Climate
The climate of the several sections, as in Colombia and Venezuela, varies chiefly on account of the altitude, though in places affected also by other causes obvious or hidden. The coastal region is warm with a mean temperature of 82.4°, but with variation in humidity and rainfall. South of the equator the coast is arid with little rain, except in the vicinity of the Gulf of Guayaquil; but farther north in the Province of Esmeraldas there is rain and luxuriant vegetation, as along the Colombian littoral. Towards the mountains, the climate though warmer is agreeable in the dry season.
The mountains which approach the shore of the Gulf of Guayaquil condense the moisture of the trade winds from the east, causing plenty of rain, sometimes too much; the humidity is excessive. Guayaquil, average temperature 80°, has been notoriously unhealthful. The condition, however, was due more to lack of sanitation than to the climate itself. We know of the wonderful change at Panamá; but at Guayaquil, partly no doubt because of several revolutions and financial difficulties, yellow fever and other diseases have long been prevalent. Happily yellow fever was eradicated under the supervision of General Gorgas, but bubonica and small pox may still exist. Recently contracts have been placed for sanitation, sewers, paving, and other improvements, and something is already accomplished.
In some sections there are two rainy and two dry seasons a year, in others it is liable to rain at any time. At Guayaquil the rainy season is from December to April inclusive, or longer, the remainder of the year being dry. In Ecuador the dry season though the cooler is called verano or summer, while the warmer rainy months are called invierno or winter.
The climate of the Ecuadorian Highlands may be called healthful, with varying temperatures according to the altitude and exposure to the wind. On the east side of the mountains the precipitation is greater than on the west side, as along the entire Cordilleras, except in southern Chile. The snow line varies from 14,000 feet to 15,650 and more, the difference depending chiefly upon the amount of precipitation in the various localities. As the dwellings in these regions have no artificial heat they are uncomfortable much of the time for Americans, accustomed to warm houses. A similar condition prevails in all the cooler sections of South America, the natives being indifferent to a temperature that would be discomfort to most of us. When it is really too cold for them they put on overcoats, furs, ponchos, and even hats in the house. In general in the Inter-Andine region between 6000 and 11,000 feet altitude the annual temperature is from 64° to 68° with frequent variations. At any season rain in the afternoon is common, and in the summer high winds make the paramos often dangerous. The high death rate among the working people and Indians is due more to bad living conditions than to the climate. Leprosy is fairly common; there is a good deal of malaria and typhoid fever. Tuberculosis is unknown but catarrhal complaints are prevalent. Persons coming up from the lowlands frequently suffer from mountain sickness, soroche, though less than where the railroads reach a higher elevation.
In the Trans-Andine section the lower region has two wet and two dry seasons, the most rain being from the end of February to the middle of June, another period is from the middle of October to January; but there is rain in every month. On the mountain slopes the dry season is from November to April.
CHAPTER XVI
ECUADOR: CAPITAL, PROVINCES, CHIEF CITIES
The Capital
Quito, capital of Ecuador, population 100,000, altitude 9348 feet, has a world wide reputation as the city on or under the equator. It is within a quarter of a degree. Interesting historically and on account of its unusual and beautiful location, it is backward in many ways. There are fine Government buildings and churches, hotels said to be fair, cultured people, many Indians, recently a tramway. Lately sewers and paving have been authorized. The climate is considered good with a temperature of from 40° to 70°; a half day’s journey will bring one to a sultry valley with tropical vegetation; hence every kind of fruit and vegetable is in the market.
Provinces
Esmeraldas, the most northern of the coastal Provinces of Ecuador, thus bordering on Colombia, has at the east Carchi, Imbabura, and Pichincha. Although its natural riches have hitherto received less attention than they deserve, it has excellent prospects for the future. The region is well watered and the vegetation rich. Near the boundary, the large bay, Ancon de Sardinas, with its estuaries is navigable for small steamers and launches. Now difficult of access for large vessels on account of shoals and sand banks it might with dredging afford them safe anchorage.
Farther south at the mouth of the Esmeraldas River, Esmeraldas, capital of the Province, population about 6000, is a port of call for some of the steamers from Panamá to Guayaquil. A sand bar at the mouth of the river compels them to anchor well outside. Besides coast settlements, there are villages at the junction of the affluents with the larger streams, and occasional haciendas along the banks. The Province extends far back into the Andean foothills.
Manabí on the south is more hilly than Esmeraldas, but has smaller rivers and less humidity and rain. Part of the long stretch of sea coast is rather dry. The lowland Province of Guayas at the south runs up also on the east with Pichincha farther north. The Bay of Caráquez, on which is a port of the same name, with dredging would become an excellent harbor. A fertile country lies at the back. Just north of Cape San Lorenzo is the Bay of Manta; the city at the south end, Manta, is the chief port of the Province.
Portoviejo, the capital, a city of some 10,000, is 15 miles up the Portoviejo River. At the foot of a hill 1500 feet high is Montecristi, a village, the name of which is familiar to those conversant with the Panamá hat industry; Jipijapa, of like reputation, is near. When a hat purchased at Paita was called by a dealer a Montecristi, it was a high but well merited compliment. Ivory nuts, rubber, and agriculture are other industries.
Guayas, the largest of all the Provinces, borders on the Pacific south of Manabí, as well as on the Gulf of Guayaquil. El Oro is at the south; Azuay, Cañar, and Los Rios are east. The Province includes the most western point of Ecuador, Santa Elena, with the bay at the north; Ballenita on this bay, port of the town Santa Elena, is the landing place of the West Coast cables. In this vicinity petroleum wells have been attempted on a small scale. More important industries at present are the agricultural, pastoral, and forestal. Panamá hats are made and fishing is important. Plantations of cacao, coffee, and sugar cane, and many varieties of fruit trees are found along the rivers, and some cattle are raised. The Island Puná is included in the Province. It is well wooded; timber and cattle raising are the chief industries of the 200 inhabitants.
Guayaquil, the capital of the Province, is the chief commercial city of the Republic.
Los Rios, north and east of Guayas, and west of Bolívar, partakes of the characteristics of the former; a lowland region with fertile cacao lands, many rivers, and several towns busy with interior commerce. Cattle breeding, and timber extraction are important.
El Oro, the most southern of the coastal provinces, thus bordering on Tumbes, Peru, with Loja also on the south and east, and Azuay northeast, extends into the sierra region, as here the range in Ecuador comes nearest to the Pacific; one peak is over 13,000 feet high. Along the shore are mangrove swamps and salt plains.
Machala, the capital, a little farther back, is near one of the famous cacao sections. Along the many streams and esteros back of the mangrove swamps are sabanas 1-3 miles wide, excellent for cattle; then come the cultivated lands, sandy soil overlaid by rich earth where cacao grows wild, and where other plants like bananas and coffee flourish. The lower slopes of the Cordillera up to 3300 feet are also favorable to tropical culture. Fisheries are important and in the Zaruma Hoya or Basin is gold mining.
Loja on the east, and extending farther south, has Peru on both south and west, the precise boundary line still uncertain; the Oriente is on the east. Traversed by the Cordillera Real, it has hot and cold regions, with pleasing towns and bleak spots. The capital, Loja, altitude 7300 feet, is quite a city with 14,000 population.
The Andean Provinces farther north are largely similar to each other in production and characteristics.
Azuay, where there are gold washings and hat making, has the ordinary agriculture and cattle raising of the highlands.
The important town of Cuenca, altitude 8465 feet, is the capital, with a population of 40,000, the third city in Ecuador. Seventy miles southeast of Guayaquil, it is south of the present railway system, carrying on its traffic with the outside world over mountain ranges by means of bridle paths only. It has a few factories for the making of sugar, woolen goods, pottery, hats, and cheese.
Cañar follows, between Guayas west and Oriente east. It includes the great knot of Azuay and its once famous quicksilver mines, now apparently exhausted. From these, the chief town, Azogues, near by, population 9000, took its name.
Chimborazo, as might be supposed, contains Ecuador’s greatest mountain of that name. The Province is followed at the north by Tungurahua, Leon, Pichincha, Imbabura, and Carchi, all quite similar, with their rows of mountains, their cattle, textile industries, growing of cereals, and in the valleys, sugar cane and cotton.
Tulcán in Carchi, and Ibarra in Imbabura are mountain towns, which have some commercial intercourse along the plateau with Pasto, Colombia; with this city they will some day have rail connection.
Bolívar, the smallest Province, is off the line, like Los Rios, being between that Province and Chimborazo. It has the mountainous character and resources of the latter.
Territories
The Galápagos Islands, though of little importance at present, may become valuable as a commercial focus or as a coaling station, since the group lies almost in the path of vessels from the Panama Canal to Australia. Thirteen in number, the Islands on or near the equator have an area of nearly 3000 miles. Except Chaves Island they are privately owned. The inhabitants are few: a small colony on Charles or Santa Maria Island, others on Chatham or San Cristóbal, and on Albemarle. On Chatham is a sugar plantation with a factory for refining sugar and distilling alcohol. Three million pounds of sugar are produced, and if there were a market 40,000 gallons of alcohol might be, instead of the 3500 at present. A coffee plantation of 320,000 trees yields about 300,000 pounds of coffee yearly. Water has been piped five miles and a Decauville railway built. Henequen plants have been set out to furnish material for the needed bags and twine. The cattle industry and fishing are of importance; codfish and lobsters are abundant.
The Islands are especially distinguished for the giant tortoises which are said to live 500 years and sometimes weigh 600 pounds. None such are on the main land. They yield excellent oil, have good flesh and eggs, but are diminishing in numbers and should receive protection. A proposition to lease the Islands to the United States Government in 1911 was rejected by Ecuador.
The Oriente embraces a large forest region, which contains the varieties of trees and other conditions such as are found in the forests of Peru and Colombia; but up to this time there has been little exploitation of its resources. Quite recently the possibilities of petroleum development have been investigated. A concession for exploration and for the drilling of wells in an area of nearly 10,000 square miles has been granted to the Leonard Exploration Company, American.
CHAPTER XVII
ECUADOR: PORTS AND INTERIOR TRANSPORTATION
Ports
Guayaquil. The most important and frequently visited place in Ecuador is the coast city of Guayaquil, the chief port of entry through which communication is had with most of the interior districts. The entrance to the port from the Gulf is by way of the Jambeli Channel south of the island, Puná, on which the quarantine station is located, and where a pilot is taken for the 30 mile journey up the river. Guayaquil is accessible by ordinary ocean steamers drawing no more than 22 feet of water. Larger vessels may anchor at Puná and there transfer passengers or cargo to boats or lighters. It is now proposed to dredge the river as far as Guayaquil. Ships do not come to the docks, which for a mile and a half line the water front of Guayaquil. As in general along the entire coast, goods are transferred to lighters and passengers to rowboats or launches in order to reach the city.
Founded in 1535, Santiago de Guayaquil has suffered many calamities: sacked by buccaneers, more or less destroyed by conflagrations, and shaken by earthquakes. From the water the town has a pleasing appearance, which is constantly improving. The buildings of wood and plaster, which appear quite massive, present the usual variety; many contain first class shops where almost everything is purchasable. The water supply, which is to be largely increased, coming from the Cordillera, 53 miles, passes under the river to a reservoir on the northern hills. There are electric lights and tramways, cable communication by telegraph from Santa Elena, also wireless, several manufacturing plants for local needs, such as gas, ice, chocolate, etc., and a shipyard where vessels are built or repaired. The tide here is swift and strong (8 knots an hour), both up and down, so that all boats take advantage of it in going either way; the flat boats manned by natives bring down provisions, vegetables, and fruit, or go below to fish, without exertion on their part, and with little if any returning. The city is on a low plain with a salt estuary at the back. This could easily be made into an excellent quiet harbor, with docks approachable by steamers, an advantage which would doubtless expedite the gradual increase of commerce.
Minor Ports are Esmeraldas, Bahia, Manta, Cayo, Machalilla, Manglar Alto, Ballenita.
Railways
Guayaquil-Quito Railway. The American built railway to Quito, 290 miles long, opened in June, 1908, begins on the opposite side of the river at a place called Durán, to which passengers are ferried by the company. Here are the railway offices, repair shops, and warehouses. The railway traverses a fine country where sugar cane, coffee, cacao, bananas, and plantains are cultivated, to Bucay, nearly 1000 feet above the sea, at the foot of the Cordillera, 57 miles from Durán. A steep climb here begins with at times a 4¹⁄₂ per cent grade. Above Huigra at 4000 feet, where the upland Indian in poncho appears, is a section where land-slides and washouts are common. Here is a famous switchback where the train backs up the face of a precipice on a ledge cut in the rock. At the Alausi Loop, besides a fine view of a splendid river gorge, the system of terrace cultivation is well seen, every available foot being thus employed up to 12,000 feet.
There is a slight descent to Riobamba, altitude 9200, where the night is spent. On this healthful plateau wheat is cultivated, in increasing quantity since the coming of the railway. Beyond Riobamba, which is noted for its market, made picturesque by hundreds of Indians from the surrounding country, the highest point of the railway is reached, the Chimborazo Pass, 11,841 feet. A descent follows to Ambato, altitude 8550 feet. The climate is more equable than most of the other basins enjoy, and the “Fair” held here is the most famous in Ecuador. In the Latacunga Valley are good pasture lands with cattle, and irrigated fields where fruits and vegetables of the temperate zone are raised. At a height almost equal to that of the Chimborazo Pass, the road crosses the base of Cotopaxi, from whose crest the smoke is ever curling. The fertile valley of Machachi beyond, with its rows on right and left of famous volcanoes, often covered with green up to the eternal snows, presents a picture unique in all the world. The Chillo Valley near, contains cotton and woolen mills run by water power, manufacturing cheap cloth for the use of the natives. Quito has for some time been the terminus of the railway. Owing to engineering difficulties its cost was so great that it has not been a paying proposition; with settled conditions good returns are hoped for. Wood has been used as fuel but a change to oil is expected.
Additional railways are planned, and construction work is going on at several points. The line is being prolonged from Quito to Ibarra, 105 miles, another link in the Pan American chain. Several other roads are expected to climb to Quito from the coast. The first of these to be completed is the Esmeraldas Railway from the port San Lorenzo 125 miles to Ibarra. Construction is well advanced.
Another railroad of 186 miles planned from Bahia de Caráquez is now operated to Chone, 20 miles only. Its completion may follow that of Esmeraldas. One more is talked of from Ancon de Sardinas, all to extend to Quito. To the east connection is planned with the Amazon Basin by means of a railway from Ambato to San Antonio on the Curaray River, from which steam navigation would be made by the Curaray and the Napo to the Amazon. From Ambato 20 miles have been constructed. From Sibambe, a little below Alausi, a railway is begun to Cuenca, 125 miles. A railway 94 miles long from Guayaquil to Santa Elena is half finished, 1921. The Government of Ecuador is said to have authorized a concession for the construction of a railway from Puerto Bolívar on the Pacific to Borja, just below the Pongo de Manseriche on the Marañón.
Other Means of Communication
Aside from the few railways, water ways and mule trails are the means of communication. The rivers, and the estuaries, tide water channels, are of great importance, even streams practicable only for canoes. On the Ecuador littoral 600 miles altogether are deemed navigable, these at present of greater use than the Amazon tributaries, which in the future will have a development of assured value.
On the water ways of the Pacific system the steamboat, the flat boat or chata, the raft, and the canoe, all have their place. Steamboats of from 25 to 125 tons serve the Guayas River System above Guayaquil, this including nearly a dozen streams or estuaries, in winter penetrating to the foot of the Cordilleras. If the natural water ways were properly developed and a few artificial canals were opened, a much larger field of the richest territory would be accessible. The chatas, boats without sails carrying from 4 to 50 tons, are of lighter draught, the rafts too are important. Made of bamboo and balsa wood they are very light, a single log 40 feet long being able to support 2 tons. Rafts of 20 or 30 logs, in part roofed over, carry the entire family as well as heavy freight. Thanks to the strong tide on the rivers they float down stream very rapidly, returning with a load up stream at turn of tide, more slowly, but without additional propulsion, far above Guayaquil. In this way 48 miles a day may be covered. Canoes of course have the same advantage and steamboats also, these being often delayed at Puná or Guayaquil to have the benefit of the tide which runs 8 miles an hour. The canoes, which are able to carry from 500 to 50,000 pounds of freight, bring from remote places valuable cargoes of cacao or other stuff and return laden with supplies. Few roads or trails exist in this section, but there are some, available in the dry season, especially in the better populated districts of Guayas. A trail through the jungle called a trocha, made with axe and machete, is soon overgrown again.
In the Andine section there is one good cart road leading from Quito 115 miles south. The trails to the east are five in number; the most frequented, the one from the Pichincha Province (Quito) to the pueblos or villages of the Napo (a high road is now being constructed), one from Tungurahua farther south through Baños to Canelas; one from Chimborazo to Macas; one from Azuay to Gualaquiza; one from Loja to Zumba and Chita, and on to Jaen in Peru.
Between the plateau region and the coast, at the north, practically no communication exists, but farther down there are a number of trails. Thus there are roads to Latacunga and Ambato from the lower valleys west, several extend to points above from Babahoya or Bodegas, the capital of Los Rios and the chief port of the interior on the river which also enjoys the two names. Bodegas is 36 miles up from Guayaquil and is reached by a strong tide so that river steamers come up on the flood in 8 hours and even go higher in winter when the rivers are full. It is from Bodegas that interior traffic begins to points not easily accessible from the railway.
From Naranjal and Machala, coastal towns of El Oro at the extreme south, roads lead to Cuenca and other interior towns; other roads farther south go to Loja, and to Tumbes in Peru. All of these roads are merely mule or bridle trails, no wagon roads existing. In the Andine region there are naturally additional trails from one point to another, many reaching altitudes of 13,000 or 14,000 feet, crossing chasms or rivers on swinging bridges three feet wide, with no more guard than a single wire if any, and passing along slippery dangerous slopes, where the meeting of a loaded mule train may well excite terror; a rock wall on one side and a precipice on the other, often leaving small space for passage. Scenes of beauty may repay some persons for the discomforts and risks endured, but not the average tourist, nor will sufficient business reward the commercial traveler.
The Leonard Exploration Company is to make caminos and later cart roads into the Oriente, where its oil wells may be located.
CHAPTER XVIII
ECUADOR: RESOURCES AND INDUSTRIES
Agriculture
The chief productions, industries, and exports of Ecuador are, as might be expected, agricultural or forestal in character.
Cacao. The cultivation of cacao is by far the most important industry of Ecuador, the amount exported in 1910 having nearly ten times the value of any other commodity. The shrub grows wild in many tracts where it is necessary merely to cut out other growth, leaving such tall trees as may be desirable to shade the cacao shrubs. It remains only to weed the land once a year, to give occasional prunings, and to harvest the fruit. Besides these natural and irregular plantations many have been prepared by clearing a suitable tract except for the required shade trees. In holes two or three yards apart the fresh cacao seeds are sowed; they sprout and grow rapidly. The plants must be sheltered from the sun, maize or yucca serving this purpose for two years, or if the banana plant is used it will suffice for 6 or 7 years till the cacao comes into bearing. By this time other shade trees which may have been planted will be large enough to serve, and the banana plants are cut down. The plantation will then last indefinitely, for when the old trees die at the age of 60 or 80 years a new growth will have appeared to continue the work. The principal harvest is in March and April, but the fruit may be gathered during the entire year. The pod containing the seeds is left on the ground a day or two after cutting, then the seeds are taken out and put in the sweating house for fermentation, which gives a superior color, flavor, and aroma. Drying follows. The cacao is rich in fats, albuminoids, caffeine, and theobromine. In preparation for cocoa the fat is removed and used for cocoa butter; it is retained for chocolate, which is therefore richer than cocoa and for many persons is less digestible. A large area is now under cultivation but more land is available. The best plantations are at an altitude of 650-2600 feet. Twelve per cent is an ordinary return on an investment, and at 1918 prices from 15 to 25 per cent. It is the safest and easiest crop of the country, and foreign investors have engaged in the industry. The districts south of Guayaquil yield especially fine crops, though cacao flourishes on any of the hot humid lowlands. With more scientific culture the quality might probably be improved, as it is said to be hardly equal to the best raised elsewhere.
Other products are cotton, sugar, maize, tobacco, coffee, tagua, rice, yucca (known also as cassava and mandioca), bananas, indigo, rubber, quinine, bread fruit, etc., all growing up to 3000 feet and some much higher, but of these tagua, rubber, 1,000,000 pounds, and coffee, crop 7,000,000 pounds, in the order named, are the only important exports.
Sugar cane grows rapidly and many sections are suited to it, as also to rice, but not enough of either is produced to supply the home market, though the sugar output amounts to 16,000,000 pounds and much cane is turned into aguardiente or rum. Suitable land is open in Esmeraldas and Manabí. In the Guayas Valley large possibilities exist for extending the rice industry.
Tobacco is cultivated in low lying river lands and plains; that of the Daule River with culture might rival the Havana; that of Esmeraldas is noted for its agreeable aroma.
For the poor people along the shore the plantain is the staff of life, being eaten green, half ripe or ripe, cooked or raw. For the Indians above, maize is the staple article of food, chiefly eaten dry and toasted, and much used by others as a green vegetable.
Coffee, which grows up to 5000 feet, is raised for export on the large plantations in the lower zone. It is said to be of quality superior to the Brazilian and brings a high price. Tropical fruits abound such as pomegranates, paltas, chirimoias, granadillas, oranges, grape-fruit, etc., some of which are exported to Peru and elsewhere.
On the higher lands wheat and barley are cultivated, also maize in sheltered places as well as in the lowlands. Potatoes thrive in the sierra, and other temperate zone fruits and vegetables. Alfalfa is extensively raised wherever possible as fodder for traffic animals.
Forestry
Tagua and rubber are more forest than cultivated products, though a few plantations of each have been set out. In Western Ecuador rubber is produced by the caucho tree, and in consequence of the destruction of these by cutting down, they are now to be found in remote districts only. The rubber of the finer class, the hevea, is obtained from the Amazon Basin only. The forests contain many valuable plants and trees of which little use is made save by the Indians for their huts and for other necessities.
Stock Raising and Fisheries
The cattle industry is in a backward state, and the wool of the highland sheep is poor. It is used locally, a little exported; also hides. The quality of these is called very good. Goat and alligator skins are also exported. The llama, so much employed as a beast of burden farther south, is little used in Ecuador, in one or two Provinces only. A few horses and mules are exported.
A great variety of fish is found along the coast including oysters and lobsters. The industry is important, fish forming a material part of the food supply for this region. Some pearls are found near the island La Plata, off the coast of Manabí; the industry near Manta was suspended on account of the ferocious sharks which infest these waters.
Mining
Ecuador, so far as is known, is the poorest in minerals of any of the Pacific Coast countries. Copper, iron, lead, quicksilver and platinum exist, but apparently not in commercial quantities. In the province of Loja are copper deposits, but limited operation has been unsuccessful.
Petroleum has better prospects. Bituminous seams with fair quantities of oil have been located in the north, but more favorable developments would naturally be expected in the same line with the rich oil fields of Peru. In El Oro near the town of Santa Rosa there is said to be an oil field with good prospects, but the principal deposits so far discovered are more nearly in line with the Zorritos and Lobitos districts. The field, extending about 6 miles north and south and 20 miles inland, is close to the coast, 90 miles west of Guayaquil, in desert country near the port of Santa Elena and 750 miles from Panamá. A small oil fountain with considerable gas indicates that deep drilling would bring results. The 25,000 barrels now secured annually are obtained by digging small holes down 50 feet to a layer of impermeable sandstone which is impregnated with oil. The life of these wells is from 3 months to 3 years. A deep well bored by an Anglo-French Company contains oil of a high quality. There is connection with Guayaquil by a fairly good automobile road and by telephone and telegraph. A railway to Santa Elena and Ballenita is in construction. Petroleum claims have recently been denounced in the Canton of Quito, Province of Pichincha. Indications of petroleum in the Oriente have been sufficient to warrant the Leonard Exploration Company in securing a concession of nearly 10,000 square miles east of the Andes from Tulcán to Riobamba in which to explore and drill for oil.
Gold. Of metals, gold mines only have up to the present been profitably worked; those of Zaruma in Southern Ecuador have long been known and operated. In 1549 the towns Zaruma and Zamora were founded and mining was established. Other discoveries followed attended by a gold mining rush from Peru; but owing to the greed of the Governor of Macas, residing at Sevilla, the Jívaros Indians rebelled, destroyed several towns, and murdered many inhabitants, so that in later times the mining has been limited to the placers of Esmeraldas and the lodes of Zaruma. In recent years there have been examinations and working at Zaruma with some mismanagement, but the values are considered proved and shipments have been regularly made, to the extent of $250,000 in 1910. Placers have been found on the west slope of the East Cordillera in Loja and Azuay with gravel from 3 to 6 feet deep. The Collay, anciently worked by Indians, has alluvium 20-35 feet thick, with gold in grains and dust but in small quantities. The placers of the small streams are believed to be paying only as worked individually by the patient Indian. In Esmeraldas there is platinum with the gold but in too small quantities to be worth while. The mountain sections have good lodes which might develop into paying propositions, but appearances are judged less favorable than in some other quarters.
Coal. Beds of coal are found in several places among the mountains, but none have yet been successfully worked. The Southern Railway has recently consumed eucalyptus wood, well dried, in their locomotives.
Manganese. Deposits are said to exist near Pomasqui, from which it is expected to ship 200 tons of ore monthly to the United States. Near San Antonio in Pichincha a deposit from 3 to 9 feet thick covers 21,000 square feet. The ore runs from 46 to 53 per cent manganese.
Industries
Panamá Hats. As might be supposed the manufactures of Ecuador are slightly developed, with no articles save Panamá hats made for export. In this they rank third, following cacao and tagua. The demand for the hats has increased in recent years. They are due to the patient labor of the natives. Made from two different kinds of plants, the paja toquilla, and the macora, the finest hats are from the first, those of average quality from the second, from which material fine hammocks are also made. Both plants grow wild 6-10 feet high; but the toquilla is transplanted, placed four feet apart, and kept free of weeds. The fan shaped leaves of the toquilla rise directly from the ground. Conditions are especially favorable to the plant in Manglar Alto in Manabí, but it grows elsewhere along the coast. The portions used for hats are separated before the leaves open, and picked only in certain weather conditions. The macora grass grows wild on the hills and is had for the gathering.
In Peru similar hats are made from Ecuador straw. In order to prevent this a tax of one sucre a kilogram was placed on the export of the straw, but without killing the Peruvian industry. The finest Ecuadorian hats, which come from Montecristi and Jipijapa in Manabí, are sold in Guayaquil at high prices, but far less than in New York.
A shoe factory, cotton and woolen mills, breweries, ice plants, tanneries, flour mills, saw mills, etc., not forgetting chocolate, are locally important. Along the coast are many maguey plants, from the fibre of which to make bags and twine a profitable industry might be created. For the establishment of a paper factory, the Government proposes, it is reported, to grant valuable concessions to British capitalists.
Investments
From the list of Ecuador’s productions and exports, agriculture, especially cacao, might seem to offer favorable opportunities; to some gold mining might appeal or the possibilities of petroleum. For many years engineering and construction work of various kinds, including sanitation, must present openings for capitalists, and for experts in such matters. With forests so near the coast saw mills and lumbering would undoubtedly be profitable. Stock raising for local requirements is a fair possibility.
CHAPTER XIX
PERU: AREA, HISTORY, GOVERNMENT, POPULATION, ETC.
More than a century ago, the distinguished scientist, Alexander von Humboldt, declared that the country of Peru would one day become the centre of the World’s colonization. It has been called the richest in natural resources of any country upon the globe, containing within its borders every variety of climate and of natural or possible production, together with wonderful fertility of soil and marvelous wealth in minerals. Other countries make a similar claim. To decide the question is impossible. Without intimate acquaintance with all, even to express an opinion would seem an impertinence.
Area, Population, Boundary
Area. Pending the decision of certain boundary disputes, the area of this Republic can hardly be stated with even approximate accuracy, for figures given vary over 200,000 square miles. The territory claimed by the Government, including Tacna and Arica, with a vast domain over which Ecuador and Colombia have asserted a right, covers 700,000 square miles. Had all claims been decided against her, Peru would have fifth place in area among the South American Republics; but as the arbitrators of her boundaries with Brazil and Bolivia gave judgment largely in her favor, she is likely to remain fourth with at least 540,000 square miles. With this figure Peru is ten times the size of New York State, and approximates the area of the entire Atlantic slope of the United States.
Population. As no census of Peru has been taken for many years the population is merely estimated and a variety of figures is given. The estimate of 5,800,000 appears probable; this number would place Peru in the third or fourth rank according to the figures assigned to Colombia.
Boundary. The boundary of the country may be slightly affected by the decision of arbitrators; as usually given, Peru has Ecuador and a little of Colombia on the north, Brazil and Bolivia east, Chile south, and the Pacific Ocean on the west.
History
The name of Peru is always a reminder of the Incas, and all but the utterly ignorant have heard the amazing tale of the conquest of Peru by Pizarro. A few dates may here be recalled. As early as 1527, Francisco Pizarro, incited by rumors of prodigious wealth of gold in a country south of Panamá, made a voyage of exploration in which he landed at Tumbes and proceeded as far as Trujillo. Satisfied with his discoveries he returned to Spain, to procure a royal warrant for an invasion. In 1531, with Diego de Almagro, Hernando de Luque, a priest, and subordinates, he set out on his career of conquest. With 180 men, 67 of whom were cavalry, in 1532 he crossed the desert and the first mountain range, then descending to Cajamarca. How he treacherously seized and later slew the Inca Prince, Atahuallpa, in spite of the enormous gold ransom which had been furnished, afterwards captured Cuzco, the Inca capital, and in 1535 founded Lima on the banks of the Rimac is a Twice Told Tale.
Quarrels developed soon after the conquest. Subsequently to his return from Chile the nobler Almagro was executed by order of his associate, Pizarro, who himself was assassinated in 1541 by former adherents of Almagro. For centuries Lima was the seat of Spanish government in South America and the residence of the Viceroy. Great wealth of gold and silver had been extorted from the Incas in addition to the ransom paid for Atahuallpa, and further riches were later obtained from mines by forced labor of the Indians. Severe exactions and cruelties excited one or two insurrections, but in spite of vicissitudes of various kinds the city of Lima was the continental centre of wealth and culture for generations.
When in 1810 the spirit of independence began to manifest itself in the colonies, it had less opportunity for development in Peru. Not until San Martín came with an army from Chile in 1820 did revolutionary activity become general. Received with great enthusiasm, he was proclaimed Protector of Peru. Her independence was declared July 28, 1821, which is the day they celebrate. General Bolívar, coming from the north with an army, was met by San Martín. A disagreement evidently occurred, which caused San Martín to retire to Argentina; subsequently he withdrew to Europe. A hero of the highest patriotism, courage, skill, unselfish devotion, and sterling character, the name of San Martín should be honored among us as is that of Washington in South America. The year following Bolívar’s arrival in Lima in 1823, a battle between royalists and patriots occurred on the plateau of Junín, altitude 13,000 feet, when the patriots gained a complete victory. In December of the same year, 1824, General Sucre gained the hard-fought battle of Apurimac, which ended Spanish dominion in South America.
More or less troublous times with brief intervals of harmony followed the securing of independence, until the War of the Pacific broke out in 1879. In accordance with a secret treaty, Peru went to the assistance of Bolivia after the Chilians had seized Antofagasta on account of a quarrel over a nitrate tax. Following some successes, the Peruvian fleet was destroyed; the coast was exposed to the enemy. In 1881 Lima was captured, and held until the signing of the treaty of Ancón in 1883. In accordance with this treaty the Province of Tarapacá was ceded to Chile. Tacna and Arica were yielded for ten years, at the end of which time the residents were to vote whether they desired to remain with Chile or return to their former allegiance. The fact that no vote has yet been taken, while Chile retains possession, has for years caused much ill feeling and friction between the two countries, which several times have been on the verge of war.
Within the last ten years there have been several internal disturbances in Peru and one revolution; these, however, are short lived and do not affect the people generally or interfere with business for more than a day or two; nor do the revolutions derange concessions or the investments of foreign capital.
Government
The government is a centralized republic, based on the constitution of 1860, revised in 1920. The President is now elected for five years; he is ineligible for immediate reëlection. The other two branches of government are of the usual form. Congress has two Chambers, a Senate of 35 members and Deputies 110, both elected by direct vote. Alternates are chosen to assume office in case of vacancy. There are also three local legislatures. The President appoints the Prefects of Departments and the Sub-prefects of Provinces; the Prefects name the Gobernadores of the Districts. The President controls the police of the country; the supervision of education is centralized. The Judiciary has a Supreme Court at Lima, nine Superior Courts in the chief cities, and Lower Courts in smaller places.
Peruvian male citizens over 21 may vote, if a master employer, a real estate owner, a tax payer, or able to read and write.
Peru has 22 separate divisions aside from Tacna, of which three are littoral Provinces and the rest Departments; the latter are divided into 118 Provinces, and these into 800 or more Districts. The Departments and unattached Provinces, with approximate area and population, their capitals, population, and altitude are as follows:
| Departments | Area, in square miles | Population | Population | Capitals | Altitude in feet |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Coastal Divisions | |||||
| Tumbes (Province) | 2,000 | 8,000 | Tumbes | 3,000 | |
| Piura | 17,000 | 155,000 | Piura | 15,000 | 167 |
| Lambayeque | 4,600 | 93,000 | Chiclayo | 5,000 | 82 |
| Libertad | 10,000 | 188,000 | Trujillo | 15,000 | 203 |
| Ancash | 16,500 | 317,000 | Huarás | 12,000 | 9,928 |
| Lima | 13,000 | 250,000 | Lima | 175,000 | 450 |
| Callao (Province) | 15 | 35,000 | Callao | 35,000 | 6 |
| Ica | 8,700 | 68,200 | Ica | 10,000 | 1,312 |
| Arequipa | 22,000 | 172,000 | Arequipa | 50,000 | 7,550 |
| Moquegua (Province) | 1,255 | 32,000 | Moquegua | 5,000 | 4,034 |
| Sierra Departments | |||||
| Cajamarca | 125,000 | 333,000 | Cajamarca | 12,000 | 9,230 |
| Huánuco | 14,000 | 110,000 | Huánuco | 6,000 | 6,270 |
| Junín | 23,000 | 305,000 | Cerro de Pasco | 15,000 | 14,300 |
| Huancavelica | 9,000 | 167,000 | Huancavelica | 8,000 | 12,400 |
| Ayacucho | 18,000 | 227,000 | Ayacucho | 20,000 | 9,200 |
| Apurimac | 8,100 | 133,000 | Abancay | 6,500 | 7,854 |
| Cuzco | 90,000 | 300,000 | Cuzco | 30,000 | 11,445 |
| Puno | 28,000 | 270,000 | Puno | 13,000 | 12,600 |
| Montaña Departments | |||||
| Amazonas | 14,000 | 53,000 | Chachapoyas | 4,500 | 7,635 |
| San Martín | 30,000 | 33,000 | Moyabamba | 5,000 | 2,900 |
| Loreto | 172,000 | 120,000 | Iquitos | 18,000 | 356 |
| Madre de Dios | 25,500 | 16,000 | Maldonado | 500 | 836 |
ECUADOR, PERU, BOLIVIA, SOUTHWEST BRAZIL
Population
As previously stated, the population is largely an estimate, but probably approaches 6,000,000. From the above approximate figures it is evident that it is very unevenly distributed, as it is in fact in all of the Republics. There are three principal classes aside from the wild or uncivilized Indians of the montaña: the whites, the real governing class, chiefly of Spanish origin, some with a slight admixture of Indian blood; the mestizos, more nearly half and half, white and Indian, largely the artisan and tradesman class; the Indians, most numerous in the sierra, much as in Inca days, but probably poorer in mental and physical condition and in creature comforts than in the earlier period. The population of the montaña in the lower forest section beyond the mountains is wild Indian except for a very small percentage of white and Indian gold diggers or rubber gatherers. Even now, in spite of exploration for several centuries, there are probably thousands who have never seen a white man. The entire number of montaña Indians is estimated (it can only be a guess) at perhaps 300,000. Of the rest the proportion is very uncertain, but one writer gives it as Indians 50 per cent, mestizos 35, whites 11 per cent, the rest negroes, zambos, and Asiatics.
Education
The opportunities for higher education are relatively superior to those for primary, though this by law is free and compulsory. But as no schools have been provided in many Districts, not half of the children have been able to attend, and the percentage of illiteracy is large. At the moment, however, 1921, plans have been inaugurated to remedy this state of affairs, and teachers have sailed from the United States to aid in the further development of educational facilities. There are four universities in Peru, that of San Marcos in Lima, the oldest on this hemisphere; others of lesser scope and merit in Arequipa, Cuzco, and Trujillo. Lima has also a School of Mines; one of Engineering, Mechanical, Electrical, Industrial, and Architectural; one of Arts and Trades; a Normal School, a Naval School at Callao, and a Military Academy at Chorillos, a suburb of Lima. There are secondary schools called colegios in the principal cities, and private schools of high grade.
Press, Religion, Etc.
Press. Aside from official publications, the Press includes newspapers and periodicals of considerable variety. Lima has several good newspapers which have a wide circulation, owing to the fact that they are carried free of charge inside the Republic, as are literary and scientific journals also. Some of the smaller towns have their own newspapers.
Religion. The religion of the country is Roman Catholic, but other forms of worship are permitted. Provision is made for the civil marriage of foreigners.
Postal and Telegraph Service. Foreign letters and parcels for most of the montaña region enter by way of the Amazon River and Iquitos.
Telegraph service is much employed locally, as the cost is only 40 centavos, 20 cents, for ten words to any part of the country. The address and signature are counted, as in all of the Republics. Additional words are at the same rate. There are about 8000 miles of wire. The United States has cable connection with Peru by three lines. Lima has wireless connection with Iquitos, a distance of 650 miles in a straight line, over a mountain wall more than three miles high. Other wireless stations are at Callao, Pisco, Chala, Ilo, Leticia, El Canto, Orellana.
There are many telephone systems with nearly 200,000 miles of wire.
Money is of gold, silver, and copper. The gold Peruvian libra is the equivalent of the English sovereign, and in general they circulate interchangeably. The libra is divided into ten soles; a sol, about 50 cents (48.6), into 100 centavos.
The Metric System, legal for weights and measures, must be employed in the Custom Houses and in other Government offices. Old Spanish standards are also used in Lima and quite generally in the country: the vara, 33¹⁄₃ inches, the libra, a trifle over a pound, arroba, 25 libras, quintal, 100 libras, fanegada, a little over 7 acres, etc.
CHAPTER XX
PERU: PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
The country of Peru has three distinct sections longitudinally: the Coast region, the Sierra, and the Montaña—the first well known and fairly settled, the second with the greater population, the third having much the largest area, but thinly peopled chiefly by wild Indians, and not thoroughly explored. The term montaña, one of the Spanish words for mountain, in Peru is generally applied to the forest region on the eastern slope of the Andes and the plains beyond; the plateau and mountain section with the narrow valleys included form the sierra.
The Coastal Region
The coast of Peru is a strange one, presenting to the uninformed traveler a series of surprises. One expects to find it hot in the tropics, at least at sea level; but on ship-board sailing south when 3° below the equator, at least in the winter season, which it must be remembered is during our summer, warm clothing if not heavy underwear is necessary with blankets at night. One is amazed too to find at Paita (for some steamers the first port of call), a real desert, in striking contrast to the rich vegetation near the Guayas River.
The chief reason for the comparatively cool temperatures experienced on the entire coast of Peru is found in the Humboldt or Antarctic current which flows from the icy realms far south, with chilling effect, close along the shore to the region of the equator, where near the most western points of the continent it turns west across the Pacific.
The high mountains too, here quite near the shore, have some cooling influence and are a prime cause of the existing desert. The hot moist winds, which in the equatorial regions blow west from the Atlantic dropping more or less of their vapor on the way, on reaching the highest Andes lose all the rest, as every bit of the moisture is condensed by the freezing mountain sides; the average height of the range in Peru is above 17,000 feet. After passing the mountains the winds descend cool and dry to the plains. The damp chilly winds which come north with the Antarctic current, as they blow over the shore, find this warmer than the ocean, so the moisture is not condensed.
Thus it is that the coast of Peru with that of northern Chile, being practically rainless, is called a desert, though in Peru it is not wholly barren. From her mountains 58 streams come down toward the Pacific, though not all reach the ocean or last throughout the year. In these valleys there is green, a beautiful and welcome contrast to the desert; in most of them are irrigation and agriculture. Because the nitrates have not been washed out of the soil by rain, where a suitable water supply can be provided, the land constitutes one of the finest agricultural regions on the globe.
In proportion to its length the area of the coast line is small, as the Andes here run closer to the shore than in Ecuador, especially in the central portion, where spurs from the main range sometimes end in bold bluffs rising 500 feet from the sea. In general the width of the coast land varies from 20 to 50 miles, in places reaching to 100. Unfortunately the coast is slightly indented by gulfs and bays and therefore has few good harbors.
The Sierra
In the sierra country we find the greatest development of the mountain system of the Andes attained in its entire course. For the most part it here consists of three ranges, the Maritime, the Central, and the East Cordillera. The first two, near together, are regarded as of similar origin, separated during ages by the action of water. They include volcanoes and mineral springs; and in some parts of the lofty region between the two, cold alpine lakes, sources of coast rivers and also of Amazon tributaries.
The Maritime Cordillera is not connected with the coast ranges of Chile, but is a continuation of that cordillera which forms the eastern limit of the coastal Chilian desert and the western boundary of the great Bolivian plateau. In Bolivia and Southern Peru it is a volcanic chain with some peaks of great height, over 20,000 feet. Though generally quiescent, one volcano in Peru south of Arequipa in the year 1700 erupted continuously for two weeks. El Misti, altitude 19,200 feet, above Arequipa is well known. From the summit a little smoke may be seen in the depths of the crater. The volcanoes seem to have some connection with earthquakes, with which this region is often affected. Though the quakes are mostly slight tremors, severe shocks occur; 70 of a destructive nature have been reported since 1570. The worst, which in 1746 completely destroyed Callao, was followed by 220 shocks within 24 hours. The city was overwhelmed by a tidal wave 80 feet high from which not half a dozen inhabitants escaped. The earthquake of 1868, which was felt over most of South America, half destroyed Arequipa, and tidal waves swept over Arica and Iquique. In 1877 nearly half of the southern ports were submerged; in 1906 a good portion of Valparaiso, Chile, was laid in ruins, a fate within a period of 12 months shared by San Francisco and by Kingston, Jamaica. At about 10° S. Lat. the Maritime Cordillera separates into two ranges for a distance of 100 miles, the Cordillera Negra, and the Cordillera Blanca, the two enclosing the Huailas Valley; north of where the Santa River breaks through toward the coast, the Black Range begins to subside, the Maritime continuing to Ecuador in a single chain.
The Central Cordillera is the true divide, forming the continental watershed. A single river, the Marañon, breaks through in its lower northern part, while 20 coast streams rising in the Central cut the Maritime range; the East Cordillera is fractured by six Peruvian rivers, the Marañon, Huallaga, Perené, Mantaro, Apurimac, Vilcamayu, and Paucartambo, all but the first being affluents of the Ucayali, which some authorities call a tributary of the Marañon. Oftener these two are said to unite to form the Amazon.
The East Cordillera. While the Central Cordillera is volcanic in part, the East is of Silurian formation, older and non-volcanic except at the edge of Lake Titicaca. The last, in Bolivia a splendid range, is lower in Peru. It has the high plateau region on the west; east is the Amazon Basin into which its spurs extend for varying distances. The Central and Eastern Andes are connected by a transverse mountain knot at Vilcanota, or Cuzco, while a similar knot occurs at Cerro de Pasco. Farther north the Central Cordillera separates the valleys of the Marañon and the Huallaga, while the eastern Andes is between the latter and the Ucayali. The three ranges are clearly defined much of the way in Peru, and back of Chimbote in the section including the Huailas Valley there are four.
The Montaña
The third longitudinal division in Peru, the Trans-Andine, usually referred to as the montaña, is the region of subtropical and tropical forest. It is traversed by great rivers, largely navigable. Partly in the sierra country are the Marañon, 600, and the Huallaga, 400 miles long, before their union; 150 miles beyond they are joined by the Ucayali, a great river with a course of 600 miles, more navigable than the other two. These three rivers with their affluents drain the northern and the central part of Peru. The streams of the southern portion are tributary to the Madre de Dios which flows into the Beni, the latter uniting with the Mamoré to form the Madeira. The montaña section, 800 miles from north to south, has a sub-tropical region on the lower slopes of the Andes, the branches of which run out 60 or 80 miles towards the lowlands, and the tropical forests of the latter. In the northern section a considerable district between the Huallaga and the Ucayali rivers, traversed by the Andes, is composed of grassy plains called the Pampa del Sacramento. Some of this northern region is called the montaña, having its characteristics, although not east of the East Cordillera.