Markings for American Shell
In selecting markings for American chemical shell, red bands were used to denote persistency, white bands to denote non-persistency and lethal properties, yellow bands to denote smoke, and purple bands to denote incendiary action. The number of bands indicates the relative strength of the property indicated; thus, three red bands denote a gas more persistent than one red band.
The following shell markings were actually used:
| 1 White | Diphenylchloroarsine |
| 2 White | Phosgene |
| 1 White, 1 red | Chloropicrin |
| 1 White, 1 red, 1 white | 75% Chloropicrin, 25% Phosgene |
| 1 White, 1 red, 1 yellow | 80% Chloropicrin, 20% Stannic Chloride |
| 1 Red | Bromoacetone |
| 2 Red | Bromobenzylcyanide |
| 3 Red | Mustard Gas |
| 1 Yellow | White Phosphorus |
| 2 Yellow | Titanium Tetrachloride |
TABLE II
Physical Constants of Important War Gases
| Name of Gas | Formula | Molecular Weight | Liquid Density at 20° C. under Own Pressure | Melting point, °C. | Boiling point, °C. | Vapor Pressure at 20° C. (mm. Hg) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Bromoacetone | C₃H₅BrO | 136.98 | 1.7(?) | - 54 | 126 | 9(?) |
| Carbon monoxide | CO | 28.00 | (Gas) | -207 | -190 | (Gas) |
| Cyanogen bromide | BrCN | 106.02 | 2.01 | 52 | 61.3 | 89 |
| Cyanogen chloride | ClCN | 61.56 | 1.186 | - 6 | 15 | 1002 |
| Chlorine | Cl₂ | 70.92 | 1.408 | -101.5 | 33.6 | 5126 |
| Chloropicrin | Cl₃C(NO₂) | 164.39 | 1.654 | - 69.2 | 112 | 18.9 |
| Dichloroethyl sulfide | (CH₃CHCl₂)S | 169.06 | 1.274 | 12.5 | 216 | .06 |
| Diphenylchloroarsine | (C₆H₅)₂AsCl | 264.56 | 1.422 | 44 | 333 | .0025 |
| Hydrocyanic acid | HCN | 27.11 | .697 | - 14 | 26.1 | 603 |
| Phenyldichloroarsine | C₆H₅AsCl₂ | 210.96 | 1.640 | ... | 253 | .022 |
| Phosgene | COCl₂ | 98.92 | 1.38 | ... | 8.2 | 1215 |
| Stannic chloride | SnCl₄ | 260.54 | 2.226 | - 33 | 114 | 18.58 |
| Superpalite | CCl₃COOCl | 197.85 | 1.65 | ... | 128 | 10.3 |
| Xylyl bromide | ( CH₃)C₆H₄CH₂Br | 185.03 | 1.381 | - 2 | 214.5 | ... |
TABLE III
German Shell
| Name of Shell | Shell Filling | Nature of Effect |
|---|---|---|
| B-shell [K₁ shell (White B or BM)] | Bromoketone | Lachrymator |
| (Bromomethylethyl ketone) | ||
| Blue Cross | (a) Diphenylchloroarsine | Sternutator |
| (b) Diphenylcyanoarsine | Sternutator | |
| (c) Diphenylchloroarsine, | ||
| Ethyl carbazol | ||
| C-shell (Green Cross) (White C) | Superpalite | Asphyxiant |
| D-shell (White D) | Phosgene | Lethal |
| Green Cross | (a) Superpalite | Asphyxiant |
| (b) Phenylcarbylaminechloride | ||
| Green Cross 1 | Superpalite 65%, | Asphyxiant |
| Chloropicrin 35% | ||
| Superpalite, | ||
| Green Cross 2 | Phosgene, | Asphyxiant |
| Diphenylchloroarsine | ||
| Green Cross 3 | Ethyldichloroarsine, | |
| (Yellow Cross 1) | Methyldibromoarsine, | Asphyxiant |
| Dichloromethyl ether | ||
| K-shell (Yellow) | Chloromethylchloroformate | Asphyxiant |
| (Palite) | ||
| T-shell (Black or green T) | Xylyl bromide, | Lachrymator |
| Bromo ketone | ||
| Yellow Cross | Mustard gas, | Vesicant |
| Diluent (CCl₄, C₆H₅Cl, C₆H₅NO₂) | ||
| Yellow Cross 1 | See Green Cross 3 |
CHAPTER III
DEVELOPMENT OF THE CHEMICAL WARFARE
SERVICE
Modern chemical warfare dates from April 22, 1915. Really, however, it may be said to have started somewhat earlier, for Germany undoubtedly had spent several months in perfecting a successful gas cylinder and a method of attack. The Allies, surprised by such a method of warfare, were forced to develop, under pressure, a method of defense, and then, when it was finally decided to retaliate, a method of gas warfare. “Offensive organizations were enrolled in the Engineer Corps of the two armies and trained for the purpose of using poisonous gases; the first operation of this kind was carried out by the British at the battle of Loos in September, 1915.
“Shortly after this the British Army in the field amalgamated all the offensive, defensive, advisory and supply activities connected with gas warfare and formed a ‘Gas Service’ with a Brigadier General as Director. This step was taken almost as a matter of necessity, and because of the continually increasing importance of the use of gas in the war (Auld).”
At once the accumulation of valuable information and experience was started. Later this was very willingly and freely placed at the disposal of American workers. Too much cannot be said about the hearty co-operation of England and France. Without it and the later exchange of information on all matters regarding gas warfare, the progress of gas research in all the allied countries would have been very much retarded.
While many branches of the American Army were engaged in following the progress of the war during 1915-1916, the growing importance of gas warfare was far from being appreciated. When the United States declared war on Germany April 6, 1917, there were a few scattered observations on gas warfare in various offices of the different branches, but there was no attempt at an organized survey of the field, while absolutely no effort had been made by the War Department to inaugurate research in a field that later had 2,000 men alone in pure research work. Equally important was the fact that no branch of the Service had any idea of the practical methods of gas warfare.
The only man who seemed to have the vision and the courage of his convictions was Van H. Manning, Director of the Bureau of Mines. Since the establishment of the Bureau in 1908 it had maintained a staff of investigators studying poisonous and explosive gases in mines, the use of self-contained breathing apparatus for exploring mines filled with noxious gases, the treatment of men overcome by gas, and similar problems. At a conference of the Director of the Bureau with his Division Chiefs, on February 7, 1917, the matter of national preparedness was discussed, and especially the manner in which the Bureau could be of most immediate assistance with its personnel and equipment. On February 8, the Director wrote C. D. Walcott, Chairman of the Military Committee of the National Research Council, pointing out that the Bureau of Mines could immediately assist the Navy and the Army in developing, for naval or military use, special oxygen breathing apparatus similar to that used in mining. He also stated that the Bureau could be of aid in testing types of gas masks used on the fighting lines, and had available testing galleries at the Pittsburgh experiment station and an experienced staff. Dr. Walcott replied on February 12 that he was bringing the matter to the attention of the Military Committee.
A meeting was arranged between the Bureau and the War College, the latter organization being represented by Brigadier General Kuhn and Major L. P. Williamson. At this conference the War Department enthusiastically accepted the offer of the Bureau of Mines and agreed to support the work in every way possible.
The supervision of the research on gases was offered to Dr. G. A. Burrell, for a number of years in charge of the chemical work done by the Bureau in connection with the investigation of mine gases and natural gas. He accepted the offer on April 7, 1917. The smoothness with which the work progressed under his direction and the importance of the results obtained were the result of Colonel Burrell’s great tact, his knowledge of every branch of research under investigation and his imagination and general broad-mindedness.
Once, however, that the importance of gas warfare had been brought to the attention of the chemists of the country, the response was very eager and soon many of the best men of the university and industrial plants were associated with Burrell in all the phases of gas research. The staff grew very rapidly and laboratories were started at various points in the East and Middle West.
It was immediately evident that there should be a central laboratory in Washington to co-ordinate the various activities and also to considerably enlarge those activities under the joint direction of the Army, the Navy and the Bureau of Mines. Fortunately a site was available for such a laboratory at the American University, the use of the buildings and grounds having been tendered President Wilson on April 30, 1917. Thus originated the American University Experiment Station, later to become the Research Division of the Chemical Warfare Service.
Meanwhile other organizations were getting under way. The procurement of toxic gases and the filling of shell was assigned to the Trench Warfare Section of the Ordnance Department. In June, 1917, General Crozier, then Chief of the Ordnance Department, approved the general proposition of building a suitable plant for filling shell with toxic gas. In November, 1917, it was decided to establish such a plant at Gunpowder Neck, Maryland. Owing to the inability of the chemical manufacturers to supply the necessary toxic gases, it was further decided, in December, 1917, to erect at the same place such chemical plants as would be necessary to supply these gases. In January, 1918, the name was changed to Edgewood Arsenal, and the project was made a separate Bureau of the Ordnance Department, Col. William H. Walker, of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, being soon afterwards put in command.
While, during the latter part of the War, gas shell were handled by the regular artillery, special troops were needed for cylinder attacks, Stokes’ mortars, Livens’ projectors and for other forms of gas warfare. General Pershing early cabled, asking for the organization and training of such troops, and recommended that they be placed, as in the English Army, under the jurisdiction of the Engineer Corps. On August 15, 1917, the General Staff authorized one regiment of Gas and Flame troops, which was designated the “30th Engineers,” and was commanded by Major (later Colonel) E. J. Atkisson. This later became the First Gas Regiment, of the Chemical Warfare Service.
About this time (September, 1917) the need of gas training was recognized by the organization of a Field Training Section, under the direction of the Sanitary Corps, Medical Department. Later it was recognized that neither the Training Section nor the Divisional Gas Officers should be under the Medical Department, and, in January, 1918, the organization was transferred to the Engineer Corps.
All of these, with the exception of the Gas and Flame regiment, were for service on this side. The need for an Overseas force was recognized and definitely stated in a letter, dated August 4, 1917. On September 3, 1917, an order was issued establishing the Gas Service, under the command of Lt. Col. (later Brigadier General) A. A. Fries, as a separate Department of the A. E. F. in France. In spite of a cable on September 26th, in which General Pershing had said
“Send at once chemical laboratory, complete equipment and personnel, including physiological and pathological sections, for extensive investigation of gases and powders....”
it was not until the first of January, 1918, that Colonel R. F. Bacon of the Mellon Institute sailed for France with about fifty men and a complete laboratory equipment.
Meantime a Chemical Service Section had been organized in the United States. This holds the distinction of being the first recognition of chemistry as a separate branch of the military service in any country or any war. This was authorized October 16, 1917, and was to consist of an officer of the Engineers, not above the rank of colonel, who was to be Director of Gas Service, with assistants, not above the rank of lieutenant colonel from the Ordnance Department, Medical Department and Chemical Service Section. The Section itself was to consist of 47 commissioned and 95 non-commissioned officers and privates. Colonel C. L. Potter, Corps of Engineers, was appointed Director and Professor W. H. Walker was commissioned Lieutenant Colonel and made Assistant Director of the Gas Service and Chief of the Chemical Service Section. This was increased on Feb. 15, 1918 to 227 commissioned and 625 enlisted men, and on May 6, 1918 to 393 commissioned and 920 enlisted men. Meanwhile Lt. Col. Walker had been transferred to the Ordnance and Lt. Col. Bogert had been appointed in his place.
At this time practically every branch of the Army had some connection with Gas Warfare. The Medical Corps directed the Gas Defense production. Offense production was in the hands of the Ordnance Department. Alarm devices, etc., were made by the Signal Corps. The Engineers contributed their 30th Regiment (Gas and Flame) and the Field Training Section. The Research Section was still in charge of the Bureau of Mines, in spite of repeated attempts to militarize it. And in addition, the Chemical Service Section had been formed primarily to deal with overseas work. While the Director of the Gas Service was expected to co-ordinate all these activities, he was given no authority to control policy, research or production.
In order to improve these conditions Major General Wm. L. Sibert, a distinguished Engineer Officer who built the Gatun Locks and Dam of the Panama Canal and who had commanded the First Division in France, was appointed Director of the Chemical Warfare Service on May 11, 1918. Under his direction the Chemical Warfare Service was organized with the following Divisions:
| Overseas | Brigadier General Amos A. Fries |
| Research | Colonel G. A. Burrell |
| Development | Colonel F. M. Dorsey |
| Gas Defense Production | Colonel Bradley Dewey |
| Gas Offense Production | Colonel Wm. H. Walker |
| Medical | Colonel W. J. Lyster |
| Proving | Lt. Col. W. S. Bacon |
| Administration | Brigadier General H. C. Newcomer |
| Gas and Flame | Colonel E. J. Atkisson |
The final personnel authorized, though never reached owing to the signing of the Armistice, was 4,066 commissioned officers and 44,615 enlisted men; this was including three gas regiments of eighteen companies each.
General Sibert brought with him not only an extended experience in organizing and conducting big business, but a strong sympathy for the work and an appreciation of the problem that the American Army was facing in France. He very quickly welded the great organization of the Chemical Warfare Service into a whole, and saw to it that each department not only carried on its own duties but co-operated with the others in carrying out the larger program, which, had the war continued, would have beaten the German at his own game.
More detailed accounts will now be given of the various Divisions of the Chemical Warfare Service.