The apiary; or, bees, bee-hives, and bee culture [1866] / Being a familiar account of the habits of bees, and the most improved methods of management, with full directions, adapted for the cottager, farmer, or scientific apiarian

by Alfred Neighbor

II.—ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF THE BEE.

LTHOUGH the principal object in compiling the present work has been the endeavour to induct our readers into the way of keeping bees according to the most recent and approved methods, it requires but little apology for thus apparently deviating from our prescribed course, by devoting a small portion of our space to a description of the anatomy of the wonderful little creatures whose labours all our contrivances are intended to assist, and since it will at once be admitted that a knowledge of their habits is not only interesting to the bee-keeper, but enables him to conduct his apiary in accordance therewith.

Of the insect tribe, the bee is certainly the most distinguished; with the exception of the silkworm, none can approach her in ministering to the wants, or rather to the luxuries, of the human family. The instinct bees possess for feeding on flowers, bringing home honey and pollen, and secreting wax, entitles them to our close consideration of their structure and of the tools provided them by Nature for carrying on their handiwork.

In a treatise of this kind, intended to be of a popular character, we shall endeavour to place these details before our readers in a concise and simple manner, avoiding as much as may be technical terms, and referring those who wish to go more deeply into this branch of the subject to the works of Bonnet, Huber, Kirby and Spence, Dr. Bevan, &c. .

In the course of our description, we shall frequently have to refer to the steel engravings, Plates I. and II., drawn by Mr. E. W. Robinson, artist to the Entomological Society of London, who has most carefully dissected bees we sent him for the purpose, subjected these dissections to the microscope, and skilfully produced the accompanying illustrations, which will so much assist us in our agreeable task. These delineations are so clear, that a little explanation will suffice to bring home to the understanding of the curious the component parts of the bee, and the uses to which the various members are applied.

Because the bee is so small an insect, its organization ought not to be neglected to be investigated. "The bee is little among such as fly, but her fruit is the chief of sweet things." The enlightened Boyle, when contemplating the wonders of Nature, declared that his astonishment had been more excited by the mite than by the elephant; and that his admiration dwelt "not so much on the clocks as on the watches of creation."[5]

[5] Dr. Bevan.

The figures 1, 2, and 3, [Plate I]., in the frontispiece, respectively represent the exterior forms of the queen, the worker, and the drone. They are thus coloured to illustrate the Yellow Italian Alp, or Ligurian bee, now deservedly held in such high estimation by bee-keepers, and of whose good qualities we shall, in a subsequent section of this work, have occasion more fully to treat. All the bees constituting a stock may not be of quite so bright a colour as those represented: the old bees differ in appearance from the younger ones;—darkened bodies and ragged wings, not grey hairs and wrinkled faces, are the signs of old age; so that with bees (especially Ligurians), as with the gentler sex of the human race, there is appointed a period both of youth and beauty.

The anatomical structure of our English bee is much the same as that of the Italian;[6] a description of the one will therefore serve for the other. The most apparent difference consists in the colour. The English bee is of a blackish brown; both varieties have their bodies wholly covered with close-set hairs. These hairs deserve particular attention, because, although so small, each hair is feather-shaped, consisting of a stem and branches somewhat analogous to the feathers of birds. This form is extremely serviceable to the insect, when revelling in the corolla of flowers, to collect the farina, and, besides thus useful, is peculiarly adapted for retaining animal heat.[7]

[6] Naturalists consider the Italian bee a very superior race, and that the various organs are stronger and of greater capacity; it is, however, not easy to define the precise anatomical superiority.

[7] "Naturalist's Library."

The insect is divided into three parts—the head, the thorax or chest, and the abdomen.

The head of the queen ([Plate I., fig. 1 c]), as also that of the drone ([Plate I., fig. 3 c]), is rounder than that of the worker-bee. The latter ([Plate I, fig. 2 c]) is of a triangular shape, and much flattened, as in [Plate I., fig. 2* c], which shows the side view. In common with other creatures, the head contains the inlet for nutrition, and is the seat of the principal organs of sensation.

In the figures before alluded to may be seen the double visual apparatus with which bees are provided. The oval divisions on each side of the head are the two eyes, the secondary organs of vision being the three small eyes on the top of the head, called the ocelli. We shall first describe the two larger eyes, which, as seems to be the case with all insects, are immovable, and have neither irides nor pupils, nor eyelids to cover them, but are protected from the dust or pollen of flowers by a number of small hairs, as well as by a horny tunicle, which defends and secures them from injury. The multitude of hexagonal lenses which compose the eye of a bee make it appear, when viewed through a microscope, exactly like honey-comb.[8] A German writer computes that in each eye there are 3,500 lenses. In [Plate II., fig. 5] represents three of these hexagonal prisms or lenses, magnified.

[8] Dr. Bevan.

The construction of the eye for seeing objects best at a moderate distance will account for the fact that bees mount high up into the air after collecting their store of food, and then, having determined the point, no matter how far off, they fly homewards with the directness of a cannon ball, and alight at the door of their own habitation, though the country around may be crowded with hives: but on reaching the entrance, their vision appears defective, for they then feel their way with the antennæ as if totally blind; and should the hive have been moved a little, they will rise again into the air to obtain a more distant view, suited to the lengthened focus of their sight.

When a stock or swarm is brought from a distance, bees do not take their departure at once, but reconnoitre awhile, visiting surrounding objects so as to well know the spot again, in order to return thereto.

The precise purpose or use of the three small eyes does not appear to be exactly known, except that they are intended to heighten the general sense of seeing which the creature so peculiarly requires. Some naturalists suggest that they are to give a defensive vision upwards from the cups of flowers.

The mouth of the bee is a most complex structure, marvellously adapted for its duties, and consists of the mandibles, the ligula, or tongue, also called the proboscis, and other less important parts. The mandibles are the two sides of the upper jaw. [Plate I., fig. 1 d], shows the mandible of the queen, which, similar to that of the drone ([Plate I., fig. 3 d]), is provided with two teeth, whilst the mandible of the worker ([Plate I., fig. 2 d]) is without teeth. The latter having to manipulate the wax with smoothness, the teeth would doubtless be objectionable. These mandibles are strong, horny, and sharp-pointed, to assist in breaking down food between them, and, in other respects, constitute serviceable tools with which to seize their enemies, destroy the drones, &c. The tongue ([Plate II., fig. 3]), or proboscis, is a long, slender projection, flattish in form, and about the thickness of a bristle. It has about forty cartilaginous rings, each of which is fringed with minute hairs, having also a small tuft of hair at its extremity, where it is somewhat serrated. The tongue acts by rolling about, sweeping or lapping up, by means of the fringes around it, everything to which it is applied; thus, when a bee alights upon a flower, it pierces the petals and stamina, where the nectar is secreted, deposits its collection on the tongue, which, when withdrawn into the mouth, propels the gathered material into the gullet ([Plate I., fig. 2 c]) at its base, and from thence passes into the various internal organs, to which reference will be made hereafter. At times, in building combs, the tongue is used as a trowel, with which the minute scales of wax are deposited in their appropriate places, and the desired finish is given to the cells. This organ was formerly described by naturalists as a hollow tube, but we now know, by dissection, that this is not the case, but that it acts as a brush, and, by a peculiar muscular contraction externally, draws the liquid into the mouth. Thus, when a bee is imbibing food, the rings of the abdomen have a vibratory motion similar to pumping, showing to the casual observer that suction is rapidly going on in some form or other.

The labial palpi ([Plate II., fig. 3 o]) rise from the base of each side of this lapping instrument, and are also ciliated exteriorly; outside these are the lower jaws, or maxillæ ([Plate II., fig. 2 n]), similarly provided with hairs. When the jaws ([Plate II., fig. 3 n and o]) close on the tongue, they form a sheath or defence thereto.

With the mandibles of the upper jaw opening right and left, and the maxillæ or lower jaws, which serve to hold the object laboured upon, the insect prepares its work for the sweeping-up apparatus of the lower parts. Thus, when combs become mouldy, or in any way unfit receptacles for brood or honey, these tools provided by Nature serve the place of hands, and the bees are able to chop up in small pieces, and remove from their dwelling, whatever lumber of this kind may be offensive to them. The whole of this apparatus, while perfect in action in an expanded state, can be folded or coiled together when not in use, so as to form one strong and well-protected instrument.

The antennæ ([Plate I., figs. 1a, 2a, 3a],) are most important instruments, and are planted between or below the eyes and a little below the ocelli, one on either side: they consist of a number of tubular joints, each having a separate motion; being thus jointed throughout their whole length, they are, therefore, capable of every variety of flexure, and their extremities are exquisitely sensitive. With the antennæ, these insects recognise their queen, and appear to communicate to each other their joys and sorrows. For instance, if a colony be deprived of its queen, bees may be seen rushing about the hive, and, with a nervous twinge, crossing their antennæ and conveying the intelligence of their forlorn state. The sense of touch is here most acute. Huber points out a moonlight night as the best time for observing the antennæ in this respect. The bees guarding against the intrusion of moths, and not having light enough to see fully, circumambulate their doors like vigilant sentinels, with the antennæ stretched right before them; and woe to the moth that comes within reach—the instant it is felt, its death follows. The sense of hearing has been denied bees, whilst others contend that these organs are situate in their antennæ. The sounds which bees emit, particularly at swarming time, are conclusive that they possess this faculty; the only reason for arriving at an opposite conclusion seems to be, that no precise organ of hearing can be found. Naturalists are now more united in the opinion that the seat of hearing is here located. The antennæ are said to have also another office, viz., that they act as a barometer, by which bees know the state of the weather and are premonished of storms; so that this pair of horns play an important part, since such useful faculties are thus combined. In the dark recesses of the hive the antennas are exceedingly serviceable, and may truly be denominated "eyes to the blind." Bees possess acutely the senses of taste and smell. In consequence of their being detected occasionally lapping the impure liquids from stable or other fœtid drains, Huber considered the former the least perfect of their senses. It is now ascertained that bees, like most animals, are fond of salt; and in spring, more especially, their instinct teaches them that salt is beneficial for their health after their winter confinement, and they therefore resort to dunghills and Stagnant marshes, from which they are, doubtless, able to extract saline draughts.

It cannot be denied, however, that, according to our ideas, bees' taste is otherwise at fault; it sometimes happens that, where onions and leeks abound and are allowed to run to seed, bees are so anxious to complete their winter stores, that, from feeding on these plants, a disagreeable flavour is communicated to the honey. Again, the fact, well known in history, related by Xenophon in the retreat of the Ten Thousand, that bees in Asia Minor extracted honey from plants which had not only a disagreeable but a poisonous tendency to man, shows that it is quite possible, where such poisonous plants abound, for the bees to extract the juices without any injury to themselves.

The sense of smell, so largely possessed by bees, is extremely serviceable to them. Attracted by the fragrance of flowers, bees may be seen winging their way a considerable distance in an undeviating course, even sometimes in the face of weather which one might have thought they would not have braved.

The thorax or chest approaches in figure to a sphere, and is united to the head by a thread-like ligament. This is the centre of the organs of motion. Here are attached both the muscles that move the legs and wings, and the legs and wings themselves.

In [Plate II., fig. 1], b, b, b, show the muscles that move the wings; e, e, the bases of the wings.

The wings consist of two pairs of unequal size, which are hooked to one another. In [Plate I., fig. A], will be seen the margins of the two wings. In fig. B are the eighteen or twenty hooks placed on the anterior margin of the hinder wing, whilst the posterior margin of the fore wing is beautifully folded over to receive them, so that, when distended for flying, the two wings on each side act as one to steady their movements in flight.

The bee has six legs, three on either side. Each leg is composed of several joints, having articulations like a man's arm, for the thigh, the leg, and the foot. The foremost pair of these are the shortest; with them the bee unloads the little pellets from the baskets on her thighs: the middle pair are somewhat longer, and the hindmost the longest of all. On the outside of the middle joint of these last there is, in each leg, a small cavity, in the form of a marrow spoon, called the "pollen basket." In [Plate I., fig. 2 b] shows the inner side of the hind leg and pollen brush; 2 b*, same figure, the outer side and pollen basket.

The legs are covered with hairs, more particularly the edges of the cavity mentioned, in which the kneaded pollen requires to be maintained securely. In this they convey those loads of pollen which are so constantly seen carried into a hive.

This basket, or pollen groove, in the thigh is peculiar to the worker; neither queen nor drone have anything of the kind.

Another provision of the bee's limbs consists in a pair of hooks attached to each foot, with their points opposite to each other, by means of which the bees suspend themselves from the roof or sides of hives, and cling to each other as they do at swarming time or prior to and during the formation of new comb, thus forming a living curtain. In these circumstances, each bee, with its two fore claws, takes hold of the two hinder legs of the one next above it.

This mode of suspension is, no doubt, agreeable to them, although the uppermost bees appear to be dragged by the weight of the whole. Wildman supposed that bees had a power of distending themselves with air, to acquire buoyancy, and thus lessen the burden of the topmost bees. They find no difficulty in extricating themselves from the mass; the most central of the group can make its way without endangering the stability of the grape-like cluster.

Bees are able to walk freely in an inverted position, either on glass or other slippery substances. The peculiar mechanism of their feet, which enables them to do so, consists in their having in the middle of each hook a thin membranous little cup or sucker that is alternately exhausted and filled with air. Flies have the same beautiful apparatus—hence a fly commonly selects the ceiling for a resting-place. These little air-cups, or exhausted receivers, may be seen by applying a strong magnifying-glass to a window that has a bee traversing the reverse side. The edges of these little suckers are serrated, so as to close against any kind of surface to which their legs may be applied. This apparatus may be also serviceable for gathering the pollen before transmitting it to the baskets on the hind legs. Besides these appendages and apparatus of the thorax, that region is traversed by the œsophagus or gullet (the opening to which will be found in [Plate I, fig. 2 c]), on its way to the digestive and other organs, situate in the third part of the insect—viz., the abdomen. The covering of the thorax, with the external covering of the gullet, may be seen in the drawing of the magnified dissected body of the bee ([Plate II., fig. 1]).

The breathing apparatus of bees is a very remarkable feature: they have no lungs, but, instead, air-vessels or tubes, ramifying through every part of the frame. These openings, called "spiracles," are found in the sides of their bodies, behind the wings. Two of the openings are located in the thorax, and one on each side of the scales of the abdomen.

These air-vessels would be difficult to show in a drawing, the multitude of hairs which protect them are in the way of getting at a very distinct delineation. The writer has traced their oval form by the aid of Messrs. Smith and Beck's "Binocular Microscope," and exceedingly interesting objects they appeared. From the circumstance of bees breathing through these orifices in their bodies, it will not be difficult to understand how sadly the little creatures must be inconvenienced when, by accident, they fall on loose mould, and thus have their breathing pores choked with dust: it also shows how needful it is to prevent bees being besmeared with honey (by using bad appliances for feeding), which is still more injurious to them. These air-vessels are the only real circulating system, as bees have neither lungs, heart, liver, nor blood. It appears, however, that a white fluid matter, called "chyle," which, in degree, answers the purpose of blood, is produced in the intestines, nourishes the body, receives the oxygen from the air-vessels, and generates that animal warmth so necessary for the insect's well-being. Bees have the power of counteracting superabundant heat by perspiration. Not unfrequently, on a hot summer's morning, a good deal of moisture may be noticed at the entrance of a crowded hive, which the inmates have been enabled to throw off. This is a healthy sign, because a sign of great numerical strength.

The abdomen, attached to the posterior part of the thorax by a slender ligament, has, for an outer covering, six folds or scales of unequal breadth, overlapping each other, and contains the honey-bag, or first stomach, the ventricle, or true stomach ([Plate II., figs. 1 and 2f]), with other intestines, to be hereafter referred to.

The honey-bag ([Plate II., figs. 1 and 2, d]) is an enlargement of the gullet, and, although called the first stomach, no digestion takes place here. In shape it is like a taper oil flask; when full, it is about the size of a small pea, and so transparent that the colour of the honey may be seen through it. This sac, as it is sometimes called, is susceptible of contraction, and so organized as to enable the bee to disgorge a part of its contents at pleasure, to fill the honey-cells of the hive. It has formed a subject of some controversy whether any or what change takes place in the nectar of flowers whilst in the bee's stomach.

A short passage ([Plate II., figs. 1 and 2, f]) leads to the ventricle or true stomach, which is somewhat larger. This receives the food from the honey-bag, for the nourishment of the bee and the secretion of wax. The stomach, like the honey-bag, has a considerable number of muscles, which are brought into play to help the digestive and other organs. The biliary vessels ([Plate II., figs. 1 and 2, h, h]) receive the chyle from the digested food in the stomach, which from thence is conveyed to all parts of the body for its support.

Formerly, naturalists thought that wax was elaborated from pollen; but it is now fully known that it is the animal fat of the bees, and to produce it requires a considerable consumption of honey to supply the drain upon the system. Whilst this secretion is going on, bees keep themselves very still. In order to pass through the pores of the abdomen, the wax is, no doubt, a liquid oily matter, which, on making its appearance outside the abdominal rings, thickens, and exudes from under the four medial rings, in flakes like fish scales, one on either side; so that there are eight of these secreting cavities, which are peculiar to the worker: they are not found either in the queen or drone. The shape of these cavities is that of an irregular pentagon, and the plates of wax, being moulded in them, exhibit accordingly the same form (see [Plate II., fig. 5, w]).

No direct channel of communication between the stomach and these receptacles, or wax-pockets, has yet been discovered; but Huber conjectures that the secreting vessels are contained in the membrane which lines these receptacles, and which is covered with a reticulation of hexagonal meshes, analogous to the inner coat of the second stomach of ruminant quadrupeds.

The little plates of wax are withdrawn by the bee itself, with its hind feet, carried to the mouth with its fore feet, where the wax is made soft and ductile. When a cluster or swarm is placed in a new hive, and the bees suspend themselves in the form of a garland, as before described, it seems feasible that the lower bees pass their secretions up the living ladder to the uppermost ones, to be moulded by them into those beautiful white hexagonal shapes of which new comb is composed. The rapidity with which comb-building progresses at such times would lead to the supposition that there is a division of labour of this kind among them, just as our labourers convey building material to the artisan on the scaffold above. This work of comb-building is carried forward in warm weather; a cold temperature interferes with the secretion of wax.

The last important organ of the abdomen is the sting: this small but effective weapon is situate close to the stomach, and is found in the queen and worker, but is absent in the drone. Our engraving ([Plate 11., fig. 4]) exhibits the sting of the worker-bee, with its muscles and attachments: r shows the muscles that move the sting, and q the curved base of the sheath that encloses the sting.

Much beautiful mechanism is observed on a microscopic examination of this weapon and its appendages, so powerful in comparison with their bulk. The sting is composed of three separate portions, i. e., two sheaths (as seen in [Plate II., fig. 4]) and the barb. The sheaths, which are attached to the powerful muscles on either side at s, are first protruded in the act of stinging, and, clasping the barb, enables the insect to bury it in the flesh to the depth of one-twelfth of an inch; at the same time, by a muscular contraction, the poison is forced along the groove, and the barb enters the wound, causing the well-known painful effects which arise from the sting of a bee.

The darts composing this instrument are furnished with teeth or barbs, set obliquely on their outer side, which give it the appearance of an arrow, and by which it is retained in the wound until the poison has been ejected.

If the sufferer could only command himself so as to remain perfectly passive, the bee might be able to draw in these barbs which protrude beyond the sheath, and would then have a chance of withdrawing the sting: the little insect would consequently inflict less pain, and might perhaps escape paying the penalty of her life. It generally happens, however, that the excitement of both parties is so great, that the poor bee leaves behind the whole apparatus, and even part of her intestines, so that her death is the result, and the wound is more severe. The sting is about the sixth part of an inch long, and is largest at the base. Here are situated the glands or ducts ([Plate II., fig. 4, u]). By these the poison is secreted, and passed into the poison-bag ([Plate II., fig. 4, f]), which acts as a reservoir for retaining it till required.

On the subject of the sting, Paley remarks:—"The action of the sting affords a beautiful example of the union of chemistry and mechanism: of chemistry, in respect to the venom, which in so small a quantity can produce such powerful effects; of mechanism, as the sting is not a simple, but a compound instrument. The machinery would have been comparatively useless had it not been for the chemical process, by which, in the insect's body, honey is converted into poison; and, on the other hand, the poison would have been ineffectual without an instrument to wound, and a syringe to inject the fluid."

As before stated, the drone has no sting, but, in place thereof, the organs of reproduction. And now, in concluding this section, we would remark the wonderful mechanism and finish all the works of the Great Master Builder unfold. In the works of man we see, perhaps, a piece of mechanism of unquestioned beauty and excellence; but there is a bolt here or screw there that might have been dispensed with, and does not possess any definite use, whilst in the works of Nature everything has a place; we may not at once comprehend the exact purpose of some intricate parts, but that only implies that we have not made a thorough investigation. The most minute hair serves its required end. "Canst thou by searching find out God? Canst thou find out the Almighty unto perfection?"