NOTES FOR TEACHERS.
AGREEMENT.
Before Lesson 8 is assigned, the pupils may be required to note, in Lessons 6 and 7, the subjects that add s to denote more than one, and then to mark the changes that occur in the predicates when the s is dropped from these subjects. In Lesson 8, the predicates may be changed by adding or dropping s, and other subjects may be found to correspond. In Lesson 9, s may be dropped from the plural subjects, and other predicates may be found to agree.
At this stage of the work we should give no formal rules, and should avoid such technical terms as number, person, tense, etc. The pupils may be led to discover rules for themselves, and to state them informally. Exercises and questions may be so directed that the pupils may draw some such conclusion as the following:—
When a simple form of the verb is used to tell what one thing does, s or es is added (unless the subject is I or you).
Let the pupils see that the s-form of the verb is used only in telling what one thing does, not what it did; as, "The boy runs," "The boy ran"; and that its subject always stands for the one spoken of; as, "He runs," "I run."
Before Lesson 12 is assigned, attention may be called to the use of is, was, and has, in Lesson 11 and elsewhere. For the predicates introduced by these words let the pupils find subjects which name more than one, that they may note the change of is to are, was to were, and has to have. The forms does and do may also be introduced, and these exercises continued till the pupils are led to discover some such rule as the following:—
Is, was, has, and does are used with subjects denoting but one. Are, were, have, and do are used with subjects denoting more than one.
We suggest that the form of a question and the use of the question mark be introduced after Lesson 12, and that the pupils be allowed to change the sentences in Lessons 11 and 12 by placing the subject after the first auxiliary. A straight line may be drawn under each subject, and a waving line under each predicate, thus:—
~Was~ /Napoleon/ ~banished?~
The sentences given for analysis will furnish material for making interrogative sentences, and for justifying the agreement of verbs.
In connection with Lesson 19 attention may be called to the agreement of verbs with I and you. Exercises may be given from which the pupils will draw the following conclusions:—
I can be used with am, was, have, and do. You may mean one or more than one, but the verb always agrees as if you meant more than one.
Exercises may be given requiring the pupils to use such expressions as "You were," "They were," "We were," "He doesn't," etc., and to repeat them aloud till the ear is accustomed to the right form.
When predicate verbs immediately follow their subjects, there is little danger of errors in agreement, except that was is often used incorrectly for were, and don't for doesn't. The chief object of introducing these exercises here is to train the pupils' observation so that they will readily and naturally note the agreement of the subject and predicate when these terms are transposed, or are separated by other words. To determine the correct form of the verb in such cases, let the pupils see how it sounds when placed immediately after its subject. We suggest exercises like the following:—
1 is are 2 was were 3 has have 4 does do 5 comes come 6 goes go 7 thinks think 8 writes write
1. With what kind of letter ~(4)~ each of these names ~begin~? 2. Under this rule ~(1) found~ important exceptions. 3. The farm, with all the cattle and horses, ~(2) sold~. 4. With what mark ~(4)~ imperative sentences ~end~? 5. Every effort of the friends of these measures (3) failed. 6. There (5) trying times in every man's life. 7. One of them (6) to Vassar College. 8. Not one in ten (7) about this. 9. Neither of you (8) correctly. 10. After this (5) the calisthenic exercises. 11. A cargo of Delaware peaches (3) arrived. 12. There (6) the cars. 13. There (6) a train of cars.
After these blanks have been filled with the verbs above, as indicated by the numbers, the sentences may be repeated aloud till the correct form is familiar.
Let the pupils see that in (2), Lesson 36, were identified is asserted of two things, and that in (3) was anticipated is asserted of one of two things, but not of both. Let them give other examples of connected subjects with verbs singular in form, and with verbs plural in form. The meaning of singular and plural may be explained, and the pupils may form some such rule as the following:—
With two or more subjects connected by and the verb agrees in the plural.
With two or more singular subjects connected by or or nor the verb agrees in the singular.
The pupils may examine such sentences as—
1. Each word and gesture was suited to the thought; 2. Every bud, leaf, and blade of grass rejoices after the warm rain; 3. No dew, no rain, no cloud comes to the relief of the parched earth;—
and note that each, every, and no show that the things named in the different subjects are taken separately, and that the verbs are therefore singular.
Such sentences as—
"In the death of Franklin, a philosopher and statesman was lost to the
world"—
may be given to show that subjects connected by and may name the same thing, and so take a verb in the singular.
Such examples as the following may be given and justified:—
1. Beauty and utility are combined in nature. 2. Either beauty or utility appears in every natural object. 3. Here is neither beauty nor utility. 4. Time and tide wait for no man. 5. Wisdom and prudence dwell with the lowly man. 6. Does either landlord or tenant profit by this bill? 7. Neither landlords nor tenants profit by this bill. 8. Every fly, bee, beetle, and butterfly is provided with six feet. 9. That desperate robber and murderer was finally secured. 10. That desperate robber and that murderer were finally secured. 11. The builder and owner of the yacht has sailed from Liverpool. 12. The builder and the owner of the yacht have sailed from Liverpool. 13. A lame and blind man was provided with food and lodging. 14. A lame and a blind man were provided with food and lodging.
Particular attention may be called to examples 9-14, that the pupils may note the effect of repeating that, the, and a.
Pupils should early learn that rules in grammar should not be followed rigidly and blindly, as they generally have variations and exceptions. Caution, however, should be used in presenting exceptions, lest the pupils become confused. They may be presented in reviews after the rules and general principles are well understood. They need not be formally stated, but may be introduced in the way of observation lessons that appeal to the judgment rather than to the memory. In this way such constructions as the following may be introduced:—
1. Neither he nor _I am _going. (Better—He is not going, nor am I.) 2. Neither John nor his sisters were there. 3. Action, and not words, is needed. 4. Bread and milk is good food. 5. The committee are unable to agree on their report. 6. The committee has made its report.
Other examples may be given till the pupils are led to discover that in examples like (1) and (2) the verb agrees with its nearest subject, and that the plural subject is usually placed next to the verb; that in (3) the verb agrees with the affirmative subject, another verb being understood with the negative subject; that in (4) "bread and milk" represents one article of food; and that in (5) the individuals of the committee are thought of, while in (6) the committee as a whole is thought of. In (5) and (6) the agreement of the pronoun may also be noted. Pronouns may be introduced into many of the preceding exercises and the pupils led to apply to the agreement of the pronoun with its antecedent what has been learned of the agreement of the verb with its subject. Let the pupils determine why the following connected subjects are arranged in the proper order:—
1. You and I are invited. 2. Mary and I are invited. 3. You and Mary are invited. 4. You and Mary and I are invited.
WRITING NAMES—CAPITALS AND ABBREVIATIONS. [Footnote: For list of abbreviations see p. 191.]
Pupils may copy the following list of names, and note all peculiarities in form:—
Texas, state, river, Red River, city, Albany, New Orleans, Kansas City, statesman, Thomas Jefferson, Thos. Jefferson, author, Charles Dickens, Chas. Dickens, writer, George William Curtis, Geo. Wm. Curtis, Geo. W. Curtis, poet, John Greenleaf Whittier, John G. Whittier, J. G. Whittier, gulf, sea, Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean Sea, lake, Lake Erie, general, General Robert Edmund Lee, Gen. Robt. E. Lee, doctor, Doctor Valentine Mott, Dr. V. Mott, professor, Prof. Goldwin Smith.
Henry Wadsworth Longfellow wrote "The Song of Hiawatha."
John Bunyan wrote "The Pilgrim's Progress."
The subject for composition was "A Day in the Woods."
We give the following questions to illustrate our method of conducting an
+Observation Lesson+.—Are city and Albany both names? What difference can you discover in meaning? What in form? Which of the names just written are class names? Which are individual names? Mention an individual name made up of two names; one of three names; one of four. How many capitals do you find in each of the names just mentioned? Mention seven words that are written without capitals as class names, and again with capitals as parts of individual names. Mention a word that is shortened, or abbreviated, by omitting all but the first, or initial, letter. Mention an abbreviation containing two letters; one containing three; one containing four. What new use of the period have you discovered in this exercise? What three words in this exercise are used together as the title of a book? What four as the title of a poem? What five as the subject of a school composition? Each of these groups may be regarded as a kind of individual name. Besides the first word, what words begin with capitals in each of these three groups? Notice that these are the principal words.
For another exercise the pupils may copy the following sentences, noting carefully capitals and punctuation marks:—
1. The city of Chicago is on Lake Michigan. 2. The steamer City of Chicago sails from Jersey City. 3. The island of Cuba is under Spanish rule. 4. The Isle of Man is in the Irish Sea. 5. The Hon. Wm. E. Gladstone is an English statesman. 6. The subject for composition was "The View from my Window." 7. In the evening Aunt Mary entertained my cousin and me with stories of Uncle Remus. 8. Miss Evans—afterward Mrs. Lewes—was the author of "The Mill on the Floss." 9. We may call the Supreme Being our Heavenly Father. 10. The Old Testament points to the coming of a Messiah. 11. George I., George II., George III., George IV., and William IV. preceded Victoria.
The teacher may find the following questions suggestive:—
+Observation Lesson+.—Is Chicago, or city of Chicago the individual name of the place mentioned in (1)? Is Chicago, or City of Chicago the name of the steamer mentioned in (2)? Is the town mentioned in (2) named Jersey, or Jersey City? Is the body of water mentioned in (1) known as Michigan, or Lake Michigan? What is the name of the island mentioned in (3)?—in (4)? Is Irish, or Irish Sea the name of the body of water mentioned in (4)?
Notice that Spanish, in (3), and English, in (5), are not names, or nouns. They begin with capitals, because they are derived from the individual names Spain and England.
What names in (7) usually denote relationship? Notice that such words as uncle, captain, professor, etc., do not necessarily begin with capitals unless prefixed to individual names.
What group of words in (6) is treated as an individual name? What in (8)?
Which words of these groups are regarded as the most important?
In (8) do you find a period after Miss?—after Mrs.?
Miss is not written as an abbreviation.
What words in (9) and (10) are used as names of the Deity? What is Old
Testament the particular name of?
What do you discover in the names found in (11)?
For other exercises, pupils may be required to bring in lists of geographical and biographical names, titles of books, etc.
We earnestly recommend the introduction here of letter-writing to illustrate the use of capitals, abbreviations, and punctuation. (See pp. 146-161.) The writing of headings, introductions, conclusions, and superscriptions will give most excellent practice in capitals, etc. The body of the letter may be directed to the same end. For instance, an invitation to a friend may be accompanied by a description of the route to be taken and of the places or objects of interest to be seen on the way. Or the writer may mention some of the books he has read, with the names of the characters and of the places mentioned.
ADJECTIVES—CHOICE AND ARRANGEMENT.
Words denoting quality form a very large and important group. Our knowledge of things about us is a knowledge of their qualities. A writer's style is, to a large extent, determined by his use of adjectives. We therefore recommend special drill in the choice and the use of adjectives. The exercises given below may serve as suggestions to the teacher. Groups of adjectives like the following may be presented, the pupils being required to join them to appropriate nouns:—
Some Qualities learned directly through the Senses.
+Seeing+, scarlet crimson florid sallow opaque dingy vivid gorgeous gaudy variegated verdant transparent
+Hearing+, audible stunning thundering deafening purling husky monotonous discordant melodious
+Smelling+, fragrant balmy odorous rancid fetid aromatic
+Tasting+, acid acrid pungent delicious insipid brackish palatable savory luscious
+Feeling+. rough gritty hard keen tepid sultry
Pupils will find little difficulty in largely increasing the lists above. Many other groupings may be made; as, of qualities learned by comparison, measurement, or experiment; qualities of the mind; qualities pertaining to right and wrong, etc.
Groups of nouns like the following may be made, and the pupils may be required to mention as many qualities as possible belonging to each of the things named:—
chalk ice brooks clouds water snow ocean music
Pupils may mention animals properly described by the following adjectives:—
timid fleet cunning ferocious gentle graceful sagacious venomous
Careless persons and those that have a meager list of adjectives at command overwork and abuse such words as—
nice, awful, horrid, splendid, elegant, lovely.
We hear of nice mountains, awful pens, horrid ink, splendid pie, elegant beef, lovely cheese, etc.
Pupils may study the meaning of the six adjectives last mentioned, and use them to fill the following blanks:—
| distinction
—————+ workmanship
| calculation
| stillness
—————+ chasm
| rumbling
| child
—————+ features
| character
| palace
—————+ victory
| illumination
| manners
—————+ taste
| furniture
| deeds
—————+ dreams
| butchery
This work may very profitable be extended.
A word picture is often spoiled by using too many adjectives; as,
"A great, large, roomy, spacious hall"; "Superb, delicious, magnificent pumpkin-pie"; "A stingy, miserly, close-fisted fellow."
The italicized words may be omitted.
Pupils should be taught to watch for such errors, and to correct them.
Pupils may be required to copy choice selections from literature, and to note carefully capitals, punctuation, and the use of adjectives. We offer the following exercise as a specimen:—
We piled with care our nightly stack
Of wood against the chimney-back,—
The oaken log, green, huge, and thick,
And on its top the stout back-stick;
The knotty fore-stick laid apart,
And filled between with curious art
The ragged brush; then, hovering near,
We watched the first red blaze appear,
Heard the sharp crackle, caught the gleam
On whitewashed wall and sagging beam,
Until the old, rude-furnished room
Burst, flower-like, into rosy bloom.
Whittier.—Snow-Bound.
+Observation Lesson+.—Of what are the lines above a picture? Where, and in what kind of house, do you think this picture was seen?
What object is pictured by the help of five adjectives? Are the adjectives that precede the name of this object of the same rank? Are those that follow of the same rank? What noun is modified by three adjectives of different rank? What noun by three adjectives two of which are of the same rank? What difference is found in the punctuation of these several groups?
Notice how the noun crackle crackles as you pronounce it, and how the adjective sharp makes it penetrate. Notice how strong a picture is made in the two lines immediately before the last. The adjectives here used bring out the most prominent qualities of the room, and these qualities bring along with them into the imagination all the other qualities. This is what we must try to make our adjectives do.
Point out all the adjectives in the selection above, and explain the office of each.
What peculiar use of capitals do you discover in these lines of poetry?
Much that has been suggested above concerning the use of adjectives will apply to adverbs also.
ARRANGEMENT.
The following exercises are given to show how pupils may discover for themselves the natural order of words and phrases:—
(a) Wellington defeated Napoleon at Waterloo. (b) William's sister Mary is an excellent musician. (c) Everything suddenly appeared so strangely bright. (d) We saw it distinctly. (e) We had often been there. (f) Napoleon was defeated at Waterloo.
+Observation Lesson+.—The words and the phrases in the sentences above stand in their Natural Order.
From (a) and (b) determine the natural order of the subject, predicate, and complement. From (b) determine the natural order of a possessive modifier, of an explanatory modifier, and of an adjective. From (c), (d), and (e) determine the several positions of an adverb joined to a verb. Determine from (c) the position of an adverb modifying an adjective or another adverb. Determine from (a) and (f) the natural order of a phrase.
Pupils may copy the following, and note the arrangement and the punctuation of the phrases:—
(g) This place is endeared to me by many associations. (h) To me, this place is endeared by many associations. (i) Your answers, with few exceptions, have been correctly given. (j) He applied for the position, without a recommendation.
+Observation Lesson+.—Phrases in their natural order follow the words they modify. When two or more phrases belong to the same word, the one most closely modifying it stands nearest to it.
In the first sentence above, to me tells to whom the place is endeared; by many associations tells how it is endeared to me, and is therefore placed after to me. Try the effect of placing to me last. Phrases, like adjectives, may be of different rank.
Phrases are often transposed, or placed out of their natural order. Notice that to me, in (h) above, is transposed, and thus made emphatic, and that it is set off by the comma.
In (i), the phrase is loosely thrown in as if it were not essential, thus making a break in the sentence. To make this apparent to the eye we set the phrase off by the comma.
Place the phrase of (i) in three other positions, and set it off. When the phrase is at the beginning or at the end of the sentence, how many commas do you need to set it off? How many, when it is in the middle?
Do you find any choice in the four positions of this phrase? After having been told that your answers were correct, would it be a disappointment to be told that they were not all correct? Is the interest in a story best kept up by first telling the important points and then the unimportant particulars? What then do you think of placing this phrase at the end?
What does the last phrase of (j) modify? Take out the comma, and then see whether there can be any doubt as to what the phrase modifies.
In the placing of adverbs and phrases great freedom is often allowable, and the determining of their best possible position affords an almost unlimited opportunity for the exercise of taste and judgment.
Such questions as those on (i) above may suggest a mode of easy approach to what is usually relegated to the province of rhetoric. Let the pupils see that phrases may be transposed for various reasons—for emphasis, as in (h) above; for the purpose of exciting the reader's curiosity and holding his attention till the complete statement is made, as in (i) above, or in, "In the dead of night, with a chosen band, under the cover of a truce, he approached"; for the sake of balancing the sentence by letting some of the modifying terms precede, and some follow, the principal parts, as, "In 1837, on the death of William IV., Victoria succeeded to the throne"; and for other reasons.
Other selections maybe made and these exercises continued, the pupils discussing fully the effects of all possible changes.
Pupils may note the transposed words and phrases in the following sentences, explaining their office and the effect of the transposition:—
1. Victories, indeed, they were. 2. Down came the masts. 3. Here stands the man. 4. Doubtful seemed the battle. 5. Wide open stood the doors. 6. A mighty man is he. 7. That gale I well remember. 8. Behind her rode Lalla Rookh. 9. Blood-red became the sun. 10. Louder waxed the applause. 11. Him the Almighty Power hurled headlong. 12. Slowly and sadly we laid him down. 13. Into the valley of death rode the six hundred. 14. So died the great Columbus of the skies. 15. Aeneas did, from the flames of Troy, upon his shoulders, the old Anchises bear. 16. Such a heart in the breast of my people beats. 17. The great fire up the deep and wide chimney roared. 18. Ease and grace in writing are, of all the acquisitions made in school, the most difficult and valuable.
Pupils may read or write the following sentences in the transposed order, and explain the effect of the change:—
19. He could not avoid it. 20. He would not escape. 21. I must go. 22. He ended his tale here. 23. It stands written so. 24. She seemed young and sad. 25. I will make one more effort to save you. 26. My regrets were bitter and unavailing. 27. I came into the world helpless. 28. A sincere word was never utterly lost. 29. Catiline shall no longer plot her ruin.
ORDER OF INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES.
30. Who wrote the Declaration of Independence? 31. What states border on the Gulf of Mexico? 32. Whom did you see? 33. What is poetry? 34. Which course will you choose? 35. Why are the days shorter in winter? 36. When was America discovered? 37. Were you there? 38. Has the North Pole been reached?
+Observation Lesson+.—When the interrogative word is subject or a modifier of it, is the order natural, or transposed? See (30) and (31) above.
When the interrogative word is object or attribute complement, or a modifier of either, what is the order? See (32), (33), and (34).
When the interrogative word is an adverb, what is the order? See (35) and (36).
When there is no interrogative word, what is the order? See (37) and (38).
The sentences above will furnish profitable review lessons in analysis.
REVIEW—COMPOSITION.
We suggest that, from two or more paragraphs of some interesting and instructive article, leading sentences be selected, and that the pupils be required to explain the office and the punctuation of the easier adjective and adverb phrases, to vary the arrangement in every possible way, and to discuss the effects of these changes. Then, after finding the general subject and the heading for each paragraph, the pupils may arrange these sentences and work them into a composition, making such additions as may be suggested.
RESTRICTIVE MODIFIERS—PUNCTUATION.
The chief difficulty in the punctuation of the different kinds of modifiers is in determining whether or not they are restrictive. The following examples may serve as the basis of an observation lesson:—
(a) The words golden and oriole are pleasant to the ear. (b) Words, the signs of ideas, are spoken and written. (c) Use words that are current. (d) Words, which are the signs of ideas, are spoken and written. (e) The country anciently called Gaul is now called France. (f) France, anciently called Gaul, derived its name from the Franks. (g) Glass bends easily when it is hot. (h) I met him in Paris, when I was last abroad.
The following explanations may be drawn from the pupils:—
In (a) the application of words is limited, or restricted, to the two words mentioned; in (c) words is restricted to a certain kind. In (b) and (d) the modifiers do not restrict. They apply to all words and simply add information. In (e) the participial phrase restricts the application of country to one particular country; but in (f) the phrase describes without limiting. The omission of the comma in (g) shows that Glass bends easily is not offered as a general statement, but that the action is restricted to a certain time or condition. When it is hot is essential to the intended meaning. The punctuation of (h) shows that the speaker does not wish to make the time of meeting a prominent or essential part of what he has to say. The adverb clause simply gives additional information. If (h) were an answer to the question, When did you meet him? the comma would be omitted. The sense may be varied by the use or the omission of the comma.
Let the pupils see how incomplete the statements are when the restrictive modifiers are omitted, and that the other modifiers are not so necessary to the sense. In such expressions as I myself, we boys, the explanatory words are not restrictive, but they combine closely with the modified term.
ADJECTIVE CLAUSES.
Adjective clauses allow little change in position. They usually follow closely the word modified. Often they may be contracted into adjectives or into adjective phrases.
Selections from standard writers may be made with special reference to the study of adjective clauses. The position, punctuation, and choice of relatives may be noticed, and, as far as possible, the clauses may be changed into equivalent adjectives or into phrases.
ADVERB CLAUSES.
An adverb clause may stand before the independent clause, between its parts, or after it; as, "When it is hot, glass bends easily;" "Glass, when it is hot, bends easily;" "Glass bends easily when it is hot." Notice the punctuation of these examples.
Adverb clauses may be contracted in various ways. Clauses introduced by the comparatives as and than are usually found in an abbreviated form; as, "You are as old as he (is old);" "You are older than I (am old)." Attention may be called to the danger of mistaking here the nominative for the objective. We suggest making selections for the study of adverb clauses.
NOUN CLAUSES.
Noun clauses may be contracted; as, "That we should obey is necessary" = "Obedience is necessary," or, "To obey is necessary;" "I can hardly realize that my friend is gone" = "I can hardly realize my friend's being gone." By substituting it for the subject clause, this clause maybe placed last and made explanatory; as, "It is necessary that we should obey." The object clause is sometimes transposed; as, "That my friend is gone, I can hardly realize." The noun clause may be made prominent by introducing the independent clause parenthetically; as,"His story, we believe, is exaggerated."
Notice the punctuation of the clauses above. The noun clause used as attribute complement is generally set off by the comma. Noun clauses that are quotations need special treatment.
NOUN CLAUSES—QUOTATIONS.
We suggest the following observation lesson:—
1. Goldsmith says, "Learn the luxury of doing good." 2. Goldsmith says that we should learn the luxury of doing good. 3. "The owlet Atheism, hooting at the glorious sun in heaven, cries out, 'Where is it?'" 4. Coleridge compares atheism to an owlet hooting at the sun, and asking where it is. 5. "To read without reflecting," says Burke, "is like eating without digesting." 6. May we not find "sermons in stones and good in everything"? 7. There is much meaning in the following quotation: "Books are embalmed minds." 8. We must ask, What are we living for? 9. We must ask what we are living for.
+Observation Lesson+.—Notice that the writer of (1) has copied into his sentence (quoted) the exact language of Goldsmith. The two marks like inverted commas and the two marks like apostrophes, which inclose this copied passage (quotation), are called Quotation Marks.
Name all the differences between (1) and (2). Is the same thought expressed in both? Which quotation would you call direct? Which, indirect?
Notice that the whole of (3) is a quotation, and that this quotation contains another quotation inclosed within single marks. Notice the order of the marks at the end of (3).
Point out the differences between (3) and (4). In which is a question quoted just as it would be asked? In which is a question merely referred to? Which question would you call direct? Which, indirect? Name every difference in the form of these.
In which of the above sentences is a quotation interrupted by a parenthetical clause? How are the parts marked?
Point out a quotation that cannot make complete sense by itself. How does it differ from the others as to punctuation and the first letter?
In (7) a Colon precedes the quotation to show that it is formally introduced.
In (8) a question is introduced without quotation marks. Questions that, like this, are introduced without being referred to any particular person or persons, are often written without quotation marks. State the differences between (8) and (9).
In quoting a question, the interrogation point must stand within the quotation marks; but, when a question contains a quotation, this order is reversed. Point out illustrations above.
Sum up what you have learned. (See rules for capitals, comma, colon, and quotation marks, pp. 140-143.)
Selections written in the colloquial style and containing frequent quotations and questions may be taken from reading-books, for examination, discussion, and copying. Noun phrases may be expanded, and noun clauses contracted, transposed, etc.
INDEPENDENT CLAUSES.
Frequently independent clauses are contracted by using repeated parts but once and uniting the other parts into a compound term, as in Lesson 67. They are also contracted by omitting such words as may be readily understood; as, "Is it true, or not;" "He is a philosopher, not a poet." For punctuation, see rules for the comma and the semicolon, p. 141.
REVIEW—COMPOSITION.
We recommend that the teacher select some short article containing valuable information and break up each paragraph into short, disconnected expressions. One paragraph at a time may be put on the board for the pupils to copy. The general subject may be given, and the pupils may be required to find a proper heading for the paragraph. The different ways of connecting the expressions may be discussed in the class. By contracting, expanding, transposing, and by substituting entirely different words, a great variety of forms may be had. (The forms found in the "Example," p. 144, and the list of connectives, p. 190, may be helpful.) The pupils may then combine the different paragraphs into a composition. For the explanation of paragraph, see p. 145, and Exercises for Composition in the Supplement.
We give below material for one composition:—
Frog's spawn found in a pond. At first like a mass of jelly. Eggs can be distinguished.
In a few days curious little fish are hatched. These "tadpoles" are lively. Swim by means of long tails. Head very large—out of proportion. Appearance of all head and tail. This creature is a true fish. It breathes water-air by means of gills. It has a two-chambered heart.
Watch it day by day. Two little gills seen. These soon disappear. Hind legs begin to grow. Tail gets smaller. Two small arms, or forelegs, are seen. Remarkable change going on inside. True lungs for breathing air have been forming. Another chamber added to the heart.
As the gills grow smaller, it finds difficulty in breathing water-air. One fine day it pokes its nose out of the water. Astonished (possibly) to find that it can breathe in the air. A new life has come upon it. No particular reason for spending all its time in water; crawls out upon land; sits down upon its haunches; surveys the world. It is no longer a fish; has entered upon a higher stage of existence; has become a frog.
This work of analyzing a composition to find the leading thoughts under which the other thoughts may be grouped is in many ways a most valuable discipline.
It teaches the pupil to compare, to discriminate, to weigh, to systematize, to read intelligently and profitably.
The reading-book will afford excellent practice in finding heads for paragraphs. Such work is an essential preparation for the reading-class.
This composition work should serve as a constant review of all that has been passed over in the text-book.
ADJECTIVE COMPLEMENTS AND ADVERBS.
It is often difficult to distinguish an adjective complement from an adverb modifier. We offer the following explanation:—
"Mary arrived safe." As we here wish to tell the condition of Mary on her arrival, and not the manner of her arriving, we use safe, not safely. "My head feels bad" (is in a bad condition, as perceived by the sense of feeling). "The sun shines bright" (is bright—quality,—as perceived by its shining).
You must determine whether you wish to tell the quality of the thing named or the manner of the action.
When the idea of being is prominent in the verb, as in the examples above, you see that the adjective, and not the adverb, follows.
Let the pupils show that the following adjectives and adverbs are used correctly:—
1. I feel sad. 2. I feel deeply. 3. I feel miserable. 4. He appeared prompt and willing. 5. He appeared promptly and willingly. 6. She looks beautiful. 7. She sings beautifully.
PAST PARTICIPLES AND PREDICATE VERBS DISTINGUISHED.
When the past tense and the past participle differ in form, they are often confounded in use; as,
I done it;
I seen it.
Pupils may be required to construct short sentences, oral or written, using the Past forms found in Lesson 91 as predicates, and the Past Participle forms either as modifiers or as completing words in compound verbs.
They may be led to some such conclusion as the following:—
The Past is always an asserting, or predicate, word; the Past Participle never asserts, but is used as an adjective modifier or as the completing word of a compound verb; the Present may be used as a predicate or as an infinitive.
Exercises like the following may be copied, and repeated aloud:—
1. Lay down your pen. 2. Lie down, Rover. 3. I laid down my pen. 4. The dog then lay down. 5. I have laid down my pen. 6. The dog has lain down. 7. Set the pail down. 8. Sit down and rest. 9. I then set it down. 10. I sat down and rested. 11. I have set it down. 12. I have sat down. 13. My work was laid aside. 14. I was lying down. 15. The trap was set by the river. 16. I was sitting by the river. 17. The garment sits well. 18. The hen sits on her eggs. 19. He came in and lay down. 20. The Mediterranean lies between Europe and Africa.
Notice that we may speak of laying something or setting something, or may say that something is laid or is set; but we cannot speak of lying or sitting something, or of something being lain or sat. Set, in some of its meanings, is used without an object; as, "The sun set;" "He set out on a journey."
Lay, the present of the first verb, and lay, the past of lie, may easily be distinguished by the difference in meaning and in the time expressed.
POSSESSIVE FORMS.
Pupils may be required to copy such forms as the following:—
The sailor's story; the farmer's son; the pony's mane; the monkey's tail; a day's work; James's book; a cent's worth; a man's wages; the child's toys; the woman's hat; the sailors' stories; the farmers' sons; the ponies' manes; the monkeys' tails; three days' work; five cents' worth; two men's wages; those children's toys; women's hats.
This may be continued till the pupils are able to form some such statement as the following:—
('s) and (') are the possessive signs, (') being used when s has been added to denote more than one, ('s) in other cases.
Such expressions as the following may be copied:—
Dombey and Son's business; J. J. Little & Co.'s printing-house; William the
Conqueror's reign; Houghton, Mifflin, and Company's publications.
This may be continued till the pupils learn that, when a group of words may be treated as a compound name, the possessive sign is added to the last word only.
THE OBJECTIVE COMPLEMENT.
The treatment of the objective complement may be introduced in a review course, when the class is sufficiently mature. The following explanation may aid some teachers:—
In "It made him sad," made does not fully express the action performed upon him—not "made him," but "made sad (saddened) him." Sad helps made to express the action, and also denotes a quality which as the result of the action belongs to the person represented by the object him.
Whatever completes the predicate and belongs to the object we call an Objective Complement.
Nouns, infinitives, and participles may also be used in the same way; as,
"They made Victoria queen,"
"It made him weep;"
"It kept him laughing."
They | made / queen | Victoria
======|=========================
|
+Explanation+.—The line that separates made from queen slants toward the object complement to show that queen belongs to the object.
A noun or pronoun used as objective complement is in the objective case.
The teacher may here explain such constructions as, "I proved it to be him," in which it is object complement and to be him is objective complement. Him, the attribute complement of be, is in the objective case because it, the assumed subject of be, is objective. Let the pupils compare "I proved it to be him" with "I proved that it was he;" "Whom did you suppose it to be?" with "Who did you suppose it was?" etc.
NOUNS AS ADVERB MODIFIERS.
The following uses of nouns and pronouns, not found in the preceding
Lessons, may be introduced in a review course.
1. He gave John a book. 2. He bought me a book.
John and me, as here used, are generally called Indirect Objects. The "indirect object" names the one to or for whom something is done. We treat these words as phrase modifiers without the preposition. If we change the order, the preposition must be supplied; as, "He gave a book to John;" "He bought a book for me."
Nouns denoting measure, quantity, weight, time, value, distance, or direction may be used adverbially, being equivalent to phrase modifiers without the preposition; as,
1. We walked four miles an hour. 2. It weighs one pound. 3. It is worth a dollar. 4. The wall is ten feet, six inches high. 5. I went home that way.
The following diagram will illustrate both the "indirect object" and the "noun of measure:"—
They offered Caesar the crown three times.
They | offered | crown
=======|====================
| \ \ \the
\ \ times
\ \———
\ \three
\ Caesar
\———
+Explanation+.—Caesar (the "indirect object") and times (denoting measure) stand in the diagram on lines representing the principal words of prepositional phrases.
SCHEMES FOR REVIEW.
These schemes will be found very helpful in a general review. The pupils should be able to reproduce them, omitting the Lesson numbers.
Scheme for the Sentence.
(The numbers refer to Lessons.)
PARTS.
+Subject+.
Noun or Pronoun (6, 14, 19).
Phrase (49).
Clause (61).
+Predicate+.
Verb (6,16).
+Complements+.
Object.
Noun or Pronoun (39).
Phrase (49).
Clause (61).
Attribute.
Adjective (39).
Noun or Pronoun (42).
Phrase.
Clause (61).
+Modifiers+.
Adjectives (20, 22).
Adverbs (24, 27).
Participles (48).
Nouns and Pronouns (53).
Phrases (31, 48, 49).
Clauses (57, 59).
+Connectives+.
Conjunctions (35, 36, 62).
Pronouns (57).
Adverbs (59).
+Independent Parts (36, 64)+.
+Classes+—+Meaning+.—Declarative, Interrogative, Imperative,
Exclamatory (63).
+Classes+—+Form+.—Simple, Complex, Compound (57, 62).
Scheme for the Noun.
(The numbers refer to Lessons.)
NOUN (14).
+Uses+.
Subject (6).
Object Complement (39).
Attribute Complement (42).
Adjective Modifier (53).
Prin. word in Prep. Phrase (34).
Independent (64).
+Classes+.
Common (71).
Proper (71).
+Modifications+.
Number
Singular (78, 79).
Plural (78, 79).
+Gender+.
Masculine (80).
Feminine (80).
Neuter (80).
+Person+.
First (81-83).
Second (81-83).
Third (81-83).
+Case+.
Nominative (81-85).
Possessive (81-85).
Objective (81-85).
Scheme for the Pronoun.
PRONOUNS.
+Uses+.—Same as those of the Noun.
+Classes+.
Personal (71, 72).
Relative (71, 72).
Interrogative (71, 72).
Adjective (71, 72).
+Modifications+.—Same as those of the Noun
(78, 80, 81, 82, 83, 85, 95).
Scheme for the Verb.
(The numbers refer to Lessons.)
VERB.
+Uses+
To assert action, being, or state.—Predicate (6, 16).
To assume action, being, or state. Participles (48).
Infinitives (49).
+Classes+.
Form.
Regular (74).
Irregular (74, 91).
Meaning.
Transitive (74),
Intransitive (74).
+Modifications+.
Voice.
Active (89).
Passive (89).
Mode.
Indicative (90-94).
Potential (90-94).
Subjunctive (90-94).
Imperative (90-94).
Tense.
Present (90-94).
Past (90-94).
Future (90-94).
Present Perfect (90-94).
Past Perfect (90-94).
Future Perfect (90-94).
Number.
Singular (90, 92-95).
Plural (90, 92-95).
Person.
First (90, 92-95).
Second (90, 92-95).
Third (90, 92-95).
+Participles+.—
Classes.
Present (90-94, 96, 98).
Past (90-94, 96, 98).
Past Perfect (90-94, 96, 98).
+Infinitives+.—
Tenses.
Present (90, 92-94).
Present Perfect (90, 92-94).
Scheme for the Adjective.
(The numbers refer to Lessons.)
ADJECTIVE.
+Uses+.
Modifier (20, 23).
Attribute Complement (39).
+Classes+.
Descriptive (73).
Definitive (73).
+Modification+.—Comparison.
Pos. Deg. (87, 88).
Comp. Deg. (87, 88).
Sup. Deg. (87, 88).
Scheme for the Adverb.
ADVERB.
+Classes+.
Time (75).
Place (75).
Degree (75).
Manner (75).
+Modification+—Comparison.
Pos. Deg. (87, 88).
Comp. Deg. (87, 88).
Sup. Deg. (87, 88).
+Schemes for the Conj., Prep., and Int+.
THE CONJUNCTION.—
+Classes+.
Co-ordinate (36, 76). No Modifications.
Subordinate (36, 76). No Modifications.
THE PREPOSITION (34, 41).—No Classes. No Modifications.
THE INTERJECTION (36).—No Classes. No Modifications.
+Model for Written Parsing adapted to all Parts of Speech+.—Oh! it has a voice for those who on their sick beds lie and waste away.
CLASSIFICATION. MODIFICATIONS. SYNTAX.
Sentence.
Oh! Class: Int. Voice: Independent.
Sub-C.: Mode:
Tense:
Per.:
Num.:
Gen.:
Case:
Deg. of
Comp.:
it Class: Pro. Voice: Sub. of has.
Sub-C.: Per. Mode:
Tense:
Per.: 3d.
Num.: Sing.
Gen.: Neut.
Case: Nom.
Deg. of
Comp.: Pred. of it.
has Class: Vb. Voice: Act.
Sub-C.: Ir., Tr. Mode: Ind.
Tense: Pres.
Per.: 3d.
Num.: Sing.
Gen.:
Case:
Deg. of
Comp.:
a Class: Adj. Voice: Mod. of voice.
Sub-C.: Def. Mode:
Tense:
Per.:
Num.:
Gen.:
Case:
Deg. of
Comp.: ——
voice Class: N. Voice: Obj. Com. of has.
Sub-C.: Com. Mode:
Tense:
Per.: 3d.
Num.: Sing.
Gen.: Neut.
Case: Obj.
Deg. of
Comp.:
for Class: Prep. Voice: Shows Rel. of
Sub-C.: Mode: has to
Tense: those.
Per.:
Num.:
Gen.:
Case:
Deg. of
Comp.:
those Class: Pro. Voice: Prin. word after
Sub-C.: Adj. Mode: for.
Tense:
Per.: 3d.
Num.: Plu.
Gen.: M.or F.
Case: Obj.
Deg. of
Comp.:
who Class: Pro. Voice: Sub. of lie and
Sub-C.: Rel. Mode: waste.
Tense:
Per.: 3d.
Num.: Plu.
Gen.: M.or F.
Case: Nom.
Deg. of
Comp.:
on Class: Prep. Voice: Shows Rel. of lie
Sub-C.: Mode: to beds.
Tense:
Per.:
Num.:
Gen.:
Case:
Deg. of
Comp.:
their Class: Pro. Voice: Pos. Mod. of
Sub-C.: Per. Mode: beds.
Tense:
Per.: 3d.
Num.: Plu.
Gen.: M.or F.
Case: Pos.
Deg. of
Comp.:
sick Class: Adj. Voice: Mod. of beds.
Sub-C.: Des. Mode:
Tense:
Per.:
Num.:
Gen.:
Case:
Deg. of
Comp.: Pos.
beds Class: N. Voice: Prin. word after
Sub-C.: Com. Mode: on.
Tense:
Per.: 3d.
Num.: Plu.
Gen.: Neut.
Case: Obj.
Deg. of
Comp.:
lie Class: Vb. Voice: —— Pred. of who.
Sub-C.: Ir., Int. Mode: Ind.
Tense: Pres.
Per.: 3d.
Num.: Plu.
Gen.:
Case:
Deg. of
Comp.:
and Class: Conj. Voice: Con. lie and
Sub-C.: Co-or. Mode: waste.
Tense:
Per.:
Num.:
Gen.:
Case:
Deg. of
Comp.:
waste Class: Vb. Voice: —— Pred. of who.
Sub-C.: Reg., Int.Mode: Ind.
Tense: Pres.
Per.: 3d.
Num.: Plu.
Gen.:
Case:
Deg. of
Comp.:
away. Class: Adv. Voice: Mod. of waste.
Sub-C.: Place Mode:
Tense:
Per.:
Num.:
Gen.:
Case:
Deg. of
Comp.: ——
For exercises in general parsing, select from the preceding Lessons on
Analysis.
LIST OF CONNECTIVES.
+Remark+.—Some of the connectives below are conjunctions proper; some are relative pronouns; and some are adverbs or adverb phrases, which, in addition to their office as modifiers, may, in the absence of the conjunction, take its office upon themselves, and connect the clauses.
CO-ORDINATE CONNECTIVES.
+Copulative+.—And, both…and, as well as, [Footnote: The as well as in "He, as well as I, went"; and not that in "He is as well as I am.">[ are conjunctions proper. Accordingly, also, besides, consequently, furthermore, hence, likewise, moreover, now, so, then, and therefore are conjunctive adverbs.
+Adversative+.—But and whereas are conjunctions proper. However, nevertheless, notwithstanding, on the contrary, on the other hand, still, and yet are conjunctive adverbs.
+Alternative+.—Neither, nor, or, either… or, and neither…nor are conjunctions proper. Else and otherwise are conjunctive adverbs.
SUBORDINATE CONNECTIVES.
Connectives of Adjective Clauses.
That, what, whatever, which, whichever, who, and whoever are relative pronouns. When, where, whereby, wherein, and why are conjunctive adverbs.
Connectives of Adverb Clauses.
Time.—After, as, before, ere, since, till, until, when, whenever, while, and whilst are conjunctive adverbs.
Place.—Whence, where, and wherever are conjunctive adverbs.
Degree.—As, than, that, and the are conjunctive adverbs, correlative, with adjectives or adverbs.
Manner.—As is a conjunctive adverb, correlative often with an adjective or an adverb.
Real Cause.—As, because, for, since, and whereas are conjunctions proper.
Reason.—Because, for, and since are conjunctions proper.
Purpose.—In order that, lest (=that not) that, and so that are conjunctions proper.
Condition.—Except, if, in case that, on condition that, provided, provided that, and unless are conjunctions proper.
Concession.—Although, if (=even if), notwithstanding, though, and whether are conjunctions proper. However is a conjunctive adverb. Whatever, whichever, and whoever are relative pronouns used indefinitely.
+Connectives of Noun Clauses+.
If, lest, that, and whether are conjunctions proper. What, which, and who are pronouns introducing questions; how, when, whence, where, and why are conjunctive adverbs.