ABBREVIATIONS.
+Remarks+.—Few abbreviations are allowable in ordinary composition. They are very convenient in writing lists of articles, in scientific works, and wherever certain terms frequently occur.
Titles prefixed to proper names are generally abbreviated, except in addressing an officer of high rank. Titles that immediately follow names are almost always abbreviated.
Names of women are not generally abbreviated except by using an initial for one of two Christian names.
Abbreviations that shorten only by one letter are unnecessary; as, Jul. for "July," Jno. for "John," da. for "day," etc.
1_st_, 2_d_, 3_d_, 4_th_, etc., are not followed by the period. They are not treated as abbreviations.
@, At.
+A. B.+ or +B. A.+ (Artium Baccalaureus), Bachelor of
Arts.
+Acct., acct.+, or +a/c+, Account.
+A. D.+ (Anno Domini), In the year of our Lord.
+Adjt.+, Adjutant.
+Aet.+ or +aet.+ (aetatis), Of age, aged.
+Ala.+, Alabama.
+Alex.+, Alexander.
+A. M.+ or +M. A.+ (Artium Magister), Master of Arts.
+A. M.+ (ante meridiem), Before noon.
+Amt.+, Amount.
+And.+, Andrew.
+Anon.+, Anonymous.
+Ans.+, Answer.
+Anth.+, Anthony.
+Apr.+, April.
+Arch.+, Archibald.
+Ark.+, Arkansas.
+Arizona+ or +Ariz.+, Arizona Territory.
+Atty.+, Attorney.
+Atty.-Gen.+, Attorney-General.
+Aug.+, August; Augustus.
+Av.+ or +Ave.+, Avenue.
+Avoir.+, Avoirdupois.
+Bart.+, Baronet.
+bbl.+, Barrels.
+B. C.+, Before Christ.
+Benj.+, Benjamin.
+Brig.-Gen.+, Brigadier-General.
+B. S.+, Bachelor of Science.
+bu.+, Bushels.
+c+ or +ct.+, Cents.
+Cal.+, California.
+Cap.+, Capital. +Caps.+, Capitals.
+Capt.+, Captain.
+C. E.+, Civil Engineer.
+cf.+ (confer), Compare.
+Chas.+, Charles.
+Chron.+, Chronicles.
+Co.+, Company; County.
+c/o+, In care of.
+C. O. D.+, Collect on delivery.
+Col.+, Colonel; Colossians.
+Coll.+, College; Collector.
+Conn.+, Connecticut.
+Colo+, or +Col.+, Colorado.
+Cr.+, Credit; Creditor.
+cub. ft.+, Cubic feet.
+cub. in.+, Cubic inches.
+cwt.+, Hundred-weight.
+d.+, Days; Pence.
+Danl.+ or +Dan.+, Daniel.
+D. C.+, District of Columbia.
+D. C. L.+, Doctor of Civil Law.
+D. D.+ (Divinitatis Doctor), Doctor of Divinity.
+D. D. S.+, Doctor of Dental Surgery.
+Dec.+, December.
+Del.+, Delaware.
+Deut.+, Deuteronomy.
+D. G.+ (Dei gratia), By the grace of God.
+Dist.-Atty.+, District-Attorney.
+D. M.+, Doctor of Music.
+do.+ (ditto), The same.
+doz.+, Dozen.
+Dr.+, Doctor; Debtor.
+D. V.+ (Deo volente), God willing.
+E.+, East.
+Eben.+, Ebenezer.
+Eccl.+, Ecclesiastes.
+Ed.+, Edition; Editor.
+Edm.+, Edmund.
+Edw.+, Edward.
+e. g.+ (exempli gratia), For example.
+E. N. E.+, East-northeast.
+Eng.+, English; England.
+Eph.+, Ephesians; Ephraim.
+E. S. E.+, East-southeast.
+Esq.+, Esquire.
+et al.+ (et alibi), And elsewhere.
+et al.+ (et alii), And others.
+et seq.+ (et sequeniia), And following.
+etc.+ or +&c.+ (et caetera), And others; And so forth.
+Ex.+, Example; Exodus.
+Ez.+, Ezra.
+Ezek.+, Ezekiel.
+Fahr.+ or +F.+, Fahrenheit (thermometer).
+Feb.+, February.
+Fla.+, Florida.
+Fr.+, French; France.
+Fran.+, Francis.
+Fred.+, Frederic.
+Fri.+, Friday.
+ft.+, Feet.
+Ft.+, Fort.
+fur.+, Furlong.
+Ga.+, Georgia.
+Gal.+, Galatians.
+gal.+, Gallons.
+Gen.+, General; Genesis.
+Geo.+, George.
+Gov.+, Governor.
+gr.+, Grains.
+h.+, Hours.
+Hab.+, Habakkuk.
+Hag.+, Haggai.
+H. B. M.+, His (or Her) Britannic Majesty.
+hdkf.+, Handkerchief.
+Heb.+, Hebrews.
+H. H.+, His Holiness (the Pope).
+hhd.+, Hogsheads.
+H. M.+, His (or Her) Majesty.
+Hon.+, Honorable.
+Hos.+, Hosea.
+H. R. H.+, His (or Her) Royal Highness.
+ib.+ or +ibid+, (ibidem), In the same place.
+id.+ (idem), The same.
+Idaho+, Idaho.
+i.e.+ (id est), That is.
+I. H. S.+ (Jesus hominum Salvator), Jesus, the Savior of Men.
+Ill.+, Illinois.
+in.+, Inches.
+incog.+ (i_ncognito_), Unknown.
+Ind.+, Indiana.
+Ind. T.+, Indian Territory.
+inst.+, Instant, the present month.
+Iowa+ or +Io.+, Iowa.
+I. O. O. F.+, Independent Order of Odd Fellows.
+Isa.+, Isaiah.
+Jac.+, Jacob.
+Jan.+, January.
+Jas.+, James.
+Jer.+, Jeremiah.
+Jona.+, Jonathan.
+Jos.+, Joseph.
+Josh.+, Joshua.
+Jr.+ or +Jun.+, Junior.
+Judg.+, Judges.
+Kans.+ or +Kan.+, Kansas.
+Ky.+, Kentucky.
+l.+, Line; ll., Lines.
+l.+ or +lb.+, Pounds sterling.
+La.+, Louisiana.
+Lam.+, Lamentations.
+L.+, Latin.
+lb.+ or lb-. (libra or librae), Pound or pounds in weight.
+l.c.+, Lower case (small letter).
+Lev.+, Leviticus.
+L. I.+, Long Island.
+Lieut.+, Lieutenant.
+LL. B.+(Legum Baccalaureus), Bachelor of Laws.
+LL. D.+ (Legum Doctor), Doctor of Laws.
+M.+ or +Mons.+, Monsieur.
+M.+ (meridies), Noon.
+m.+, Miles; Minutes.
+Mad.+, Madam. +Mme.+, Madame.
+Maj.+, Major.
+Mal.+, Malachi.
+Mar.+, March.
+Mass.+, Massachusetts.
+Matt.+, Matthew.
+M. C.+, Member of Congress.
+M. D.+ (Medicinae Doctor), Doctor of Medicine.
+Md.+, Maryland.
+mdse.+, Merchandise.
+Me.+, Maine.
+Mem.+, Memorandum; Memoranda.
+Messrs.+, Messieurs.
+Mic.+, Micah.
+Mgr.+, Monseigneur.
+Mich.+, Michigan; Michael.
+Minn.+, Minnesota.
+Miss.+, Mississippi.
+Mlle.+, Mademoiselle.
+Mmes.+, Mesdames.
+Mo.+, Missouri.
+mo.+, Months.
+Mon.+, Monday.
+M. P.+, Member of Parliament.
+Mont.+, Montana.
+Mr.+, Mister.
+Mrs.+, Mistress (pronounced Missis).
+MS.+, Manuscript.
+MSS.+, Manuscripts.
+Mt.+, Mountain.
+N.+, North.
+N. A.+, North America.
+Nath.+, Nathaniel.
+N. B.+ (nota bene), Mark well.
+N. C.+, North Carolina.
+N. Dak.+, North Dakota.
+N. E.+, New England.
+N. E.+, Northeast.
+Nebr.+ or +Neb.+, Nebraska.
+Neh.+, Nehemiah.
+Nev.+, Nevada.
+N. H.+, New Hampshire.
+N. J.+, New Jersey.
+N. Mex.+ or +N. M.+, New Mexico.
+N. N. E.+, North-northeast.
+N. N. W.+, North-northwest.
+N. O.+, New Orleans.
+No.+ (numero), Number,
+Nov.+, November.
+N. W.+, Northwest
+N. Y.+, New York.
+Obad.+, Obadiah.
+Oct.+, October.
+Ohio+ or +O.+, Ohio.
+Oreg.+ or +Or.+, Oregon.
+Oxon.+ (Oxonia), Oxford,
+oz.+, Ounces.
+p.+, Page, +pp.+, Pages.
+Pa.+ or +Penn.+, Pennsylvania.
+Payt.+ or +payt.+, Payment.
+per cent+, or +per ct.+ (per centum) or %, By the hundred.
+Ph. D.+ (Philosophiae Doctor), Doctor of Philosophy.
+Phil.+, Philip; Philippians.
+Phila.+, Philadelphia.
+pk.+, Pecks.
+P. M.+, Postmaster.
+P. M.+ or +p. m.+ (post meridiem), Afternoon.
+P. O.+, Post-Office.
+Pres.+, President.
+Prof.+, Professor.
+Pro tem.+ (pro tempore), For the time being.
+Prov.+, Proverbs.
+prox.+ (proximo), The next month.
+P. S.+, Postscript.
+Ps.+, Psalms.
+pt.+, Pints.
+pwt.+, Pennyweights.
+qt.+, Quarts.
+q. v.+ (quod vide), Which see.
+Qy.+, Query.
+rd.+, Rods.
+Recd.+, Received.
+Rev.+, Reverend; Revelation.
+R. I.+, Rhode Island.
+Robt.+, Robert.
+Rom.+, Romans (Book of); Roman letters.
+R. R.+, Railroad.
+R. S. V. P.+ (Repondez s'il vous plait), Answer, if you please.
+Rt. Hon.+, Right Honorable.
+Rt. Rev.+, Right Reverend.
+S.+, South.
+s.+, Shillings.
+S. A.+, South America.
+Saml.+ or +Sam.+, Samuel.
+Sat.+, Saturday.
+S. C.+, South Carolina.
+S. Dak.+, South Dakota.
+S. E.+, Southeast.
+Sec.+, Secretary.
+sec.+, Seconds.
+Sep.+ or +Sept.+, September.
+Sol.+, Solomon.
+sq. ft.+, Square feet.
+sq. in.+, Square inches.
+sq. m.+, Square miles.
+S. S. E.+, South-southeast.
+S. S. W.+, South-southwest.
+St.+, Street; Saint.
+S. T. D.+ (Sacrae Theologiae Doctor), Doctor of Divinity.
+Sun.+, Sunday.
+Supt.+, Superintendent.
+S. W.+, Southwest.
+T.+, Tons; Tuns.
+Tenn.+, Tennessee.
+Tex.+, Texas.
+Theo.+, Theodore.
+Theoph.+, Theophilus.
+Thess.+, Thessalonians,
+Thos.+, Thomas.
+Thurs.+, Thursday.
+Tim.+, Timothy.
+tr.+, Transpose.
+Treas.+, Treasurer.
+Tues.+, Tuesday.
+ult.+ (ultimo), Last—last month.
+U. S.+ or +U. S. A.+, United States of America; United States Army.
+U. S. M.+, United States Mail.
+U. S. N.+, United States Navy.
+Utah+ or +U. Ter.+, Utah Territory.
+Va.+, Virginia.
+Vice-Pres.+, Vice-President.
+viz.+ (videlicet), To wit, namely.
+vol.+, Volume.
+vs.+ (versus), Against.
+Vt.+, Vermont.
+W.+, West.
+Wash.+, Washington.
+Wed.+, Wednesday.
+Wis.+, Wisconsin.
+wk.+, Weeks.
+Wm.+, William.
+W. N. W.+, West-northwest.
+W. S. W.+, West-southwest.
+W. Va.+, West Virginia.
+Wyo.+, Wyoming.
+Xmas.+, Christmas.
+yd.+, Yards.
+y.+ or +yr.+, Years.
+Zech.+, Zechariah.
+& Co.+, And Company.
SUPPLEMENT.
+Exercises on the Composition of the Sentence and the Paragraph+.
SELECTION FROM DARWIN.
Morren says that angleworms often lie for hours almost motionless close beneath the mouths of their burrows. I have occasionally noticed the same fact with worms kept in pots in the house; so that by looking down into their burrows their heads could just be seen. If the ejected earth or rubbish over the burrows be suddenly removed, the end of the worm's body may very often be seen rapidly retreating.
This habit of lying near the surface leads to their destruction to an immense extent. Every morning, during certain seasons of the year, the thrushes and blackbirds on all the lawns throughout the country draw out of their holes an astonishing number of worms; and this they could not do unless they lay close to the surface.
It is not probable that worms behave in this manner for the sake of breathing fresh air, for they can live for a long time under water. I believe that they lie near the surface for the sake of warmth, especially in the morning; and we shall hereafter find that they often coat the mouths of their burrows with leaves, apparently to prevent their bodies from coming into close contact with the cold, damp earth.
+The Uses of Words and Groups of Words+.—We will break up Mr. Darwin's first group of sentences into single sentences or single statements, each having but one predicate verb.
1. Angleworms often lie for hours almost motionless close beneath the mouths of their burrows. 2. Morren says this. 3. I have occasionally noticed the same fact with worms kept in pots in the house. 4. By looking down into their burrows their heads could just be seen. 5. The ejected earth or rubbish over the burrows may suddenly be removed. 6. The end of the worm's body may then very often be seen rapidly retreating.
Find the two chief words (subject and predicate) in 1. What does often do? What does the group of words for hours do? The group almost motionless describes what things? The group close beneath the mouths of their burrows, used like a single adverb, tells what? Find the two chief words in 2. This helps out the meaning of says, but it is not an adverb. This is here a pronoun standing for the thing said. What whole sentence does this take the place of? Find the subject and the predicate verb in 3. What noun follows this verb to tell what Mr. Darwin noticed? What does occasionally do? What does same go with? What group of eight words tells in what way Mr. Darwin noticed this fact? Find the unmodified subject and predicate in 4. What does the second their go with? What does by looking down into their burrows tell? What does just do? In 5, put what before may be removed, and find two words either of which may be used as subject. What is the office of the, ejected, and the group over the burrows? What does suddenly do? Find the subject and the predicate verb in 6. Retreating helps out the meaning of the predicate and at the same time modifies the subject. Notice that the end rapidly retreating is not a sentence, nor is worms kept in pots, in 3. Retreating and kept here express action, but they are not predicates; they do not assert. You learned in Lesson 16 that certain forms of the verb do not assert. Of the worm's body modifies what? Then and very often do what?
If you will compare these numbered sentences with Mr. Darwin's, you will see how two or more sentences are put together to make one longer sentence. You see Mr. Darwin puts our sentence 1 after says to tell what Morren says. What word here helps to bring two sentences together? Change this sentence about so as to make says Morren come last. See how many other changes you can make in the arrangement of the words and groups of words in this sentence. What two words are used to join 3 and 4 together? Notice that these sentences are not joined so closely as 1 and 2, as is shown by the semi-colon. Notice that if has much to do in joining 5 and 6. These are more closely joined than 3 and 4, but not so closely as 1 and 2. How is this shown by the punctuation? Put 5 and 6 together and change their order. Find, if you can, still another arrangement.
+To the Teacher+.—It is very important that pupils should learn to see words in groups and to note their offices. If difficulties and technicalities be avoided, such exercises as we suggest above may be begun very early. They will lead to an intelligent observation of language and will prepare the way for the more formal lessons of the text-book.
If time can be had, such exercises may profitably be continued through the second and third paragraphs of the selection above.
We have said elsewhere that the sentence exercises on this selection from
Darwin may follow Lesson 30, but the teacher must determine.
+The Paragraph+.—If we write about only one thing, or one point, our sentences will be closely related to each other. If we write on two or more points, there will be two or more sets of sentences—the sentences of each set closely related to one another, but the sets themselves not so closely related. A group of sentences expressing what we have to say on a single point, or division, of our subject is called a +paragraph+. How many paragraphs do you find in the selection above? How are they separated on the page?
Let us examine this selection more carefully to find whether the sentences of each group are all on a single point and closely related, and whether the groups themselves are related. Do the sentences of the first paragraph all help to tell of a certain habit of angleworms? Do the sentences of the second paragraph tell what results from this habit? Do the sentences of the third paragraph tell what is thought to be the cause of this habit? If you can say yes to these questions, the sentences in each paragraph must be closely related. Are a habit, a result of it, and a cause of it related in thought, or meaning? If so, the paragraphs are related.
You must now see that paragraphing helps both the reader and the writer, and that we should master it.
+The Style+.—We shall not here say much about what we may call the style of the author—his way of putting his thought, or manner of expressing it. But this you will notice: his words are few, plain, and simple; the arrangement of them is easy; and so what is said is said clearly. You are nowhere in doubt about his meaning unless it be in the second paragraph. It may puzzle you to see what their, they, and they in the second sentence of this paragraph stand for. Let an astonishing number of worms and out of their holes change places, and substitute birds and worms for they and they, and see whether the meaning would be clearer. Clearness is worth all it costs. You cannot take too much pains to be understood.
+First-hand Knowledge+.—As you know, we get our knowledge in two ways. We get it by seeing and by thinking about what we see; and we get it by listening to other people and reading what they have written. What we get by seeing, by observation, is first-hand knowledge; what we get from others is second-hand knowledge. Both kinds are useful; we cannot have too much of either. But the kind that it does us most good to get and is worth most to us when got is first-hand knowledge. This especially is the kind which you should make your compositions of. In the first two paragraphs of the selection above, Darwin is telling what he saw, and in the third he is explaining what he saw. That is why what he says is so fresh and interesting.
And just one thing more. If such a man as Charles Darwin thought it worth his while to spend much time in studying and experimenting upon angleworms and then to write a large book about them, surely you need not think anything in nature beneath your notice.