process having been aided by the action of heated underground waters.

Most of the soils of the earth are the direct result of weathering. Important exceptions are soils which have been transported by the action of water, ice, or wind. Although the process of weathering is very slow and relatively superficial, it is, nevertheless, true that in many places, the products of weathering form faster than they can be carried away. Such weathered materials accumulate in their place of origin to form soils. The upper few hundred feet of the earth’s crust is everywhere more or less fractured and porous and the rocks are there affected in varying degrees by most of the ordinary agents of weathering. In such cases, outside the areas which were recently covered by ice during the great Ice Age, it is common to find the loose soil grading downward into rotten rock, and this in turn into the fresh practically unaltered bedrock. Soils of this kind are generally not more than ten or twenty feet deep, though under exceptional conditions, as in parts of Brazil, they attain depths of several hundred feet.

In order to make still clearer some of the above principles of weathering and also to give the reader some understanding of the most common types of residual soils, we shall consider what happens to a few rather definite types of ordinary rocks when they are subjected to weathering. A very simple case is that of a sandstone, the mineral grains (mostly quartz) of which are held together by carbonate of lime. The lime simply dissolves and is carried away, while many of the mineral grains may remain to form a soil of nearly pure sand. Where oxide of iron forms the cementing material, the rock yields less readily to weathering, and the sandy soil will be yellowish brown or red according to the climate. Another simple case is that of limestone which when perfectly pure yields no soil because it is all soluble. Pure limestone is, however, rare, and the various mineral impurities in it, being to a considerable degree insoluble, tend to remain to form a residual soil which may vary from sandy to clayey, and usually brown or red due to the setting free of oxides of iron. According to one estimate a thickness of about 100 feet of a certain fairly impure limestone formation in Virginia must weather to yield a layer of soil one foot thick. Soils of this kind, which are usually rich, are common in many limestone valleys of the Appalachian Mountains. In the case of shale rock, which is hardened mud, the cementing materials are removed, some chemical changes in the minerals may take place, and the rock crumbles to a claylike soil. What happens to a very hard, resistant igneous rock like granite when attacked by the weather? Such a rock always consists mainly of the two very common minerals feldspar and quartz, usually with smaller amounts of other minerals such as mica, hornblende, augite, or magnetite. The feldspar, which when fresh is harder than steel, slowly yields when attacked by water containing carbonic acid gas and crumbles or decays to a mixture of kaolin (clay), carbonate of potash, and silica (quartz). Clay is an important constituent of most good soils, while the carbonate of potash is essential as a food for most plants. Due to yielding of the grains or crystals of feldspar, the granite falls apart (see [Plate 1]). The grains of quartz remain chemically unchanged, though they may be more or less broken by changes of temperature, and the other minerals, which are mostly iron-bearing, yield more or less to weathering, resulting in a variety of products, among which are oxides of iron. A typical granite, therefore, gives rise to a good heavy soil which is yellow, brown or red according to climate. Such granite soils are common in many parts of the Piedmont Plateau from Maryland to Georgia. Most of the dark-colored igneous rocks, like ordinary basaltic lava, contain much feldspar, various iron-bearing minerals, and little or no quartz. Such rocks yield to the weather like granite but, because of lack of quartz, the soils are more clayey. Rich soils of this kind occur in the great lava fields of the northwestern United States and in the Hawaiian Islands.

The importance of the breaking down of feldspar under the influence of the weather, as above described, not only from the standpoint of soil development, but also as regards the wearing down of the lands of the earth, is difficult to overemphasize because that mineral is by far the most abundant constituent of the earth’s crust.

The term “erosion” is one of the most important in geologic science. It comprises all the processes whereby the lands of the earth are worn down. It involves the breaking up of earth material, and its transportation through the agency of water, ice, or wind. Weathering, including the various subprocesses as above described, is a very important process of erosion. By this process much rock material is got into condition for transportation. Another process of erosion, called “corrasion,” consists in the rubbing or bumping of rocks fragments of all sizes carried by water, ice, or wind against the general country rock, thus causing the latter to be gradually worn away. A fine illustration of exceedingly rapid corrasion of very hard rock was that of the Sill tunnel in Austria, which was paved with granite blocks several feet thick. Water carrying large quantities of rock fragments over the pavement at high velocity caused the granite blocks to be worn through in only one year. Ordinarily in nature, however, the rate of wear is much slower than this. Pressure exerted upon the country rock by any agency of transportation may cause relatively loose joint blocks, into which most rock formations are separated, to be pushed away. This process, called “plucking,” is especially effective in the case of flowing ice.

[CHAPTER III]

STREAM WORK

M

MOST streams are incessantly at work cutting or eroding their way into the earth’s crust and carrying off the products of weathering. By this means the general level of lands is gradually being reduced to nearer and nearer sea level. Base level of erosion is reached when any stream has eroded to its greatest possible depth, and a whole region is said to be base-leveled when, by the action of streams, it has been reduced to a practically flat condition. A region of this kind is known as a “peneplain.”

To one who has not seriously considered the matter, the power of even moderately swift water to transport rock débris seems incredible. A well-established law of transportation by running water is that the transporting power of a current varies as the sixth power of its velocity. For example, a current which is just able to move a rock fragment of a given size will, when its velocity is merely doubled, be able to move along a piece of similar rock sixty-four times as large! That this must be the case may be readily proved as follows: A current of given velocity is just able to move a block of rock, say, of one cubic inch in the form of a cube. A cubic block sixty-four times as large has a face of sixteen square inches. By doubling the velocity of the current, therefore, twice as much water must strike each of the sixteen square inches of the face of the larger block with twice the force, thus exerting sixty-four times the power against the face of the larger block, or enough to move it along. This surprising law accounts for the fact that in certain floods, like the one which rushed over Johnstown, Pennsylvania, in 1889, locomotives, massive iron bridges, and great bowlders were swept along with great velocity. It is obvious, then, that ordinarily swift rivers in time of flood accomplish far more work of erosion (especially transportation) than during many days or even some months of low water.

Few people have the slightest idea as to the enormous amount of earth material which the rivers are carrying into the sea each year. The burden carried by the Mississippi River has been carefully studied for many years. Each year this river discharges about 400,000,000 tons of material in suspension; 120,000,000 tons in solution; and 40,000,000 tons rolled along the bottom. This all represents earth material eroded from the drainage basin of the river. It is sufficient to cover a square mile 325 feet deep, or if placed in ordinary freight cars it would require a train reaching around the earth several times to contain it. Since the drainage basin of the Mississippi covers about 1,250,000 square miles, it is, therefore, evident that this drainage area is being worn down at the average rate of about one foot in 3,840 years, and this is perhaps, a fair average for the rivers of the earth. The Ganges River, being unusually favorably situated for rapid erosion, wears down its drainage basin about one foot in 1,750 years. It has been estimated that nearly 800,000,000 tons of material are annually carried into the sea by the rivers of the United States. According to this the country, as a whole, is being cut down at the rate of about one foot in 9,000 years. In arriving at this figure it should, of course, be borne in mind that the average level of hundreds of thousands of square miles of the western United States, particularly the so-called Great Basin, is practically not being reduced at all because none of the streams there reach the sea.

Deposition of sediment is an important natural consequence of erosion. The destination of most streams is the sea, and where tides are relatively slight the sediments discharged mostly accumulate relatively near the mouths of the rivers in the form of flat, fan-shaped delta deposits. Some rivers, like the Ganges, which carry such unusual quantities of sediment, are able to construct deltas in spite of considerable tides. Deltas also form in lakes. In most cases, however, rivers enter the sea where there are considerable tides and their loads are more widely spread over the marginal sea bottom. But in many cases some of the sediment does not reach the mouth of the stream. It is, instead, deposited along its course either where the velocity is sufficiently checked, as is the case over many flood-plain areas of rivers, or where a heavily loaded, relatively swift stream has its general velocity notably diminished. An excellent example of the latter type of stream is the Platte River, which is swift and loaded with sediment in its descent from the Rocky Mountains, but, on reaching the relatively more nearly level Nebraska country, it has its current sufficiently checked to force it to deposit sediment and build up its channel along many miles of its course, and this in spite of the fact that it still maintains a considerable current. In a mountainous arid region a more or less intermittent stream at times of flood becomes heavily loaded with rock débris and rushes down the mountain side. On reaching the valley floor the velocity is greatly checked and most of the load is deposited at the base of the mountain, successive accumulations of such materials, called alluvial cones or fans, having not uncommonly built up to depths of hundreds, or even several thousand feet.

Plate 1.—(a) Granite Weathering to Soil near Northampton, Mass. Under the action of weathering all of the once hard, fresh, mass of granite has crumbled to soil except the fairly fresh rounded masses which are residual cores of “joint blocks.” (Photo by the author.)

Plate 1.—(b) Looking-Glass Rock, Utah. The rock is stratified sandstone sculptured mainly by wind erosion, that is, by the wind driving particles of sand against it. (Photo by Cross, U. S. Geological Survey.)

Plate 2.—Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone River in Yellowstone National Park. The great waterfall 308 feet high is shown. The large swift river has here sunk its channel (by erosion) to a maximum depth of 1,200 feet during very recent geological time, and the process is still going on. The wonderful coloring is due to iron oxides set free during weathering of the lava rock. (Photo by Hillers, U. S. Geological Survey.)

Any newly formed land surface, like a recently drained lake bed or part of the marginal sea bottom which has been raised into land, has a drainage system developed upon it. In the early or youthful stage of such a new land area lying well above sea level, under ordinary climatic conditions a few streams only form and these tend to follow the natural or initial slope of the land. These streams carve out narrow, steep-sided valleys, and all of them are actively engaged in cutting down their channels, or, in other words, none of them have reached base level, and flood plains and meandering curves are therefore lacking. During this youthful stage there are no sharp drainage divides; gorges and waterfalls are not uncommonly present; and the relief of the land in general is not rugged. A good example of youthful topography is the region around Fargo, North Dakota, which is part of the bed of a great recently drained lake. The Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone River is an excellent illustration of a youthful valley cut in a high plateau of geologically recent origin. ([Plate 2.])

As time goes on, a region in youth gradually gives way to a region in maturity, during which stage the maximum number (usually a network) of streams in broader V-shaped valleys have developed; divisions of drainage are sharp; the maximum ruggedness of relief has developed; the larger streams only have cut down so near base level that winding (meandering) courses and flood plains are well developed along them; and waterfalls and gorges are rarely present. An almost perfect example of a region in maturity is that around Charleston, West Virginia.

The old-age stage develops next in the history of the region, during which only a moderate number of streams remain, most of these being at or close to base level so that sweeping curves or meanders ([Plate 4]) and cut-off meanders or “ox bows” and wide flood plains are characteristic and common. The relief is greatly subdued and the term “rolling country” might be applied to the moderately hilly region. Divisions of drainage are, of course, not at all sharp and the valleys are wide and shallow. Oxbow lakes are common, but gorges and waterfalls are absent. A region typical of old-age topography is that around Caldwell, Kansas.

Finally, after the remaining low hills have been cut down, the region is in the condition of a broad monotonous plain, practically devoid of relief, over which the sluggish streams pursue very winding, more or less shifting or indefinite courses. For the attainment of this final stage (called a “peneplain”) in the normal cycle of erosion a proportionately very long time is necessary, because the rate of erosion becomes slower and slower as the region is being cut down. Then, too, some change of level between the land and the sea is very likely to take place before the peneplain stage is reached. It is doubtful if any extensive region was ever brought to the condition of a perfect peneplain. Some masses of more resistant or more favorably situated rocks are almost sure to maintain at least moderate heights above the general plain level. Geologically recently upraised, fairly well developed peneplains are southern New England and the great region of eastern Canada. The remarkably even sky lines of these regions mark the peneplain level before the uplift took place, and occasionally masses, called “monadnocks” from Mount Monadnock in southern New Hampshire, rise above the general level. The valleys in such an uplifted peneplain region have been carved out by streams since the uplift began. We have positive evidence that more or less well-developed peneplains of considerable extent existed in various parts of the earth at various times during the many millions of years of known earth history.

The normal cycle of erosion which, as outlined above, tends toward the peneplain condition may be interrupted at any stage by other processes. An excellent case in point is the upper Mississippi Valley, which had reached the old-age stage, even approximating a peneplain, just before the great Ice Age. Then, during the withdrawal of the vast sheet of ice from the region toward the close of the Ice Age, extensive deposits (moraines, etc.) of glacial débris were left irregularly strewn over the country, giving rise to many low hills, lake basins, and altered drainage lines, in some cases with resultant gorge development. Some distinct features of a youthful topography are, therefore, plastered over what was otherwise a region well along in old age. The general district around the Dells of Wisconsin River well illustrates this principle.

Changes in level between land and sea which take place during the erosion of a region may also disturb the normal cycle of erosion. For example, a region in old age may be considerably upraised so that the streams have their velocities notably increased. Such a region is said to be “rejuvenated” and the streams, which are revived in activity, begin to cut youthful valleys in the bottom of the old ones and, after a time, the general surface of the region is subjected to vigorous erosion and a new cycle of erosion will be carried out unless interfered with in some way, as by relative change of level between the land and the sea. In this connection the history of the topography in the general vicinity of Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, may be of interest by way of illustration of the principle just described. The long, narrow, parallel Appalachian Mountain ridges there rise to about the same level, causing a remarkably even sky line as viewed from one of the summits. This even sky line marks approximately the surface of what was a peneplain late in the Mesozoic era. Early in the succeeding Cenozoic era, the broad peneplain was notably upraised to nearly the present altitudes of the ridge tops. The revived Susquehanna River left the old course which it had on the peneplain surface, and began to carve out its present valley, while tributaries (subsequent streams) to it developed along belts of weaker rock and thus they formed the present parallel valleys separated by belts of more resistant rocks which stand out as ridges. In this way, the mature stage of topography was reached. Very recently, geologically, the region has been rejuvenated enough to cause the larger streams to appreciably sink their channels below the general valley floors. The reader will find a general discussion of movements of the earth’s crust in a succeeding chapter.

Fig. 1.—The submerged Hudson River channel is clearly shown by the contour lines on the sea floor. Figures indicate depth of water in fathoms. Geologically recent sinking of the land has caused the “drowning” of the river valley. (Coast and Geodetic Survey).

If, for example, a region along the seaboard has reached the mature stage of erosion, and the land notably subsides relative to sea level, the tidewater will enter the lower valleys to form estuaries and the valleys are said to be “drowned.” The large streams, or at least their lower courses, are thus obliterated and also the general erosion of the region is distinctly diminished. The recently sunken coast of Maine well illustrates the idea of “drowned valleys.” The drowned valley of the lower Hudson River is another fine example.

Fig. 2.—Sketch maps showing how the Shenandoah River captured the upper waters of Beaverdam Creek in Virginia. The abandoned valley of the creek across Blue Ridge is now called a “wind gap.” (After B. Willis.)

What is termed stream “piracy” is of special interest in connection with stream work. By this is meant the stealing of one stream or part of a stream by another. We shall here explain only one of the various ways by which stream capture may be effected. One of two fairly active streams, flowing roughly parallel to each other, is more favorably situated and has cut its channel deeper. Its tributaries are, therefore, more favorable to extension of headwaters and, in time, one of its tributaries eats back far enough to tap a branch of the less favorably situated stream so that the waters of this branch are diverted into the more favorably situated stream. The Shenandoah River of Virginia has been such a pirate. This river developed as a tributary of the Potomac. By headward extension toward the south, the Shenandoah finally tapped and diverted the upper waters of the smaller, less favorably situated Beaverdam Creek. The notch or so-called “wind gap” through which the upper waters of Beaverdam Creek formerly flowed across the Blue Ridge is still plainly visible. Such abandoned water gaps, known as “wind gaps,” are common in the central Appalachian Mountain region.

A remarkable type of river is one which has been able to maintain its course through a barrier, even a mountain range, which has been built across it. Thus, the Columbia River, after flowing many miles across the great lava plateau, has maintained its course right across the growing Cascade Range by cutting a deep canyon while the mountain uplift has been in progress. In a similar manner the Ogden River of Utah has kept its westward course by cutting a deep canyon into the Wasatch Range which has geologically recently, though slowly, risen across its path. In no other way can we possibly explain the fact that such a river, rising on one side of a high mountain range, cuts right across it.

A feature of minor though considerable popular interest is the development of “potholes” by stream action. Where eddies occur, in rather active streams, rock fragments of varying sizes may be whirled around in such manner as to corrode or grind the bedrock, resulting in the development of cylinder-shaped “potholes.” Such holes vary in diameter up to fifty feet or more in very exceptional cases. In the production of large “potholes” many rock fragments are worn away and new ones supplied to continue the work. Locally, some stream beds are honeycombed with “potholes.”

Fig. 3.—Grand Canyon, Arizona. (From Darton’s “Story of the Grand Canyon.”)

Strikingly narrow and deep valleys, called gorges and canyons, are rather exceptional features of stream action. Most wonderful of all features of this kind is the Grand Canyon of the Colorado River in Arizona. In fact, this canyon takes high rank among the most remarkable works of nature. The canyon is over 200 miles long, from 4,000 to 6,000 feet deep, and from 8 to 15 miles wide. Contrary to popular opinion, this mighty canyon is not a result of some violent process, such as volcanic action, or the sudden sinking of part of the earth’s crust. Nor is it the result of the scouring action of a great glacier. It is simply a result of the operation of the ordinary processes of erosion where the conditions have been exceptionally favorable. Some of the favorable conditions have been, and are, a large volume of very swift water (Colorado River) continually charged with an abundance of rock fragments for the work of corrasion, and a great thickness of rock which the river must cut through before reaching base-level. Aridity of climate also tends to preserve the canyon form. The whole work has been accomplished in very late geological time, and the tremendous volume of rock which has been weathered and eroded to produce the canyon has all been carried away by the Colorado River and accumulated in the great delta deposit near where the river empties into the Gulf of California. Even now the canyon is growing deeper and wider because the very active Colorado River is still from 2,000 to 3,000 feet above sea level. Standing on the southern rim near Grand Canyon station at an altitude of nearly 7,000 feet, and looking down into the canyon, one beholds a vast maze of side canyons, high, vertical rock walls which follow very sinuous courses, giving rise to a steplike topography, and countless rock pinnacles, towers, and mesas often of mountain-like proportions. The side canyons are the result of erosion by tributaries to the main river which have gradually developed and worked headward as the main river has cut down. The mountain-like sculptured forms which rise out of the canyon are erosion remnants, or, in other words, masses of rock which were more favorably situated against erosion by either the main river or any of its tributaries. All of the rocks of the broader, main portions of the canyon are strata of Paleozoic age, arranged as a vast pile of almost horizontal layers, including sandstone, limestone, and shale. Some of these layers, being distinctly more resistant than others, stand out in the canyon wall in the form of conspicuous cliffs, in some cases hundreds of feet high. The very striking color bands (mostly light gray, red, and greenish gray), which may be traced in and out along the canyon sides, represent the outcropping edges of variously colored rock layers. Far down in the canyon lies the steep-sided, V-shaped inner gorge, or canyon which is fully 1,000 feet deep. The rocks are there not ordinary strata, but rather metamorphic and igneous rocks, mostly dark gray, not in layers, and about uniformly resistant to erosion. There is reason to believe that this inner gorge has developed mainly since a distinct renewed uplift (rejuvenation) of the Colorado Plateau after the river began its canyon cutting. The narrow, steep-sided inner gorge may thus be readily accounted for and the general lack of steplike forms on its sides is due to essential uniformity of the rock material as regards resistance to erosion.

Fig. 4.—Profile and structure section across the line A-A in [Fig 3.] Length of section 10 miles, vertical scale not exaggerated. The main relief features, and the relations of the rocks below the surface are shown. The granite and gneiss are of Archeozoic age, and the overlying nearly horizontal strata are of Paleozoic age. (After Darton, U. S. Geological Survey.)

The wonderful King’s River Canyon of the southern Sierras in California is remarkable for its combined narrowness and depth. It is a steep V-shaped canyon whose maximum depth is 6,900 feet, carved out in mostly solid granite by the action of weathering and running water. Some idea of the vast antiquity of the earth may be gleaned from the fact that this tremendously deep canyon has been produced by erosion in one of the most resistant of all known rocks in very late geologic time! Conditions favorable for cutting this canyon have been volume and swiftness of water and a liberal supply of grinding tools.

Among the many other great canyons of the western United States brief mention may be made of the Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone River in the National Park. The plateau into which the river has cut its steep-sided, narrow, V-shaped canyon, with a maximum depth of 1,200 feet, has been geologically recently built up by outpourings of vast sheets of lava. The large volume of very swift water, aided by decomposition and weakening of the ordinarily very hard rock by the action of the hot springs, has been able to carve out this deep canyon practically within the last period of earth history. The deepening process is still vigorously in progress. The wonderful coloring of the rock, mostly in tones of yellow and brown, is due to the hydrated iron oxides developed during the decay of the iron-bearing minerals of the lava, the chemical action having been greatly aided by the action of the hot waters. (See [Plate 2].)

In regard to its origin, the marvelous Yosemite Valley, or canyon, falls in a somewhat different category, and it is discussed beyond in connection with the work of ice. Suffice it to say here that running water has been a very important factor in its origin.

In New York and New England there are many gorges which have developed by the action of running water since the Great Ice Age. Famous among these are Ausable Chasm and Watkins Glen of New York, and the Flume in the White Mountains of New Hampshire.

Fig. 5.—Sketch map showing the retreat of the crest of Niagara Falls from 1842 to 1905, based upon actual surveys. The retreat of the inner part of the Horseshoe Fall was more than 300 feet. (Modified by the author after Gilbert, U. S. Geological Survey.)

Before leaving our discussion of the work of running water, we should briefly consider waterfalls. True waterfalls originate in a number of ways. Most common of all is what may be termed the “Niagara type” of waterfall. Niagara Falls merit more than passing mention not only because of their scenic grandeur, but also because of the unusual number of geologic principles which their origin and history so clearly illustrate. Niagara Falls are divided into two main portions, the Canadian, or so-called “Horseshoe Fall,” and the “American Fall,” separated by a large island. The crest of the American Fall is about 1,000 feet long and nearly straight, while the crest of the Canadian Fall is notably curved inward upstream, and it is about 3,000 feet long. The height of the Falls is 167 feet. Downstream from the Falls there is a very steep-sided gorge about 200 feet deep and seven miles long. The exposed rocks of the region are nearly horizontal layers of limestone underlain with shales. Relatively more resistant limestone forms the crest of the falls, and directly underneath are the much weaker shales. Herein lies the principle of this type of waterfall because, due to weathering and the swirling action of the water, the weaker underlying rocks erode faster, thus causing the overlying rock to overhang so that from time to time blocks of it already more or less separated by cracks (joints), fall down and are mostly carried away in the swift current. Thus the waterfall maintains itself while it steadily retreats upstream. Careful estimates based upon observations made between 1827 and 1905 show that the Canadian Fall retreated at the rate of from three to five feet per year, while the American Fall retreated during the same time at the rate of only several inches per year. It has been well established that Niagara Falls came into existence soon after the ice of the great Ice Age had retreated from the district. The falls started by plunging over a limestone escarpment, situated at what is now the mouth of the gorge seven miles downstream from the present falls. If we consider the rate of recession of the falls to have been always five feet per year, the length of time required to cut the gorge would be something over 7,000 years. But the problem is not so simple, because we know that, at the time of, or shortly after, the beginning of the falls, the upper Great Lakes drained farther north and not over the falls; and that this continued for a considerable, though unknown, length of time. During this interval the volume of water in Niagara River was notably diminished, and hence the recession of the falls must have been slower. On the other hand, judging by the width of the gorge, the length of the crest of the falls has generally been considerably less than at present, which in turn means greater concentration of water over the crest and more rapid wear. Various factors considered, the best estimates for the age of the falls vary from 7,000 to 50,000 years, an average being about 25,000 years. Although this figure is not precise, it is, nevertheless, of considerable geologic interest because it shows that the age of Niagara Falls (and gorge) is to be reckoned in some tens of thousands of years, rather than hundreds of thousands or millions of years. Although waterfalls of the Niagara type are the most common of all, it is by no means necessary that the particular rocks should be limestone and shale.

Another common kind of waterfall may be termed the “Yosemite type,” so named from the high falls in the Yosemite Valley of California. At the great falls of the Yosemite, the rock is a homogeneous granite and the undermining process does not operate. Yosemite Creek first plunges vertically over a granite cliff for 1,430 feet to form the Upper Falls, which must rank among the very highest of all true water falls. The water then descends about 800 feet by cascading through a narrow gorge, after which it makes a final vertical plunge of over 300 feet. A brief history of the falls is about as follows. A great steep-sided V-shaped canyon several thousand feet deep had been carved out by the action of the Merced River which now flows through the valley. Then, during the Ice Age, a mighty glacier plowed through the canyon, filling it to overflowing. The granite of this district having been unusually highly fractured by great vertical joint cracks was relatively easy prey for ice erosion. Due to its great weight, the erosive power of the ice was most potent toward the bottom, successive joint blocks were removed, and the valley was thus widened and the sides steepened or even commonly made practically vertical. (See [Plate 6.]) After the melting of the ice, certain of the streams, like Yosemite Creek and Bridal Veil Creek, were forced to enter the valley by plunging over great perpendicular, granite cliffs which are in reality joint faces. This type of waterfall does not retreat, but it constantly diminishes in height by cutting into the crest. A number of other high falls of this kind occur in the Yosemite region, and also in other mountain valleys which formerly contained glaciers, as in the Canadian Rockies, the Alps, and Norway, the rocks in these regions being of various kinds.

In the case of the “Yellowstone type” of waterfall a different principle is involved, namely, a distinctly harder or more resistant mass of rock which extends vertically across the channel of the stream. At the Great Falls of the Yellowstone a mass of relatively fresh, hard lava lies athwart the course of the river, while just below it the lava has been much weakened by decomposition. The harder rock therefore acts as a barrier, while, in the course of time, the weak rock on the downstream side has been worn away until a waterfall 308 feet high has developed. This waterfall does not retreat very appreciably, but it is probably increasing in height, due both to the scouring action of the water at the base of the fall and the unusual clearness of the river water here, thus causing little wear at the crest. It should be noted, in this connection, that the channel just on the upstream side of the barrier cannot be cut down faster than the top of the barrier itself.

The famous Victoria Falls of the Zambezi River in South Africa, represents a relatively uncommon type of waterfall. Considering height of the fall, length of crest, and volume of water, this is perhaps the greatest waterfall in the world. The Zambezi River, a mile wide, plunges over 400 feet vertically into a chasm only a few hundred feet wide and at right angles to the main course of the stream. The general country rock is hard lava, but locally a narrow belt of the rock has been highly fractured vertically, due to earth movements or faulting (see [explanation beyond]) and therefore weakened and more subject to weathering than the general body of the lava rock. This belt of weakened rock has been easy prey for erosion by the Zambezi River and the chasm has there developed. In fact the chasm is still being increased in depth. Leaving the chasm toward one end, the river flows through a narrow zig-zag gorge whose position has been determined by big joint cracks. The mile-wide crest of the falls is interrupted by a good many ledges and even small islands. The thundering noise of this great waterfall is most impressive, but a good complete view is impossible because most of the chasm is constantly filled with dense spray.

Still another type of waterfall develops by the removal of joint blocks by the action of running water. Falls of this type are fairly common though they seldom attain really great heights. Where the rock in the bed of a stream is traversed by well-developed vertical joint cracks, slabs of rock cleaved by the joints may fall away due to weathering or they may be pushed away by pressure of the water. Such a fall retreats upstream by removal of joint blocks even in comparatively homogeneous rocks. Taughannock Falls, 215 feet high, in southern central New York, has developed by this manner in a shaly sandstone. The several falls (one 50 feet high) in the famous gorge at Trenton Falls, in central New York, have developed in this way in limestone.

[CHAPTER IV]

THE SEA AND ITS WORK

I

IT is well known that the waters of the sea cover nearly three-fourths of the surface of the earth. We think of the United States as being a large piece of land of over three million square miles—but the sea is about forty-five times as large, that is, it covers approximately 140,000,000 square miles. It is a remarkable fact that the average depth of the great oceans of the earth is nearly two and one-half miles. If the sea were universally present everywhere with the same depth, it would be almost two miles deep. Yet this vast body of water is an extremely thin layer when compared with the earth’s diameter of 8,000 miles. The Pacific is the deepest of the oceans with an average depth of about two and three-fourths miles. The deepest ocean water ever sounded is 32,114 feet (over six miles), not far from the Philippine Islands. This is known as the Planet Deep, and was discovered in 1912. Second deepest is 30,930 feet near the island of Guam. In the Pacific Ocean there are five places where the water is over five miles deep and eleven places were it is over four miles deep. The deepest sounding ever made in the Atlantic Ocean was 27,972 feet, not far from Porto Rico.

Many substances are known to be in solution in sea water, but in spite of this the composition is remarkably uniform. The most abundant substance by far in solution is common salt. In every 100 pounds of sea water, there are 3.5 pounds of mineral matter of various kinds dissolved. Nearly 78 per cent of the dissolved matter is common salt. The principal other constituents in solution are chloride and sulphate of magnesia, and the sulphates of lime and potash. All other dissolved mineral substances together make up less than one per cent of the total. It has been estimated that if all the dissolved mineral matter should be brought together, it would form a layer 175 feet thick over the whole sea bottom. The salts of the sea have been mostly supplied by the rivers, which in turn have derived them from the disintegration and chemical decay of the rocks.

If we make a general comparison with the surface of the land, the floor of the ocean is a vast monotonous plain. None of the sea bottom compares with the ruggedness of mountains, and even the more level portions of land surface show many sharp minor irregularities such as stream trenches. But the sea bottom is characterized by its smoothness of surface. There are under the sea, however, mountain-like ridges, plateaus, submarine volcanoes and valleys known as “deeps.” But these rarely show ruggedness of relief like similar features on land.

One of the most remarkable relief features of the ocean bottom is the so-called “continental shelf.” This is a relatively narrow platform covered by shallow water bordering nearly all the lands of the earth. Seaward, the depth of water is greatest, and it is seldom over 600 or 800 feet. The continental shelves of the world cover about 10,000,000 square miles or about one-fourteenth of the area of the sea.

Viewed in a broad way, there are two great classes of marine deposits; first, those laid down comparatively near the borders of the land, that is, on the continental shelf and continental slope, and second, the abysmal deposits laid down on the bottom of the deep ocean. Those found along and near the continental borders are largely land-derived materials, that is to say, they are mostly sediments carried from the land into the sea by rivers, and to a lesser extent rock material broken up by waves along many shores. Practically all such land-derived material is deposited within 100 to 300 miles of the shores. The continental border deposits are extremely variable. Near shore they are chiefly gravel and sands, while farther out they become gradually finer, and on the continental slope only very fine muds are deposited. These deposits usually contain more or less organic materials and shells or skeletons of organisms. In some cases the shells or skeletons of organisms predominate or even exist to the exclusion of nearly all other material, as is true of the coral deposits or reefs which form only in shallow water. Deposits like those just described as accumulating on the bottom of the shallow sea, comparatively near the lands, are of great significance to the geologist because just such marine deposits now consolidated into sandstone, conglomerate, shale, and limestone, are so widely exposed over the various continents. A knowledge of the conditions under which shallow sea deposits are now forming, is, therefore, of great value in interpreting events of earth history as they are recorded in similar rocks which have been accumulating through millions of years of time. One specific instance will make this matter clearer. Using the method outlined in [Chapter I] for the determination of earth chronology, and our knowledge of present conditions under which shallow sea deposits are formed, it has been well established that a shallow sea spread over fully four-fifths of the area of North America during the middle Ordovician period of the early Paleozoic era. Beyond this main conclusion, a careful study of these rocks has revealed many important facts regarding the physical geography, life, and climate of that time. The importance of this whole matter is still further emphasized by the statement that five-sixths of the exposed rocks of the earth are strata—mostly of shallow sea origin.

The deposits on the deep sea bottom are very largely either organic or the shells and skeletons of organisms which have fallen to the bottom from near the surface as already explained. Most common of these are the deep sea “oozes” which are made up of the remains and shells of tiny organisms called “foraminifers.” These “oozes” cover about 50 million square miles of the sea bottom down to depths of from two to three miles.

At depths greater than from two to three miles, a peculiar red clay is the prevailing deposit. This is most extensive of all, covering an area of 55 million square miles, or nearly the total area of lands of the earth. Some remains of organisms are mixed with this clay, but since most of the shells are of carbonate of lime and very thin, they are dissolved without reaching the bottom in the deep sea water which is under great pressure and rich in carbonic acid gas.

The deep sea deposits, both “oozes” and red clay, do, however, contain some land-derived and other materials. Thus off the west coast of Africa some dust carried by the prevailing winds from the Sahara Desert, is known to fall in the deep sea several hundred miles from shore. Volcanic dust is carried for many miles and deposited in the deep sea—particularly in the South Pacific Ocean. Bits of porous volcanic rock called “pumice” sometimes float long distances out over the deep sea, before becoming water soaked. Icebergs often drift far out from the polar regions over the deep sea, and on melting the rock débris which they carry is dropped to the sea bottom. Also, particles of iron and dust from meteorites (“shooting stars”) have been dredged from the deep sea.

One important geological significance of the deep sea deposits is the proof which they furnish that, from at least as far back as the beginning of the Paleozoic era, fully twenty-five million years ago, to the present time, the two great deep ocean basins—the Atlantic and the Pacific—have maintained essentially the same positions on the earth. This is proved by the fact that nowhere, on any continent among the rocks of all ages, as old at least as the early Paleozoic, do we find any really typical deep-sea deposits. There is then no evidence that a deep sea ever spread over any considerable part of any continent, and this in spite of the fact that marine deposits of shallow water origin furnish abundant evidence of former sea extensions. The shallow seas have at various times spread over large portions of the continents.

On many rocky coasts the waves are incessantly pounding and wearing away the rocks. In such places the sea, like a mighty horizontal saw, is cutting into the borders of the lands. The finer materials produced by the grinding up of the rocks are carried seaward by the undertow. But, if the land remains stationary with reference to the sea, this landward cutting by the waves reaches a limit. Since even big waves have very little effect in water 100 or 200 feet deep, a shelf is cut by the waves and this shelf, not many miles wide, is covered by shallow water. The finer ground-up rock materials carried out by the undertow are dumped just beyond the edge of the shelf which is thus built out seaward as a terrace. In traveling over this shelf and terrace, the waves, due to friction, lose their power. With gradually sinking land, a much wider shelf may be cut, because the power of the waves is then allowed to continue.

It might be of interest to cite a few cases of relatively rapid coast destruction by the waves which have come under human observation. A remarkable example is the island of Heligoland on which is (or was) located the powerful German fort which guards the entrance to the Kiel Canal. In the year 800 A. D. this island had 120 miles of shore line; in 1300 it had 45 miles of shore; in 1649 only 8 miles; and in 1900 but 3 miles of shore line remained. In southeastern England “whole farms and villages have been washed away in the last few centuries, the sea cliffs retreating from 7 to 15 feet a year.” A church located a mile from the sea shore near the mouth of the Thames river, in the sixteenth century, now stands on a cliff overlooking the sea. An island in Chesapeake Bay covered over 400 acres in 1848, and the waves have since reduced it to about fifty acres. Study showed that the relatively soft unconsolidated strata of the Nashaquitsa Cliffs on the island of Martha’s Vineyard, were cut back at the rate of 5¹/₂ feet per year, between 1846 and 1886.

If part of the relatively smooth sea bottom should be raised into land, the resulting shore line would of course, be regular and free from indentations or sharp embayments. Examples of such coast which are very young are at Cape Nome, Alaska; the northern coast of Spain; and the west coast of northern South America. Soon, however, such a shore line is attacked, and, either where the waves are greatest or the rocks are weakest, indentations will result and the whole coast is gradually eaten back until the power of the waves is largely spent in traveling across the shallow water shelf. Sand bars are then built across the mouths of the bays or indentations which later the rivers gradually fill up with sediment. The result is a relatively straight or regular old shore line. The coast of Texas has about reached this stage.

If a portion of the relatively rugged land surface should become submerged under the sea, a very irregular, deeply indented shore line would result, due to the entrance of tidewater into the valleys. The deeply indented coast of Maine is a fine example of a very irregular youthful shore line produced by geologically recent sinking of a rugged, hilly region so that tidewater backs for miles into the lower reaches of the river valleys. The promontories and islands are undergoing rapid wear, and the development of bars across the inlets has scarcely begun. Other excellent examples are the coasts of Norway and southern Alaska. Such a coast is then attacked by the ocean waves and the promontories are cut back until the broad shallow water shelf is formed, after which sand bars are built across the remaining embayments and the shore line becomes relatively regular.

It is, then, a remarkable fact that, whether shore lines originate by emergence of sea bottom, or by sinking of land, there is a very strong tendency on the part of nature to develop regular shore lines. It should be stated that the principles of wave work and shore-form development just outlined apply almost equally well to lakes, especially large ones.

Before leaving this subject of shore-line development, mention should be made of the fact that bars and beaches are often built part way or wholly across embayments of the coast with surprising rapidity. To illustrate, Sandy Hook, New Jersey, is advancing northward, while Rockaway Beach, New York, is extending westward, the tendency being to close up the entrance to New York harbor and to make the line of seashore more nearly regular. Records show that Rockaway Beach actually advanced westward more than three miles between the years 1835 and 1908.

[CHAPTER V]

GLACIERS AND THEIR WORK

A

A GLACIER may be defined as a mass of flowing ice. The motion may not be that of flowage in the usually accepted sense of the term. A discussion of the various theories of glacier motion will not here be attempted. Glaciers form only in regions of perpetual snow, but they commonly move down far below the line of perpetual snow of any given region. In the polar regions they may form near sea level, while in the tropics they form at altitudes of two to three miles, and there only rarely. In southern Alaska, the lower limit of perpetual snow is about 5,000 feet above sea level, and many of the glaciers come down to sea ([Plate 4]), while in the Alps, the lower limit of perpetual snow is at about 9,000 feet, and the glaciers descend as much as 5,000 feet below it.

In regions of perpetual snow there is a tendency for more or less snow to accumulate faster than it can be removed by evaporation or melting. As such snow accumulates it gradually undergoes a change, especially in its lower parts, first into granulated snow (so-called “névé”) and then into solid ice. Snow drifts in the northern United States often undergo similar transformation, after a few months first to névé, and then to ice. This transformation seems to be brought about mainly by weight of overlying snow which compacts the snow crystals; by rain or melting snow percolating into the snow to freeze and fill spaces between the snow crystals; and by the actual growth of the crystals themselves. When ice of sufficient thickness has accumulated (probably at best several hundred feet), the spreading action or flowage begins and a glacier has developed. Renewed snowfalls over the gathering ground keep up the supply of ice.

There are several types of glaciers: valley or alpine glaciers; cliff or hanging glaciers; piedmont glaciers; ice caps; and continental ice sheets. A valley or alpine glacier consists essentially of a stream of ice slowly flowing down a valley and fed from a catchment basin of snow within a region of perpetual snow. In the Alps, where glaciers of this sort are very typically shown, they vary in length up to eight or nine miles. Perhaps the grandest display of great valley glaciers is in southern Alaska where they attain lengths up to forty or fifty miles and widths of one or two miles ([Plate 4]).

Hanging or cliff glaciers are in many ways like valley glaciers, but they are generally smaller; they develop in snow-filled basins above the snow line usually on steep mountain sides; and they do not reach down into well-defined valleys. Most of the glaciers of the Glacier National Park in Montana and many of those in the Cascade Mountains are of this type. Mount Rainier in Washington is one of the most remarkable single large mountain peaks in the world, in regard to development of glaciers over it. Great tongues of ice, starting mostly at 8,000 to 10,000 feet above sea level, flow down the sides of the mountain for distances of to four and even six miles. The total area of ice in this remarkable system of radiating glaciers on this one mountain is over forty square miles. These Mount Rainier glaciers are in general best classified as intermediate in type between valley and hanging glaciers.

Fig. 6.—Map of Mount Rainier, Washington, showing its wonderful system of glaciers which covers more than 40 square miles. Dotted portions represent moraines. (U. S. Geological Survey.)

In some high latitude areas, as in Iceland and Spitzbergen, snow and ice may accumulate on relatively level plains or plateaus and slowly spread or flow radially from their centers. These are called ice caps. Ordinary ice caps usually do not cover more than some hundreds of square miles.

Continental glaciers or ice sheets are, in principle, much like ice caps, but they are larger. Greenland is buried under an ice sheet of moderate size (about 500,000 square miles), the motion being outward in all directions toward the sea. Tongues of ice, like valley glaciers, are commonly sent off from the main body of ice across the land border of Greenland into the sea. The size of the great ice sheet of Antarctica is not definitely known, but it covers probably at least several million square miles. Two continental ice sheets of special interest to the geologist are those which existed during the great Ice Age of the Quaternary period. One of these then covered nearly 4,000,000 square miles of North America, while the other covered about 600,000 square miles of northern Europe. The main facts regarding the Ice Age are given in a succeeding chapter. The facts brought out in the present discussion of existing glaciers will greatly aid in understanding the Ice Age.

How fast do glaciers flow? Based upon many observations, we may say that an average rate of flow for the glaciers of the world is not more than a few feet per day. A very exceptional case is a large glacier, branching off as a tongue from the ice sheet of Greenland, which is said to move sixty to seventy-five feet per day. Some of the great Alaskan glaciers have been found to flow from four to forty feet per day. Most glaciers of the Alps move only one to two feet per day. A glacier advances only when the rate of motion is greater than the rate of melting of its lower end and vice versa in the case of retreat. Thus it is true, though seemingly paradoxical, to assert that a glacier has a constant forward motion even when it is retreating by melting.

By watching the changing position of marked objects placed in the ice, it has been proved that, in a valley glacier, the top moves faster than the bottom; the middle moves faster than the sides; the rate of motion increases with thickness of ice, slope of floor over which it moves, and temperature.

Ice, like molasses candy, tends to crack when subjected to a relatively sudden force, and where the ice rides over a salient on the bed of the glacier, transverse cracks or fissures often develop. Due to more rapid motion of the central part of a valley glacier, stresses and strains are set up and crevasses are formed, usually pointing obliquely upstream. Where the ice tends to spread laterally in a broad portion of a valley, longitudinal cracks may develop. Crevasses vary in size up to several feet in width and hundreds of feet in depth. Owing to the forward motion of the ice, old fissures tend to close up and new ones form, and, aided by uneven melting, the surface of a glacier is generally very rough.

Like running water, ice may have considerable erosive power when it is properly supplied with tools. The total erosive effect which has been, and is now being, accomplished by ice compared with that of running water is, however, slight. One of the main processes by which ice erosion is accomplished is “corrasion” due to the rubbing or grinding action of hard rock fragments frozen into the bottom and sides of the glacier. Thick ice, shod with hard rock fragments and flowing through a deep, narrow valley of soft rock, is especially powerful as an erosive agent because the abrasive tools are supplied; the work to be done is easy; and the deep ice causes great pressure on the bottom and lower sides of the valley. Rock surfaces which have been thus subjected to ice erosion are characteristically smoothed and more or less scratched, striated, or ground due to the corrosive effects of small and large rock fragments. This affords one of the best means of proving the former presence of a glacier over a region or in a valley. A typical V-shaped stream cut (eroded) valley is changed into one with a U-shaped profile or cross section by glacier erosion ([Plate 5]).

Another important process of ice erosion is “plucking,” which consists in pushing among already more or less loosened joint blocks by the pressure of the moving ice. The pressure thus exerted, especially by a deep valley glacier, may be enormous. This process was an important factor in the development of the famous Yosemite Valley, a very brief account of whose history it will now be instructive to give.

Plate 3.—The Gorge of Niagara River Below the Great Falls. The strata (containing fossils) were accumulated on the bottom of the Silurian sea which overspread the region at least 18,000,000 years ago. Since the Ice Age or within 20,000 to 40,000 years, the river has carved out the gorge. (Courtesy of the Haines Photo Company, Conneaut, Ohio.)

Plate 4.—(a) A Winding Stream in the St. Lawrence Valley of New York. Due to its low velocity the stream cuts its channel down very little, but it swings or “meanders” slowly from one side of its valley to the other, developing a wide flood plain. The stream once flowed against the valley wall shown at the middle left. (Photo by the author.)

Plate 4.—(b) Davidson Glacier, Alaska. This glacier is at work slowly grinding down the valley floor and cutting back its walls, thus changing the original stream-cut, V-shaped profile, like that of [Plate 5]. (Photo by Wright, U. S. Geological Survey.)

The Yosemite Valley, about 7 miles long, less than one mile wide, and from 2,000 to 4,000 feet deep, lies on the western slope of the Sierra Nevada Mountains of California. Great cliffs of granite, mostly from 1,000 to over 3,000 feet high, bound the valley on either side. The floor of the valley is wide and remarkably flat ([Plate 6]). Just prior to the Ice Age, by the processes of erosion already set forth, the Merced River had carved out a great steep-sided V-shaped canyon commonly from 1,000 to 3,000 feet deep. During the Ice Age, two glaciers joined to form an extra deep powerful glacier, which flowed through a deep part of the Merced Canyon and modified it into the Yosemite Valley, essentially as we see it to-day. Because the ice was shod with many fragments of hard rock (granite), and the pressure at the bottom and lower sides of the glacier (several thousand feet thick) was so great, the V-shaped stream-cut canyon was changed to a U-shaped canyon with very steep to even vertical walls. A factor of great importance which notably aided the erosive power of the glacier in this case was the existence of an unusual number of large vertical joint cracks in the granite in this local region. The plucking action of the ice was thus very greatly facilitated and great slabs of rock, separated by the vertical joints, especially toward the lower sides and bottom of the valley, were pushed away one after another by the ice. When the ice disappeared, great precipitous joint faces from 1,000 to 3,000 feet high were left along the valley sides. At its lower end the glacier left a dam of glacial débris (moraine) across the valley, thus causing a lake to form over the valley floor. The wide flat bottom of the valley was caused by filling up of the lake with sediment. The uniqueness of the Yosemite Valley is, then, due to a remarkable combination of several main factors; one, the presence of a large swift river well supplied with tools which carved out a deep V-shaped canyon; two, a mighty glacier which plowed its way through this canyon and converted it by erosion into a U-shaped canyon; three, the weakening of the rock by many joint cracks, thus greatly facilitating the ice erosion; and four, a postglacial lake covering the valley floor which became filled with sediment. As a result of the ice work, several streams, tributary to the main stream (Merced River) which flows through the bottom of the valley, were forced to plunge over great vertical rock walls (joint faces), thus producing high and beautiful true waterfalls, including the very high Upper Yosemite Fall where Yosemite Creek makes a straight drop of 1,430 feet. A tributary valley like that of Yosemite Creek, which ends abruptly well above the main valley, is known as a “hanging” valley. The valley of Bridal Veil Creek is another good example. (See [Plate 6.]) Valleys which were once occupied by active glaciers are generally characterized by their U-shaped cross sections and their hanging (tributary) valleys, but the great height and steepness of the valley walls in Yosemite are exceptional.

A type of glacial erosion which is of special interest is the sculpturing of so-called “cirques” or “amphitheaters” in mountains within the region of perpetual snow. Where the main mass of snow and ice in the catchment basin or gathering ground of a valley glacier pulls away from the snow and névé on the upper slopes, the rock wall is more or less exposed in the deep crevasse. During warm days water fills the joint cracks in the rocks down in this crevasse (so-called “Bergschrund”), and during cold nights the water freezes and forces the blocks of rock apart. This is greatest toward the bottom of the crevasse and so, by this excavating or quarrying process, vertical or very steep walls are developed around a great bowlike basin or cirque. Such cirques, now free from glacial ice, with precipitous walls 500 to 2,000 feet high and one-fourth of a mile to one-half of a mile across, are common in the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Ranges and in the Rocky Mountains.

What becomes of the materials eroded by the ice? An answer to this question involves at least a brief discussion of the deposition of glacial débris, this constituting an important feature of the work of ice. The débris transported by a glacier is carried either on its surface or within it, or pushed along under it. It is generally heterogeneous material ranging from the finest clay through sand and gravel, to bowlders of many tons' weight. Various types of glacial deposits are abundantly illustrated by débris left strewn over much of the northeastern United States and some reference to these will be made.

Most valley glaciers carry considerable débris on their surfaces, this representing material which falls or is carried down from the valley walls upon the margins of the ice, thus forming marginal moraines. When two glaciers flow together, one marginal moraine from each will coalesce to form a medial moraine. The material carried along at the bottom of a glacier is called the ground moraine. Where it contains much very fine grained material with pebbles or bowlders scattered through its mass, it is called “till” or “bowlder clay.” The pebbles or bowlders of the ground moraine are commonly facetted and striated as a result of having been rubbed against the bedrock on which the glacier moved. Ground moraine material is the most extensively developed of all glacial deposits. It is so widely scattered over the glaciated northeastern portion of the United States that most of the soils consist of it, having been left strewn over the country during the melting of the vast ice sheet.

When a glacier remains practically stationary for some time, more or less material which it carries is piled up at its lower end to form a terminal moraine. Repeated pauses during general glacier retreat permit the accumulations of so-called recessional moraines. A wonderful display of recessional moraines occurs from the Great Lakes south, where they are festooned one within another and remain almost exactly as they were formed during pauses in retreat of great lobes of ice during the closing stages of the Ice Age. A great terminal moraine marks the southernmost limit of the ice sheet during the Ice Age, a very fine illustration being the ridge of low irregular hills extending the whole length of Long Island. Some of the material in that morainic ridge was transported by the ice from northern New England.

Considerable rock débris is transported within the ice, and such “englacial” material in part results from rock débris which falls on the surface in the catchment basin and becomes buried under new snowfalls which change to ice, and in part from material which falls into the crevasses in the glacier farther down the valley. Marked objects thrown into the catchment basin have, after many years, emerged at or near the end of the glacier; thus the rate of motion can be very accurately told. A very remarkable case of transportation through the body of a glacier is the following: In 1820, three men were buried under an avalanche in the catchment basin of the Bossons Glacier in the Alps. Forty-one years later several parts of the bodies, including the three heads together with some pieces of clothing, emerged at the foot of the glacier after traveling most of its length at the rate of eight inches per day. The heads were so perfectly preserved after their remarkable journey in cold storage that they were clearly recognized by former friends!

Where a valley floor slopes downward away from the end of a glacier, waters emerging from the ice, heavily loaded with rock débris, cause more or less deposition of the débris on the valley floor often for miles beyond the ice front. Such a deposit is called a “valley train.” When the ice front pauses for a considerable time upon a rather flat surface, the débris-laden waters emerging from the ice develop an “outwash plain” by deposition of sediment rather uniformly over the flat surface. A very fine example is the plain which constitutes most of the southern half of Long Island just beyond the southern limit of the great terminal moraine ridge.

A type of glacial deposit of particular interest is the “drumlin” which is, in reality, only a special form of ground moraine material (commonly till), and, therefore, essentially unstratified. Typical drumlins are low, rounded mounds of till with roughly elliptical bases and steeper fronts facing the direction from which the ice flowed. Their long axes are always parallel to the direction of ice movement. In height they commonly range from 50 to 200 feet. Their mode of origin is not yet definitely known, but they form near the margins of broad lobes of ice either by erosion of earlier glacial deposits, or by accumulation beneath the ice under peculiarly favorable conditions, as perhaps in the longitudinal crevasses. One of the finest and most extensive exhibitions of drumlins in the world is in western New York between Syracuse and Rochester. Thousands of drumlins there rise above the general level of the Ontario plain, the New York Central Railroad passing through the very midst of them. Drumlins are also abundant in eastern Wisconsin.

Another type of glacial deposit in the form of low hills is the “kame” which, unlike the drumlin, always consists of more or less stratified material. Kames are seldom over 200 feet high, and they are of various shapes. In many cases they form irregular groups of hills, and in other cases fairly well defined kame ridges. Kames form as deposits from débris-laden streams emerging from the margins of glaciers, the water sometimes rising as great fountains because of the pressure. Such deposits are now actually in process of formation along the edge of the great Malaspina Glacier of Alaska. Kames are commonly associated with terminal and recessional moraines. “Eskers” are similar except that they are long winding low ridges of stratified material deposited by débris-laden streams, probably in longitudinal fissures in the ice near its margin. (See [Plate 20.])

Glacial bowlders, or “erratics” are blocks of rock or bowlders left strewn over the country during the melting of the ice. They vary in size from small pebbles to those of many tons of weight, and most of them were derived from ledges of relatively hard, resistant rocks. (See [Plate 20.]) Erratics have very commonly been carried a few miles from their parent ledges, while more rarely they have traveled even hundreds of miles. They are extremely abundant in New York and New England, many occurring even high up on the mountains. In some cases erratics of ten or more tons' weight have been left in such remarkably balanced positions on bedrock that a child can cause one of them to swing back and forth slightly. Such a bowlder is literally a “rocking stone.” In the Adirondack Mountains the writer recently observed a rounded erratic of very hard rock fourteen feet in diameter resting in a very remarkably balanced position on top of another large round glacial bowlder.

[CHAPTER VI]

THE ACTION OF WIND

O

ONLY during the last quarter of a century have geologists come to properly appreciate the really important geological work of the wind. One reason for this is the fact that people live mostly in humid regions where the soils are largely effectually protected against wind action by the vegetation. But even in such regions, wind action is by no means negligible. One has but to observe the great clouds of dust raised by strong wind from freshly cultivated fields during a little dry weather in the late spring. Much of this dust is carried considerable distances, often miles, and in some cases young crops are injured by removal of soil from around the roots, while in other cases young plants are buried by deposition of the wind-blown material over them. In humid regions, the action of the wind is perhaps most strikingly exhibited along and near shores of sea and lakes, where loose dry sands are picked up and transported in great quantities, often depositing them as sand dunes, which may form groups of hills covering considerable areas. Very conspicuous examples are the sand dunes of Dune Park in northern Indiana, and the dunes along the coast of New Jersey.

But the action of wind is most strikingly effective in desert and semiarid regions. The importance of the work of wind is made more impressive when we realize that about one-fifth of the land of the earth is desert.

In deserts some of the ordinary agents of weathering and erosion are either absent or notably reduced in effectiveness. Thus, stream action is, in general, reduced to a minimum; weathering effects due to moisture in the air are notably reduced, and either frost action, or wedge work of ice, is relatively unimportant due to lack of water. Change of temperature between night and day is, however, unusually important as a process whereby rocks are broken up due to relatively rapid expansion and contraction in deserts because such temperature changes are exceptionally great, and rocks and soils are almost everywhere directly exposed, being free from vegetation.

The finer grained materials, especially sand grains, in deserts are picked up by the wind and driven, often with great velocity, against barren rock ledges and large and small rock fragments. By this process (corrasion) the rocks are worn and often polished by the materials blown against them. The principle is that of the artificial sand-blast, used in etching glass, or cleaning and polishing building and decorative stones. Under favorable conditions wind-driven sand accomplishes noticeable erosion in a surprisingly short time. Thus, in a hard wind storm, a plate glass window in a lighthouse on Cape Cod was worn to opaqueness, while in a few weeks or months the directly exposed window glass may there be worn through.

The great erosive effect of wind-driven sand is relatively close to the ground because the larger and heavier fragments are not lifted to very considerable heights. For this reason ordinary telegraph poles are difficult to maintain in desert regions because, unless they are specially protected, they are soon cut down by sand swept against their bases. In the desert regions of our Southwestern States cliffs rising above the general level of the country are often undercut by wind erosion, sometimes with the development of large caverns. (See [Plate 1.]) Even the high portions of great ledges are there more or less fantastically sculptured by wind erosion, the softer portions being more deeply cut into than the harder. The famous sphinx of Egypt has been notably roughened by action of this kind.

The enormous power of high winds to transport rock material in desert regions is strikingly illustrated by the great sand storms of the Sahara Desert, where sand and dust, forming clouds with cubic miles of volume, sweep for many miles across the country. Some one has estimated that every cubic mile of air in such a storm contains more than 100,000 tons of rock material. It is said that an army of 50,000 men under Cambyses was buried under the sands of a storm in the desert of northern Africa.

Dust from some of these storms is known to be driven hundreds of miles out over the Atlantic Ocean, there to settle in the sea. In mountainous desert regions, like the Great Basin of our Western States, the general tendency is for the rock materials wind-eroded from the mountains to be carried into the intermontane basins or valleys. Some basins of this sort are believed to contain depths of 1,000 to 2,000 feet of wind-blown material.

A special kind of wind-blown material called “loess,” is a sort of fine-grained yellow, or brown loam which, though relatively unconsolidated, has a remarkable property of standing out as high steep cliffs or bluffs along the banks of streams. Many thousands of square miles of northern China are covered with loess. Among many other regions, thousands of square miles of parts of the States of Iowa, Nebraska, and Kansas are covered with loess, which, in this case, is believed to be fine material gathered by winds from the region just after the retreat of one of the ice sheets of the great Ice Age, when there was very little vegetation to hold down the loose soils of glacial origin.

Much as snowdrifts are formed, so, in many places, the wind-driven sands are built up into sand hills or so-called “dunes.” Dunes are very common in many places, as for example, along our middle Atlantic coast; in Dune Park of northern Indiana; and in the great arid and semiarid regions of the Western States. Where there is a distinctly prevailing direction of wind, the sand is blown to the leeward side from the windward side, and the dunes are caused to migrate in the direction of the wind. The burial and destruction of forests, and the uncovering of the dead trees is not uncommonly caused by migration of sand dunes, all stages of this phenomenon being well exhibited in Dune Park, Indiana. The rate of dune migration is very variable, but study in a number of places has shown a rate of from a few feet to more than 100 feet per year. Arable lands, buildings, and even towns have been encroached upon and buried under drifting sand. An interesting example is a church in the village of Kunzen, on the Baltic seashore which, in a period of sixty years, became completely buried under a dune and then completely uncovered by migration of the dune. Much destruction has been wrought by shifting sands on the Bay of Biscay, where farms and even villages have been overwhelmed. The ruins of the ancient cities of Babylon and Nineveh are buried mostly under wind-blown sand and dust. There is good reason to believe that the climate of central and western Asia is now notably drier than it was a few thousand years ago, and this may help to explain the burial of many old cities and villages there under wind-blown deposits.

[CHAPTER VII]

INSTABILITY OF THE EARTH’S CRUST

T

THE crust of the earth is unstable. To the modern student of geology the old notion of a “terra firma” is outworn. The idea of an unshakable, immovable earth could never have emanated from the inhabitants of an earthquake country. In general we may recognize two types of crustal movements—slow and sudden. To most people the sudden movements accompanied by earthquakes are more significant and impressive because they are more localized and evident, and often accompanied by destruction of property, or quick, though minor, changes in the landscape. But movements which take place slowly and quietly are often of far greater significance in the interpretation of the profound physical changes which have affected the earth during its millions of years of known history.

Fig. 7.—Structure section across the Hudson River Valley near West Point, New York. The shafts and tunnel, 1,200 feet below sea level, in solid rock, show the position of the New York City aqueduct from the Catskills. The Preglacial valley has been submerged and filled with Postglacial sediment to a depth of nearly 800 feet. (Redrawn by the author after Berkey, from New York State Museum Bulletin.)

A few well-known examples will serve to prove that upward, downward, and differential movements of the earth’s crust have actually taken place not only in the remote ages of geologic time, but also that such movements have geologically recently taken place, and that similar movements are still going on. It is very important that the reader thoroughly appreciate the fact that crustal disturbances, often profound ones, do take place, because this is one of the most fundamental tenets of geologic science. Let us consider the case of the Hudson-Champlain-St. Lawrence Valley region. That the whole region was once notably higher (at least 1,000 feet) than at present is proved by the drowned character of the Hudson Valley, in which tidewater extends northward for 150 miles to near Troy. Where the New York City Aqueduct passes under the Hudson River near Newburgh, the bedrock bottom of the old river channel is now about 800 feet below sea level as determined by drilling. This old channel is there filled up nearly to sea level with glacial and postglacial rock débris, which shows that the old channel must have been cut before the oncoming of the ice of the great Ice Age. Before the Ice Age, then, the lower Hudson Valley must have been considerably more than 800 feet higher than at present, because it then contained a river with sufficient current to be an active agent of erosion, carving out the canyonlike valley in the vicinity of West Point. This conclusion is strongly reenforced by the fact that the old valley of the Hudson River has been definitely traced as a distinct trench across the shallow sea bottom for about 100 miles eastward from the entrance to New York harbor. Toward the eastern end of this trench the depth of water is now considerably over 1,000 feet, and thus it is obvious that, preceding the Ice Age, the earth’s crust in the vicinity of New York City must have been much higher than at present, so that the Hudson River was able to erode its now completely drowned channel. Somewhat similar evidence has also established the fact that the lower St. Lawrence Valley region was much higher before the Ice Age. It is evident, therefore, that the general Hudson-St. Lawrence Valley region is now notably lower with reference to sea level than it was before the Ice Age. That this was caused by actual sinking of the earth’s crust rather than by a rise of sea level is proved by the fact that similar changes of level between land and sea did not take place at the same time even along the Atlantic and Gulf coast of our Southern States.

We shall now proceed to the next step in the geologically recent history of earth-crust movements in the Hudson-Champlain-St. Lawrence Valley region by asserting that, since the Ice Age, the land was actually notably lower than at present. In fact, the land was enough lower to allow tidewater to extend up the St. Lawrence Valley into the Ontario basin, and all through the Champlain-Hudson Valley. Many beaches, bars, and delta deposits formed in these arms of the sea are still plainly preserved, in some cases with shells and bones of marine animals in them, now hundreds of feet above sea level. These marine deposits are highest above sea level in the northern portion of the Champlain Valley, where they lie at an altitude of 700 feet or more and their altitude steadily diminishes southward to about 300 to 400 feet in the general vicinity of Albany, and to near sea level in the general vicinity of New York City. Obviously, then, the land stood lower during part or all of the interval of not more than a few tens of thousands of years since the Ice Age than at present. This leads us to the third important conclusion regarding earth movements in this region, namely, that still later the land has undergone a differential uplift, the rate having steadily increased toward the north where the total uplift is many hundreds of feet. We have discussed this region somewhat in detail because the principles of slow up and down movements of the earth’s crust are there so plainly recorded.

Among many other regions where earth movements similar to those above described have taken place, brief mention may be made of Norway. The great fjords of Norway were, just before the Ice Age, stream-cut valleys which were then more or less modified by glacial erosion, and after the Ice Age the rivers in them were drowned due to land subsidence. The kind of evidence is like that above given for the lower Hudson River. Since the subsidence there has been partial reelevation, as proved by the fact that along the sides of the larger fjords marine terraces and beaches may be traced with gradually increasing altitude for many miles (150 or more) back into the country where they are hundreds of feet above tidewater.

Scandinavia is of still further special interest because very appreciable earth movements have there come under human observation. Marks carefully placed along the shores of Sweden by the government have proved that during the last 150 years the southern end of the country has actually subsided several feet, while from Stockholm north the land has risen in increasing amount, reaching a maximum of seven or eight feet. In southern Sweden, at Malmo, a certain street now at times becomes covered by wind-driven high water, and during excavations made some years ago an older street eight feet below the present one was found.

A theory which appears to be in perfect harmony with the facts to account for the subsidence and partial reelevation of central eastern North America and Scandinavia since the beginning of the Ice Age is that the great weight of ice during the Ice Age pressed the land down, and that since the removal of the ice there has been an appreciable tendency for the land to spring back.

Certain crustal movements which have occurred about the Bay of Naples are of very special interest because actual human history dates can be placed upon them. Most remarkable are the records in connection with the temple of Jupiter Serapis which was built near the shore before the Christian era. The land sank about five feet and a new pavement had to be constructed; then, by the middle of the third century A. D., the temple rose to well above sea level. By about the ninth century the land had subsided fully thirty feet, so that marble columns of the temple were bored full of holes as high as twenty-one feet above their bases by marine-shelled animals, species of which still live in the bay. Then a slow uplift of twenty-three feet began, bringing the bases of the columns two feet above sea level by 1749. Since that time a slight sinking has taken place and this seems to be still going on. Three of the marble columns with the borings still stand in upright position.

While the movements just described were taking place, the island of Capri, twenty miles across the Bay of Naples, has slowly sunk to an amount estimated at thirty or forty feet as proved by evidence from the famous Blue Grotto. About the beginning of the Christian era a large ancient wave-cut cave, part of which is now called the Blue Grotto, had its floor above sea level, and it was used by certain Romans as a cool place to retire to from the heat. In order to obtain better light an opening was cut through its upper portion. The land has sunk so much that at the present time even part of the artificial opening (through which tourists pass) is now under water.

By way of illustrating remarkable contrasts in direction of crustal movements on very considerable scales in a given region, we shall briefly mention some facts regarding part of the coast of southern California and the neighboring islands of Santa Catalina and San Clemente, respectively twenty-five and fifty miles offshore. Those movements were not, however, checked up by human history records. The mainland at San Pedro has clearly risen 1,240 feet, as proved by the presence of unusually perfect coast terraces (so-called “raised beaches”), while San Clemente has risen 1,500 feet as proved by the raised beaches into which deep, youthful V-shaped stream-cut valleys have been sunk, and a shore line characteristic of recent notable uplift. It is a remarkable fact that at the same time the intervening island (Santa Catalina) has notably sunk, as proved by the nature of its shore line, and the distinctly more mature character of its topography.

We are, however, by no means dependent upon lands along sea shores for evidences of slow rising and sinking of land. Thus, by careful measurements it has been shown that the general region of the Great Lakes is now differentially rising toward the northeast at the rate of about five inches per 100 miles per century. At Chicago the rise of water is estimated at about nine inches per century, which means increase of flowage through the Chicago Canal. At this rate the upper lakes would, in some thousands of years, drain through this canal to the Mississippi. A well-preserved shore line of the large ancestor of Lake Ontario shows a steady increase in altitude at the rate of several feet per mile toward the northeast from near Niagara to the St. Lawrence Valley, thus proving a tilting of the land since the shore line was formed.

Shore lines of the great ancestor of Great Salt Lake also show warping of the earth’s crust, some parts of a definite shore line being several hundred feet higher than others.

Very significant evidence pointing to profound crustal movements consist in the finding of fossil remains of marine animals in the strata high above sea level, very commonly from one to three miles, in many parts of the world, especially in the high mountains. In Wyoming, nearly horizontal strata of the Mesozoic Age carrying marine fossils lie two miles or more above sea level. The fact that given formations, carrying marine fossils representing certain definite portions of geologic time, are found at various altitudes up to several miles in many parts of the world, shows that the land in those places has really risen relative to sea level.

It should not be presumed from the above discussion that the sea level itself has never changed. Thus, the vast areas of thick ice sheets in both North America and Europe during the Great Ice Age represented sufficient water withdrawn from the sea to very appreciably lower its level. All land-derived materials, carried into the sea mainly by rivers, displace sea water, with consequent rise of its level. If all existing lands were worn down and carried into the sea, its level would be raised some hundreds of feet. Subsidence of any part of the ocean bottom would cause a lowering of sea level. There is a strong reason to believe that some such shiftings of sea level have occurred during the vast lapse of geologic time. During certain periods erosion of the land predominated, and during other periods building up of the land predominated, as pointed out in the chapters on geologic history. It is not thought that shifting of sea level has ever amounted to more than a few hundred feet, at least not during the millions of years of the more clearly recorded earth history.

We have thus far considered slow upward and downward movements of the earth’s crust without notable structural changes in the rocks. Another type of crustal disturbance causes more or less profound changes in the structures of the rocks themselves. Just how the earth originated is a matter of uncertainty, but we can be sure that for many millions of years it has been a shrinking body. The outer, or crustal, portion of the earth, in adjusting itself to the contracting interior, has had many pressures, stresses, and strains set up within it. As results of such forces the rocks at and near the earth’s surface have in various places, and at various times, been broken (faulted) and subjected to sudden movements (see [discussion beyond]), while those well within the crustal portion, that is to say a few miles or more down, have, in many cases, been bent (folded), or even crumpled. For these reasons the surface and near-surface crustal portions are called the “zone of fracture,” while the more deeply buried portions comprise the “zone of flowage.” In the zone of flowage the rocks, where subjected to great lateral pressure, act like plastic materials and therefore bend rather than break, because of the great weight of overlying materials. Laboratory experiments have confirmed the findings of geologists in this regard. Small masses of rocks properly inclosed in nickel-steel cylinders have been subjected to slow differential pressures equivalent to those which obtain twenty to forty miles within the earth. Under such conditions rocks have been made to change shape very notably without fracturing. Both geological observations and experiments have led us to conclude that not even small fractures or crevices can remain open at a depth greater than ten or twelve miles even in the hardest rocks.

From time to time, during the long history of the earth, forces of lateral pressure have been slowly exerted along more or less localized zones or belts within the earth’s crust, and the rocks have been deformed chiefly by bending or folding, especially in those regions where mountains of the folded type have developed. Movements of this type are considered beyond in the chapter on mountains. Rock folds vary in size from microscopic to miles across, and they exhibit many shapes. [Plate 7] will give the reader a good idea of actual rock folds of common sizes and shapes in various places. Folded structures are most clearly discernible in sedimentary rocks, because of their stratified (layered) arrangement. Since folds in hard rocks rarely, if ever, develop except at a depth of some miles within the earth, they show at the surface only where great thicknesses of overlying materials have been stripped off by erosion.

Fig. 8.—An outcrop of stratified crystalline limestone (or marble) exhibiting two small sharp folds—a syncline on the left and an anticline on the right—near Lenox, Mass, These folds developed during the great mountain-making disturbance at the end of the Ordovician period fully 20,000,000 years ago. (After Dale, U. S. Geological Survey.)

From the standpoint of our consideration of slow earth-crust movements, it is important to bear in mind that lateral pressure in the zone of flowage has not only notably deformed rocks, but that, as a result of the buckling forces, given rock masses have, in many cases, been notably shifted downward or upward—mainly upward—from their original positions. Folded strata carrying shells of sea animals are commonly found thousands of feet above sea level in many of the great mountain ranges of the world. During the process of folding on a large scale the crust of the earth is very appreciably shortened at right angles to the direction of applied pressure, due to squeezing or bending of the strata. In the case of the Appalachian mountains of Pennsylvania it has been estimated that such shortening amounts to about twenty-six miles or, in other words, that the strata originally spread out horizontally across an area whose width was about 100 miles have been squeezed or folded into an area whose width is twenty-six miles less.

Fig. 9.—Structure section showing the profile of the mountains and relations of rocks below the surface near Livingston, Montana. The strata were crowded together until they bent into great sharply defined folds at the time of the Rocky Mountain Revolution several million years ago. Then the rocks broke along the fault fracture and the mass on the right was shoved over upon the mass on the left. (After U. S. Geological Survey.)

We shall now turn to a consideration of sudden earth movements and some of their effects, including earthquakes. Mention has already been made of the fact that, when pressures and strains are set up in the outer portion (“zone of fracture”) of the earth’s crust, the rocks yield mainly by breaking or fracturing because the rocks not being under a great load of overlying material are there brittle. The earth’s crust has been fractured on small and large scales in many places during the long space of geologic time. Where one block of earth’s crust has slipped or moved past another along a fracture we have what is called a “fault.” Such displacements of rock masses vary in amount from less than an inch to some miles, and they constitute one of the most important features of the architecture of the outer portion of the earth. There are two types of faults fundamentally different as to cause. In one type (so-called “normal fault”) the rocks suddenly yield to a force of tension; a fracture develops and the earth block on one side of the fracture or fault drops with reference to that on the other. In the other type (so-called “thrust faults”) the rocks yield suddenly to a force of compression or lateral thrust, and one block of earth is pushed or thrust partly over another along the surface of fracture or fault. (See [Plate 8.])

Faults range in length up to hundreds of miles, those from one to twenty miles in length being very common. Where an earth block has been displaced thousands of feet along a fault surface, it is not to be understood that the whole displacement resulted from a single movement, but rather from a series of sudden movements separated by greater or less intervals of time. Each sudden movement along a fault surface produces a vibration of the earth near by. Many such sudden movements are known to have caused violent earthquakes. Displacements of twenty to fifty feet, as a result of single movements, are definitely known to have taken place in various regions during the last fifty years; and rarely, if ever, has any sudden displacement of as much as several hundred feet occurred. Cliffs and steep slopes very commonly result from faulting, but, because of the long lapse of time required for the repeated movements in the case of great faults, the cliffs or steep slopes begin to wear back and become more or less subdued long before the last of the movements take place. In regions where movements along great faults have long since ceased, the original steep slopes may be completely obliterated by erosion.

Fig. 10.—Vertical sections through strata illustrating common kinds of faults: a, “normal faults” where one mass simply sinks below another; b, a “thrust fault” where one mass is shoved over another. (After U. S. Geological Survey.)

How does the geologist determine the actual amount of displacement, especially in the case of a large fault in stratified rocks? First, the various formations of the region, where unaffected by faulting, are carefully studied, especially in regard to the character and thickness of each, and their relative geologic ages or normal order as they were deposited one layer above the other. Then, in the simple case of a normal-fault surface at right angles to horizontal strata, it is only necessary to find out what two formations or parts of formations come together along the fault fracture, and the actual amount of displacement is readily determined. Where strata and normal fault surfaces lie at various angles, and also in thrust faults, those angles must be determined in addition to the data above named. In many mining regions, where valuable deposits are affected by faulting, accurate knowledge of the direction and amount of displacements of faults is of great economic importance.

A few examples of normal faults from well-known districts will now be briefly described. The whole eastern front of the central and southern Sierra Nevada Range of California is a great, steep fault slope, from a few thousand to ten thousand or more feet high and hundreds of miles long, of such recent geologic age that it has been only moderately affected by erosion. In fact, it is well known that the southern two-thirds of the range is a great tilted fault block, the total displacement having resulted from repeated sudden movements since about the middle of the present geologic era. A great fault also extends along the eastern base of the great Wasatch Range of Utah and the steep slope thousands of feet high is a fault scarp only slightly modified by erosion. Renewed movements along this profound fault have very recently taken place as proved by the presence of fresh fault scarps in loose deposits which have accumulated across the mouths of some of the canyons, as, for example, near Ogden. In fact, practically all of the north-south ranges of the Great Basin from Utah to California are essentially a series of tilted fault blocks. Another great fault, less conspicuous from the topographic standpoint, is hundreds of miles long in the Coast Range Mountains of California. At the time of the San Francisco earthquake of 1906 there was a renewed sudden movement along this great fracture. The eastern one-half of the Adirondack Mountains of New York is literally a mosaic of hundreds of fault blocks. Many of these faults are from two to thirty miles long and they commonly show displacements of from a few hundred to 2,000 or more feet. A glance at the geological map (in colors) of the vicinity of the great copper mines at Bisbee, Arizona, shows most of that region to contain a network of normal faults which separate it into a mosaic of fault blocks. In each of the examples of faults just given a block of earth has sunk relative to the other, or in other words, each is a “normal fault.”

We shall now turn to some large scale cases of faults in which great masses of earth have been pushed one over another—so-called “thrust faults.” In the southern Appalachian Range, and especially well exhibited in the vicinity of Rome, Georgia, one portion of the mountain mass has literally been shoved over another, at a low angle over a fault surface many miles long, for fully seven miles westward. Both the tremendous weight of rock material actually translated and the number of sudden movements required in the operation stagger the imagination. It is safe to say that during the long time of this great operation violent earthquakes were not uncommon. In the Rocky Mountains of the northern United States and southern Canada there is the greatest known thrust fault on the continent. It is hundreds of miles long, and the actual displacement is commonly at least several miles. In the Glacier National Park of Montana it has been established that the front range portion of the Rockies has actually been pushed at least seven miles, and possibly as much as twenty miles, eastward over a fault surface, and out upon the Great Plains. In some cases rocks of the Prepaleozoic Age have there been pushed upon rocks of the late Mesozoic Age, thus locally upsetting the geologic column.

Fig. 11.—East-west profile and vertical structure sections fifty-two miles long in the Mohawk Valley region of New York, showing numerous tilted fault blocks which notably influence the topography. Vertical scale exaggerated. The rocks are Prepaleozoic and early Paleozoic in age. (Modified by the author after Darton, New York State Museum.)

The Wasatch Range of Utah, in addition to the great normal fault along its western base, contains a remarkable system of thrust faults. In the region now occupied by the Wasatch Mountains a number of parallel (thrust) faults were developed close together and the broken pieces of the earth’s crust between them were pushed up, the rocks on one side of each crack riding up over those on the other side until a great mountain range was formed where once lay a plain. In the Ogden Canyon one great earth block of Prepaleozoic (Algonkian) Age has been shoved thousands of feet over late Paleozoic (Carboniferous) rock, which latter has in turn been thrust over early Paleozoic (Cambrian) rock. This thrust faulting was accomplished before the development of the geologically recent normal fault along the western base of the range.

Fig. 12.—Vertical (structure) section through a part of the earth’s crust several miles long in Ogden Canyon, Utah, showing the system of great thrust faults. Prepaleozoic (Algonkian) rocks have been pushed far over upon late Paleozoic (Carboniferous) strata, which latter have in turn been shoved over early Paleozoic (Cambrian) strata, etc. (After U. S. Geological Survey.)

Any sudden movement of part of the crust of the earth, due to a natural cause, produces a trembling or shaking called an earthquake. Though earthquakes are generally classed among the most terrifying of all natural phenomena, those which have occurred during human historic times have had scarcely any geological or topographical effects of real consequence on the face of the earth. Locally, the effects may be notable and the destruction of life and property may be great. The earth may be locally cracked and rent, small fault scarps may develop, landslides and avalanches may result from the shaking of the earth, buildings may be demolished, and sea waves may be rolled upon the land. On the other hand, many earthquakes, called “tremors,” are too slight to be noticed by people, though they are recorded by specially constructed instruments called “seismographs.” We have already stated that actual sudden displacements causing earthquakes have amounted to twenty or even fifty feet right along fault fractures, but during the vibrations or quakings, which are often so destructively sent out into the neighboring country, the earth’s surface rarely actually moves more than a small fraction of an inch. Because of the suddenness of the movement objects on the surface may be moved inches or even feet. Violent shocks may last one or two minutes and cause the whole earth to tremble, though at distant points only seismographs record the movement. It is probably true that some part of the earth is shaking all the time.

Studies during the last fifty years have made it certain that the main cause of earthquakes is the sudden slipping of earth blocks past each other along fault fractures, the sudden slipping furnishing the impulse which sends out the vibrations into the surrounding more or less elastic crust of the earth. The low rumbling to roaring sound, which sometimes immediately precedes an earthquake, is probably due to the grinding of the rocks together below the surface.

Earthquakes generally accompany volcanic outbursts of the violent or explosive type, and in such cases subterranean explosions cause both the eruptions and the quakings of the earth. It is well known that the principal volcanic districts or belts of the earth are also the belts of most frequent earthquakes, but this does not mean that volcanic action causes most of the earthquakes. Active volcanoes and earthquakes are so commonly associated in the same belts because those belts no doubt represent portions of the crust which are now most actively yielding to the forces directly resulting from the shrinkage of the earth. Within the volcanic belts many earthquakes take place unaccompanied by any volcanic action, and many others take place far from volcanoes. Some earthquakes have been caused by the impact of great landslides or avalanches, or by the sudden caving in of underground openings.

Brief descriptions of a few typical carefully studied earthquakes during recent years will serve to make the main features of earthquakes still clearer to the reader.

The violent Japanese earthquake of 1891 was caused by the sinking of a block of earth forty miles long from two to thirty feet below that on the other side of a fault fracture. There was also considerable horizontal shifting, and cracks developed in the adjacent region. A distinct fault scarp, fifteen to twenty feet high, developed, and in some cases extended right across cultivated fields.

Fig. 13.—Map of the United States, showing the large areas over which three of the greatest of our earthquakes were actually felt by people. These earthquakes were recorded in many parts of the world by delicate instruments: New Madrid, 1811; Charleston, 1886; San Francisco, 1906.

Fig. 14.—Sketch map showing the trace of the great fault fracture along which a renewed sudden movement of as much as twenty feet took place to cause the San Francisco earthquake of 1906. (After U. S. Geological Survey.)

The San Francisco earthquake of 1906 was produced by renewed movement along the great fault which extends lengthwise through the Coast Range Mountains for several hundred miles. It is literally correct to say that, for 250 miles along this great earth fracture, one part of the Coast Range instantaneously slipped from two to twenty-two feet past the other. More or less of the movement extended at least several thousand feet down into the earth. In this case both sides slipped and the movement was very largely horizontal rather than vertical. The land on the east side of the fault moved south and that on the west side moved north, the amount diminishing away from the fault on each side so that some miles out the actual crustal movement was only a few inches. When one thinks of the tremendous volumes of earth material involved in this shifting of the earth’s crust, is it any wonder that such destructive earthquake waves were produced? Many buildings were wrecked, several hundred people were killed, the disastrous San Francisco fire resulted, water mains were broken, and fences and roads crossed by the fault were dislocated as much as fifteen to twenty feet.

Plate 5.—Swift Current Valley in Glacier National Park, Montana. This was once a deep V-shaped canyon carved out (eroded) by stream action. Then a great valley glacier slowly plowed its way through it during the Ice Age and, by ice erosion, the present nearly straight U-shaped canyon has resulted. (Photo by Campbell, U. S. Geological Survey.)

Plate 6.—View in the Yosemite Valley from Near the Western Entrance. The great rock called “El Capitan,” on the left rises 3,500 feet above the river, and Bridal Veil Falls on the right is 620 feet high. All the rock is granite, the nearly vertical walls of which have resulted from the action of a great glacier which plowed its way through the valley during the Ice Age; the valley walls have been cut back by the removal of large vertical joint blocks. The flat bottom of the valley has resulted from the filling with sediment of a postglacial lake in the valley. (Photo by F. N. Kneeland, Northampton, Mass.)

During the great earthquake on the coast of Alaska in 1899 notable changes took place along the shore for some miles, one portion having suddenly risen as much as forty-seven feet, while another portion sank below sea level.

Fig. 15.—Map showing the principal earthquake regions of the world.

In 1886 the earthquake centering near Charleston, S. C., was preceded by rumbling and roaring noises and the slight quaking increased to violent shaking which lasted more than a minute. Eight minutes later a rather violent earthquake shock took place, followed during the next ten or twelve hours by less severe shocks. Most buildings in the city were wrecked or more or less badly damaged, and some people were killed. The shocks were so violent that the quaking was actually felt by people over an area of more than 2,000,000 square miles, the disturbance having spread at the rate of about 150 miles per minute. Near Charleston openings and fissures were formed through which sand and muddy water were ejected, but the cause of the disturbance was most likely slipping of the old very hard rocks below the loose deposits of the Coastal Plain.

From 1811 to 1813 a series of violent earthquakes developed in the general vicinity of New Madrid, Missouri. In an area of over 2,000 square miles, now called the “sunk country,” many portions suddenly sank giving rise to small fault scarps or cliffs, and various lake basins were formed. Development of a fissure caused a local change in the course of the Mississippi River.

In 1897, Assam, India, was shaken by an earthquake of unusual magnitude, which lasted 2¹/₂ minutes. An area of 150,000 square miles was disastrously shaken, and the shocks were distinctly felt over an area of 750,000 square miles. A number of notable fault scarps developed, the movement on one having been thirty-five feet.

[CHAPTER VIII]

VOLCANOES AND IGNEOUS ROCKS