Measurement
Two methods of measuring the effectiveness of a smoke cloud have been devised, one, the smoke box, which measures the obscuring power directly by observing at what distance a lamp filament is obscured by intervening smoke, the other, the Tyndall meter, which measures the intensity of the scattering of the light.
The earliest measurements of smoke intensity are perhaps those of Ringelmann (Revue Technique, 19, 286), who devised the well known chart of that name, intended mainly for measuring intensities of black smoke issuing from a chimney at a distance. The first measurements for military purposes are probably due to Bertrand, who made numerous comparative studies with his “salle opacimetrique.” This was a room 23 × 14 × 3.6 meters, with 7 windows. Two doors, one provided with 3 oculars 2 cm. in diameter, gave access to the room. On the other door, opposite the first, were hung several black signs. Six pairs of columns were spaced along the room at measured distances. When a smoke is produced in the room, the black paper signs first become invisible, then the door itself, and finally the columns, pair by pair. They reappear in the reverse order, and as a measure of relative opacity Bertrand took the time elapsing between the detonation and the reappearance of the farther door.
Fig. 89.—Tyndall Meter.
Fig. 90.—Cottrell Precipitation Tube.
Smoke Box. The smoke box, used by the C. W. S., was constructed of wood with tight joints, and had a moveable brass rod running through it to which was attached a small size 25-Watt Mazda lamp. The density of each smoke introduced in the box is determined by moving this lamp back and forth until a point is reached when the pattern of the filament can just be distinguished by the observer looking in at the glass window, external light being excluded by a black cloth. The thickness of the smoke layer between the glass window and the light is recorded as the measure of the smoke density. For field tests, a larger box, 6 × 8 × 8 feet (288 cubic feet) was constructed. The observation light was moveable in a line connecting the mid-points of opposite sides of the box. To insure uniform distribution of smoke, a fan with 18-inch blade revolved at any desired speed between 60 and 250 r.p.m. With this, results are obtained indicating both the original density and its stability.
Tyndall Meter. The Tyndall meter was first devised for studying smokes and mists. Tolman and Vliet adapted it to Chemical Warfare purposes, and used it in studying the properties of smokes.
The apparatus ([Fig. 89]) consists eventually of an electric light bulb, a condensing lens giving a beam of parallel light which passes through the diaphragm, and a Macbeth illuminometer for measuring the strength of the Tyndall beam. In case the material is a liquid suspension or solution, it is introduced into a cylindrical glass tube, while smokes and mists are premixed directly through the apparatus. The long closed tubes are provided, respectively, for absorbing the beam after it has passed through the disperse system and for giving a dark background for observing the Tyndall beam. Methods of standardization are given in the Journal of the American Chemical Society, 41, 299.
A third method for analyzing smokes consists in the use of an electrical precipitator. This apparatus consists essentially of a modified Cottrell Precipitator, with a central wire as cathode surrounded by a cylindrical foil as anode ([Fig. 90]). The smoke to be analyzed is drawn through the apparatus at a known rate, and the particles of smoke precipitated on the foil by means of a high voltage, direct current. The determination of concentration is made by weighing the foil before and after precipitation.