Efficiency of Irritant Gases
One pound of the irritant gases is equal to 500 to 1,000 pounds of other gases when forcing the wearing of the mask alone is desired. The great economy resulting from their use is thus apparent. Due to the rapid evaporation of the non-persistent gases they are used generally only in dense clouds, whether those clouds be produced from cylinders or from bombs. These gases are used only for producing immediate casualties, as the necessary amount of gas to force the enemy to constantly wear his mask by the use of non-persistent gases alone could not possibly be taken to the front.
Mustard gas, which is highly persistent and also attacks the lungs, eyes and skin of the body, may and will be used to force the wearing of the mask. It has one disadvantage when it is desired to force immediately the wearing of the mask, and that is its delayed action and the fact that it acts so slowly, and is usually encountered in such slight concentrations that several hours’ exposure are necessary to produce a severe casualty. For these reasons the enemy may often take chances in the heat of battle with mustard gas, and while himself becoming a casualty, inflict quite heavy casualties upon opposing troops by continuing to operate his guns or rifles without masks. A powerful tear gas on the other hand forces the immediate wearing of the mask.
Material of Chemical Warfare
Used by C. W. S. Troops
Chemical warfare troops, in making gas attacks, use cylinders for the cloud or wave attack, and the Livens’ projector and the 4-inch Stokes’ mortar for attacks with heavy concentrations of gas projected by bombs with ranges up to a mile. This distance will in the future probably be increased to 1½ or 1¾ miles. The original cylinders used in wave attacks were heavy, cumbersome and very laborious to install, and notwithstanding the wave attack was known to be the deadliest form of gas attack used in the war, fell into disrepute after the use of gas became general in artillery shells and in special bombs.
Cloud Gas. The Americans at once concluded that since cloud gas attacks were so effective, efforts should be made to make these attacks of frequent occurrence by decreasing the weight of the cylinders, and by increasing the portability and methods of discharging the cylinders. As early as March, 1918, specifications for cylinders weighing not more than 65 pounds, filled and completely equipped for firing, were cabled to the United States. They would have been used in large numbers in the campaign of 1919 had the enemy not quit when he did. Toxic smoke candles that are filled with solids driven off by heat will probably be the actual method in the future for putting off cloud attacks. The toxic smoke candle is perfectly safe under all conditions and can be made in any size desired. Cloud gas attacks will be common in the future, and all plans of defense must be made accordingly. They will usually be made at night, when, due to fatigue and the natural sleepiness which comes at that time, men are careless, lose their way, or neglect their masks, and are thus caught unprepared. Experience in the war proved that a wave attack always produced casualties even, as several times occurred, when the enemy or the Allied troops knew some hours beforehand that the attack was coming. The English estimated these casualties to be 10 or 11 per cent of the troops exposed.
Livens’ Projectors. The second most effective weapon for using gas by gas troops was and will be the Livens’ projector. This projector is nothing less than the simplest form of mortar, consisting of a straight drawn steel tube and a steel base plate. As used during the World War by the Allies it did not even have a firing pin or other mechanism in the base, the electric wires for firing passing out through the muzzle and alongside the drum or projectile which was small enough to permit that method of firing. These were set by the hundreds, very close behind or even in front of the front line trenches. They were all fired at the same instant, or as nearly at the same instant as watches could be synchronized, and firing batteries operated. As discussed on 18 these mortars were emplaced deep enough in the ground to bring their muzzles practically level with the surface. It usually took several days to prepare the attack, and consequently allowed an opportunity for the enemy to detect the work by aeroplane photographs or by raids, and destroy the emplacements by artillery fire. It should be added, however, that notwithstanding this apparent great difficulty, very few attacks were broken up in that way. Nevertheless, in line with the general policy of the American troops to get away from anything that savored of trench warfare, and to make the fighting as nearly continuous as possible with every means available, the American Chemical Warfare Service set at work at once to develop an easy method of making projector attacks.
It was early found, that, if the excavation was made just deep enough so that the base plate could be set at the proper angle, the drums or projectiles were fired as accurately as when the projectors or mortars were set so that the muzzles were level with the surface. The time required to emplace a given number of mortars in this way was only about one-fifth of that required for digging them completely in.
Coupled of course with these proposed improvements in methods, studies were being made and are still being made to produce lighter mortars, better powder charges, and better gas checks in order to develop the full force of the powder. Many improvements along this line can be made, all of which will result in greater mobility, more frequent attacks, and hence greater efficiency.
4-Inch Stokes’ Mortar. The Stokes’ mortar is not different from that used by the Infantry, except that it is 4-inch, while the Infantry Stokes’ is 3-inch. The 4-inch was chosen by the British for gas, as it was the largest caliber that could be fired rapidly and yet be moderately mobile. Its range of only about 1,100 yards handicapped it considerably. The poor design of the bomb was partly responsible for this. The powder charges also were neither well chosen nor well designed. It is believed that great improvements can be made in the shape of the bomb and in the powder charge, which will result in much longer range and high efficiency, while in no way increasing the weight of the bomb or decreasing the rate of fire. These last two weapons were used during the World War, and will be very extensively used in the future for firing high explosive, phosphorus, thermit and similar materials that non-technical troops might handle.
Since gas has proven without the shadow of a doubt, that it will produce more casualties for an equal amount of material transported to the front than any other substance yet devised, all troops using short range guns or mortars should be trained to fire gas whenever weather conditions are right. When weather conditions are not right, they should fire the other substances mentioned. The Livens’ projector with its 60 pound bomb, of which 30 pounds will be gas or high explosive, is a wonderful gun up to the limit of its range. The bomb, not being pointed, does not sink into the ground, and hence upon exploding exerts the full force of high explosive upon the surroundings, whether bombs, pill boxes, barbed wire or trenches, to say nothing of personnel.
High Explosive in Projectors. When these are burst by the hundreds on a small area everything movable is blotted out. Thus concrete machine gun emplacements, lookout stations, bomb-proofs and wire entanglements are destroyed, trenches filled up, and the personnel annihilated. This was amply demonstrated on the few occasions when it was actually used at the front. The American Infantry, wherever they saw it tried out, were wild to have more of it used. The German was apparently equally anxious to have the use stopped. It is, however, one of the things that must be reckoned with in the future. It means practically that No Man’s Land in the future will be just as wide as the extreme range of these crude mortars—and here a word of caution. While efforts have been made to increase the range of these mortars, whether of the Livens’ projector or Stokes’ variety, no further increase will be attempted when that increase reduces the speed of firing or the efficiency of the projectile. In other words results depend upon large quantities of material delivered at the same instant on the point attacked, and if this cannot be obtained the method is useless. For this reason these mortars will never be a competitor of the artillery. The artillery will have all that it can do to cover the field within its range—beyond that reached by the mortars.
Phosphorus in 4-Inch Stokes. Phosphorus will be used largely by gas troops, but only in the 4-inch or other Stokes’ mortar that may be finally adopted as best. The Livens’ projector carries too great a quantity, and being essentially a single shot gun, is not adapted to keeping up a smoke screen by slow and continued firing, or of being transported so as to keep up with the Infantry. Phosphorus has also very great value for attacking personnel itself. Any one who has been burned with phosphorus or has witnessed the ease with which it burns when exposed to air, wet or dry, has a most wholesome fear of it. The result of it in the war showed that the enemy machine gunners or other troops would not stand up under a bombardment of phosphorus fired from the 4-inch Stokes’ mortar—each bomb containing about seven pounds.
Thermit. Thermit is used in the same way, and while the idea of molten metal, falling upon men and burning through clothing and even helmets, is attractive in theory, it proved absolutely worthless for those purposes on the field of battle. It was found impossible to throw sufficiently large quantities of molten metal on a given spot to cause any considerable burn. In other words, the rapid spreading out and cooling of the metal almost entirely ruined its effectiveness, except its effect on the morale. This latter, however, was considerable, as one might judge from seeing the thermit shells burst in air. For this reason thermit may find a limited use in the future.