Ladies' manual of art; or, profit and pastime. / A self teacher in all branches of decorative art, embracing every variety of painting and drawing on china, glass, velvet, canvas, paper and wood the secret of all glass transparencies, sketching from nature. pastel and crayon drawing, taxidermy, etc.

by Anonymous

SKINNING.

Immediately after a bird is killed the throat and nostrils should be stuffed with tow, cotton or fine rags, and a small quantity wound round the bill, to prevent the blood from staining the plumage; but should any get on the feathers, notwithstanding this precaution, the sooner it is removed the better, which should be effected by a sponge which has been merely moistened in water. Too much dispatch cannot be used in removing the skin, if the bird is shot in a warm climate; but, in temperate regions, the bird may be allowed to cool.

In proceeding to skin the bird it should be laid on its back and the feathers of the breast separated to the right and left, when a broad interval will be discovered, reaching from the top to the bottom of the breast-bone.

A sharp penknife, or scalpel, must be inserted at the point of the bone, and cut the outer skin from thence to the vent, taking care not to penetrate so deep as the flesh, or upon the inner skin which covers the intestines. The skin will then easily be separated from the flesh, in larger specimens by the fingers, or in smaller ones by passing a small blunt instrument betwixt the skin and body, such as the end of the scalpel handle; with this you may reach the back. The thighs should now be pressed inwards, as in the common method of skinning a rabbit, and the skin turned back, so far as to enable you to separate the legs from the body at the knee-joint. The skin is then pulled downwards as low as the rump, which is cut close by, the insertion of the tail, but in such a manner as not to injure its feathers. The skin is now drawn upwards the length of the wings, the bones of which must also be cut at the shoulder-joints; it is then pulled up till all the back part of the skull is laid bare, when the vertebræ of the neck are separated from the head, and the whole body is now separated from the skin. You next proceed to remove the brain, through the opening of the skull, for which purpose it may be enlarged by a hollow chisel, or other iron instrument. The eyes must then be taken out, by breaking the slender bones which separate the orbits from the top of the mouth, in which you may be assisted by pressing the eyes gently inwards, so as not to break them. In skinning the neck, great care must be taken not to enlarge the opening of the ears, and not to injure the eyelids. The whole of the flesh is next to be removed from the under mandible.

Several species will not admit of the skin being thus pulled over their heads, from the smallness of their necks; some woodpeckers, ducks, etc., fall under this description; in which case a longitudinal incision is made under the throat, so as to admit of the head being turned out, which must be neatly sewed up before stuffing. The flesh from the head, wings, legs and rump, must then be carefully removed with a knife, and the cavities of the skull filled with cotton or tow. The whole inside of the skin, head, etc., must be well rubbed with arsenical soap, or preserving powder, or spirits of turpentine, or the solution of corrosive sublimate. When it is wished to stuff the bird, it may now be immediately done, as it will easily dry if in a warm climate; but in low, damp countries, it will require artificial heat to do it effectually.

When the skins are merely wished preserved, the bones of the legs and wings should be wrapped round with cotton or tow, so as to supply the place of the flesh; the skin is then inverted and hung up to dry, after using the arsenical soap, as above directed; before doing which, in larger birds, a thread or small string may be drawn through the rump, and passed up the inside of the neck and drawn through the bill, to prevent the head from stretching too much by its own weight. In larger specimens, where cotton or tow is not easily to be met with, well dried hay may be used.

The incision for removing the skin is frequently made under the wings. This may be done with marine birds to advantage. The penguins and divers may be skinned by making the incision in the back.

The tongue should either be kept in the mouth, or sent home separately with the birds.

The greatest care must be taken to prevent the fat and oily matter, so common to sea-birds, from getting on the feathers: pounded chalk will be found an excellent absorbent for applying to these birds.

In sending home specimens of birds, they should be each wrapped in paper and closely packed in a box; and camphor, preserving powder, and strong aromatics, strewed amongst them, to prevent them from being attacked by insects; and they ought to be kept in a very dry part of the vessel.

It is of the utmost consequence to know the color of the eyes and legs of birds, and these things should be carefully noted the moment they are killed; and it should also be mentioned whether they are male or female; such a memorandum ought to be attached to the birds by a ticket. The season of the year in which the bird is killed, must also be mentioned. It is also of much consequence to have good skeletons, and, for this purpose, the carcases may be sent home in a barrel, either in spirits or a strong solution of salt and water.

Mr. Salt, while in Abyssinia, packed his bird-skins between sheets of paper, in the same manner as a hortus siccus, or herbarium, and they reached England in perfect safety, and made excellent specimens when set up. In warm climates, the boxes should be well closed, and the seams filled with warm pitch on the outside, to prevent the intrusion of insects; and the inside should be supplied with camphor, musk, or tobacco-dust, which will prevent the attacks of the smaller insects.

Till practice has given facility to the operator, it will assist in keeping the feathers clean, if, as he opens the skin of the breast, he pins pieces of paper or linen cloth on the outside; but, after a few trials, this will be unnecessary.

Some of the marine fowls are so fat that there is much trouble in separating it from the skin, and, in warm weather, great attention will be required to prevent it from running on the feathers. As much as possible should be scraped off, in the first place, with a blunt table-knife or palate-knife, and a quantity of powdered chalk applied, to absorb what remains, which, when saturated with the oily matter, should be scraped off, and a fresh supply used; after which a much larger proportion of the preserving powder should be applied than in other birds which are not fat.

When shooting on the sea coast, if the ornithologist is not provided with these requisites for absorbing the oil, which flows quickly from any wounds of the skin, he will find dry sand a tolerable substitute.

If, however, after every precaution, the oily matter should get on the feathers, the sooner it is removed the better, as, in birds where the plumage is white, if it is allowed to become hardened it will produce a very disagreeable appearance; and, besides, render that part particularly liable to the attack of insects. There are several effectual methods of removing the greasy stains; the first, safest, and best is, by taking a quantity of diluted ox-gall—or, where it cannot be commanded, sheep’s-gall, or that of any other animal—mix it with about double the quantity of water, and apply it with a sponge to the place which the fatty matter has touched, when it will immediately remove it. The next is by using a solution of salts of tartar, or potash, or soda. This must be made very weak, not exceeding half a teaspoonful to a cup of water, which will have the same effect as the gall. Whichever of these are used, the place must be immediately afterwards washed in pure water, so as to leave none of the gall or alkaline substance remaining. The gall has a gummy tendency, and will glue together the fibers of the feathers, and, besides, it has a great attraction for moisture, and, in humid weather, will become damp, and therefore produce mould; the other alkaline substances must also be used with much caution and quickness, because they have the power of changing the colors of the plumage, so that they are most useful in white plumage, and therefore should only be used on colored feathers, where gall cannot be procured.

One general observation applies to the preservation of all animal skins, which is, they must be made perfectly dry, so that the sooner they are exposed to a free current of air the better; and unless they are speedily and thoroughly dried, the skin will become putrid and rotten, and the hair or feathers will consequently fall off. If a skin is properly dried, soon after it is killed, it will keep a considerable time without any preservative whatever, only it will be the more liable to be attacked by insects afterwards.

The following excellent general directions for skinning are given by Mr. Waterton:—“While dissecting, it will be of use to keep in mind, that in taking off the skin from the body, by means of your fingers and little knife, you must try to shove it, in lieu of pulling it, lest you stretch it.

“That you must press as lightly as possible on the bird, and every now and then take a view of it, to see that the feathers, etc., are all right.

“That when you come to the head, you must take care that the body of the skin rest on your knee, for if you allow it to dangle from your hand, its own weight will stretch it too much.

“That, throughout the whole operation, as fast as you detach the skin from the body, you must put cotton immediately betwixt the body and it, and this will effectually prevent any fat, blood, or moisture, from coming in contact with the plumage.

“As you can seldom get a bird without shooting it, a line or two on this head will be necessary. If the bird be still alive, press it hard with your finger and thumb, just behind the wings, and it will soon expire. Carry it by the legs, and then, the body being reversed, the blood cannot escape down the plumage and through the shot-holes. As blood will have often issued out, before you have laid hold of the bird, find out the shot-holes, by dividing the feathers with your fingers, and blowing on them; and then, with your pen-knife, or the leaf of a tree, carefully remove the clotted blood, and put a little cotton on the hole. If, after all, the plumage has not escaped the marks of blood, or if it has imbibed slime from the ground, wash the part in water, without soap, and keep gently agitating the feathers with your fingers, till they are quite dry. Were you to wash them, and leave them dry by themselves, they would have a very mean and shriveled appearance.

“In the act of skinning a bird, you must either have it upon a table, or upon your knee; probably you will prefer your knee, because, when you cross one knee over the other, and have the bird upon the uppermost, you can raise it to your eye, or lower it, at pleasure, by means of the foot on the ground; and then your knee will always move in unison with your body, by which much stooping will be avoided, and lassitude prevented.”

Stuffing Birds. The first thing to be done in stuffing is to replace the skull, after it has been well anointed with the arsenical soap, and washed with the solution of corrosive sublimate inside. The thread, with which the beak is tied, is taken hold of by the left hand, and the head is repassed into the neck with the forefinger of the right hand, while the thread is pulled on the opposite side; and we are careful that the feathers, at the margin of the opening, do not enter with the edges of the skin. The bird is now laid on the table with the head turned towards the left hand, and the legs and wings adjusted to their proper situation. A flat piece of lead, about a pound in weight, is laid on the tail, while the feathers of the margins of the opening are raised by the forefinger and thumb of the left hand, to prevent their being soiled. The inside of the neck is now coated with the arsenical soap; flax is stuffed into it, but not too tightly. The back and rump are anointed, and the body should then be stuffed with tow, to about a third of the thickness required, so that the wire may have a sort of cushion to rest on.

Four pieces of wire are then prepared, of the thickness proportionate to the size of the bird to be stuffed. The centerpiece should be somewhat longer than the body of the bird. At about a fourth of its length a small ring is formed, by the assistance of the round pincers or plyers, and the other end is pointed with a file. This wire is oiled and introduced across the skull, and passed into the neck, through the center of the flax or tow with which it is stuffed, the ring being situated toward the anterior part of the skull, for the purpose of receiving the points of each of the wires that are passed through the feet and thighs.

The following is the mode in which this perforation is effected: A hole is bored with a bradawl the caliber of the wire which it is intended to use. The wire, which is to continue in the leg, is passed across the knee and brought out interiorly, and, placing it into the ring above mentioned, the same operation is performed on the other side. The extremities of the wires of the legs, and the end of the central wire beyond the ring, are all twisted together with flat pincers, and then bent towards the tail. The tail-bearer is next formed, which consists of the fourth piece of wire, with which an oval is formed, by twisting the two ends two or three turns, so that they may form a kind of fork, with the oval nearly the length of the body of the bird; the two points of the fork must be sharpened with a file, and near enough to enable them to enter the rump, through which they must pass, and their points will be concealed by the rectrices, or large straight tail feathers, while the oval is within the body of the bird. If the bird is large, the tail-bearer must be firmly attached to the interior wires, by twisting a small wire several times round both. But unless the bird be very large, it may remain quite free.

All the parts of the skin at which we can come must be thoroughly rubbed with preserving soap, the rump in particular, which should besides be soaked with the solution of corrosive sublimate. The stuffing is now proceeded with, by inserting chopped flax or tow, till it has attained its proper dimensions. The skin is brought together and sewed up, while we take the greatest care to separate the feathers at every stitch.

The orbits of the eyes are next finished, by inserting, with small forceps and a short stuffing stick, a small quantity of chopped cotton, while attention is paid to round the eyelids properly. The glass eyes are now inserted, taking care to place them properly under the eyelids. But, before fixing the eye, a little calcareous cement must be used, to prevent them from coming out. If any part of the nictitating membrane is visible below, it must be pushed up with the steel point.

The stuffing of the bird being now completed, the next thing is to place it either on a branch, or, if a bird which does not sit on trees, on a piece of plank; whichever of these it is, two holes are bored for the reception of the wires, which have been allowed to protrude from the soles of the feet, for fixing the bird. (See fig. 8.) These, of course, are pierced in such situations as are necessary for the attitude or position of the legs. The wires are put through these holes, and twisted so as to secure the bird in its position. The attitude of the bird will, of course, depend upon the fancy and taste of the operator, and ought to be in conformity with the manners of the bird in a living state.

The wire frame-work, above described, is the most simple of any in its construction, and is better adapted for small than large birds. Indeed, it will hardly suit those of the larger species. The following is another method of constructing the framework, which may be used either in large or small birds:

Like the former it is constructed of four pieces of wire. The center piece should be double the length of the bird; it is bent at a third of its length in an oval form, and twisted two turns, the shortest end being passed into the oval, and then raised against the longer end, so as to produce a ring at the end, outside of the oval, large enough to admit the two wires which pass from the feet to the inside of the bird. It is now twisted a second time, and firmly united to the longer end, which ought to be straight, with a sharp point, effected by means of a file. As before directed, it is rubbed with oil, and forced through the stuffing of the neck. It ought to be so constructed, by measurement, that the oval part of the wire shall be in the center of the body inside. The wires of the feet and legs, as before directed, ought to be straight and pointed, and passed through the soles of the feet as before. When the point is penetrated, the other end of the wire may be bent, so that by means of it we may be able to assist in forcing up the remainder of the wire. The two internal ends of the foot-wires are twisted together, and curved within, so as to pass through the small circle or ring of the middle branch above the oval, to each side of which they are now attached with a piece of small string.

The tail-bearer is constructed on the same principles, and attached in the same manner, as before described, and the latter apparatus is introduced after the neck and back are finished in the stuffing.

This practice of introducing the neck-wire, after the neck is stuffed, was first adopted at the Jardin des Plantes at Paris, and is now invariably adopted in that establishment in preference to introducing it before the neck is stuffed. The neck of a swan or other long-necked and large birds, are even done so. It is unquestionably the best plan which has hitherto been discovered, as it preserves the cylindrical shape of the neck.

Mr. Bullock’s Method of Stuffing Birds. Mr. Bullock, of the London Museum, Egyptian Hall, had another method of arranging the wires which, after what we have already said, will be easily comprehended by a reference to Fig. 8, where we have given a figure of his mode. After the skin is taken off and prepared, different sized nealed iron wires are procured, according to the size of the bird they are to support. The skin is laid on its back without stretching it; cut two pieces of wire, the one rather longer than the bird, and the other shorter, so as not to reach to the head of the bird, twist them together, sharpen the ends of the longer by means of a file, and pass one end through the rump and the other through the crown of the head, near the base of the bill. Care must be taken not to extend the neck beyond its ordinary length—a very common fault in most preservers. Lay a little tow along the back of the skin for the wire to rest on, then take two other pieces of strong wire and file them to a point at one end; these are passed through the soles of the feet and up the center of the leg-bone, or tarsus. When within the body, they are to be fastened to the first wires by twisting them together, which, when accomplished, may be supposed to represent the back bone. The wire should be left two or three inches out of the soles of the feet, to fasten them in a standing position, as before directed. Two smaller wires are then passed through the wings, as in the legs, and afterwards fastened to the back wires a little higher up than the leg wires, taking care that no part of the skin is to be extended beyond its natural position.

A New and Easier Method of Bird Skinning and Stuffing. A fair specimen being obtained, take common cotton wadding, and with an ordinary paint-brush stick plug the throat, nostrils, and, in large birds, the ears, with it, so that when the skin is turned no juices may flow and spoil the feathers; you must then provide yourself with the following articles: A knife of this kind, which is very common; a pair of cutting plyers, a pair of strong scissors, of a moderate size; a button-hook, a marrow spoon, and a hand-vice. With these, a needle and thread, and a sharpener of some kind, to give your knife an occasional touch, you are prepared, so far as implements go. Then provide yourself with annealed iron wire of various sizes; some you may buy ready for use, some not; but you can anneal it yourself by making it red hot in the fire, and letting it cool in the air. Common hemp is the next article, cotton wadding, pounded whitening, and pounded alum, or chloride of lime; as to the poisons which are used, they will be spoken of by and by. You should also have a common bradawl or two, and some pieces of quarter-inch pine whereon to stand the specimens when preserved, if to be placed as walking on a plane; if not, some small pieces of twigs or small branches of trees should be kept ready for use, of various sizes, according to the size of the bird. Cedar, or common laurel cut in December, will be found to answer best, but this must be regulated by fancy and the requirements of the case; oak boughs are sometimes of good shape.

The best time for preserving specimens is in spring, because then the cock birds are in the best feather, and the weather is not too warm. In mild weather three days is a good time to keep a bird, as then the skin will part from the flesh easily. If a specimen has bled much over the feathers, so as to damage them, wash them carefully but thoroughly with warm water and a sponge, and immediately cover them with pounded whitening, which will adhere to them. Dry it as it hangs upon them slowly before the fire, and then triturating the hardened lumps gently between the fingers, the feathers will come out almost as clean as ever. To test whether the specimen is too decomposed to skin, try the feathers about the auriculars, and just above the tail, and if they do not move you may safely proceed.

Lay the bird on his back, and, parting the feathers from the insertion of the neck to the tail, you will find in most birds a spare space. Cut the skin the whole length of this, and, passing the finger under it on either side, by laying hold of one leg and bending it forward, you will be able to bring the bare knee through the opening you have made; with your scissors cut it through at the joint; pull the shank still adhering to the leg till the skin is turned back as far as it will go; denude the bone of flesh and sinew, wrap a piece of hemp round it, steep in a strong solution of the pounded alum, and then pull the leg by the claw, by which means the skin will be brought again to its place.

After having served both legs alike, skin carefully round the back, cutting off and leaving in the tail with that into which the feathers grow, that is, the “Pope’s nose.” Serve the wing bones the same as the leg, cutting them off close to the body, and turn the skin inside out down to the head. The back of the skull will then appear, and you will now find it of advantage, as soon as you have got the legs and tail free, to tie a piece of string round the body, and hang it up as a butcher skins a sheep. Make in the back of the skull a cut with your knife, which you can turn back like a trap-door, and with the marrow-spoon entirely clear out the brains; Having done this, wash the interior of the skull thoroughly with the alum, and fill it with cotton wadding. The next operation requires care and practice—namely, to get out the eyes. This is done by cutting cautiously until the lids appear, being careful not to cut the eye itself, and you can then, with a forceps, which you will likewise find useful, pull each from its socket; wipe the orifice carefully, wash it with the alum solution, and fill it with cotton wadding. Cut off the neck close to the skull, wash the stump, and the whole of the interior of the skin with the alum, and the skinning is done. Now comes the stuffing. The ordinary mode used by bird-preservers is a simple one, and answers very well; there is a French method, however, which has its advantages, and will be adverted to hereafter. Take a piece of the wire suitable to the size of the bird (Fig. 11)—that is, as large as the legs will carry—and bend it into the following form, a, representing the neck, b, the body, and c, the junction of the tail, allowing sufficient length of neck for the wire to pass some distance beyond the head, and being sharpened at each end, which may be done by obliquely cutting it with the plyers. Wind upon this wire hemp to the size of the bird’s body, which you should have lying by you to judge from, and it will present something of the appearance of Fig. 12. You can shape it with the hand, but be careful not to make it the least too large; and, after you have finished it to your satisfaction, you may singe it, as the poulterer would singe a fowl, which will make all neat; but be particular to wind the hemp very tight. Then take the skin, lay it on the table on its back, and pass the wire at the head into the marrow where the neck is cut off, through above the roof of the mouth, and out at one nostril, and draw it up close to the skull; turn the skin back, and draw it down over the hemp body, and pass the wire spike, protruding at the lower end, through the flesh upon which the tail grows, about the centre, and rather below than above. The skin may now be adjusted to the hemp body, and sewn up, beginning from the top of the breast, and being particularly careful always to take the stitch from inside, otherwise you will draw in the feathers at every pull. At first sew it very loose, and then, with the button-hook, draw it together by degrees.

With the plyers cut two lengths of wire, long enough to pass up the legs and into the neck, and leave something over to fasten the bird by to the board or spray upon which it is to be placed. The next operation requires some address and great practice, namely, the passing the wire up the legs. This is done by forcing it into the center of the foot, and up the back of the legs, into the hemp body, through it obliquely, and into the neck, until it is pretty firm. In doing this, you must remember the ordinary position of a bird when alive, and, therefore, instead of passing the wire the whole way within the skin of the leg, when you get to the part where you have cut off the bone, that is, the knee-joint, pass it through the skin to the outside, and in again, through the skin, from the outside, where the knee would come naturally in the attitude of standing or perching—it makes little difference which. This is essential, because, if the wire be passed the whole way inside the skin, it produces a wrong placing of the legs. Fig. 13 will illustrate this, a representing the line in which the wire should run. The bird is now stuffed, and you may at once place it upon a spray or board, as the case may be. In placing a bird upon a spray, the first joint should be bent almost on a level with the foot; and, in placing a bird on a board, one leg should be placed somewhat behind the other. If the wings are intended to be closed, as is usually the case, bring them into their place, which may be done by putting the fingers under them, and pressing them together over the back; you may then pass a needle, or large pin, of which you should have a good supply by you, through the thick part of the upper wing into the body, and so by the lower wing, and if you allow these to protrude, you may fasten to one of them a piece of thread, and wind it carefully and lightly round the body, which will keep the feathers in their places, and this thread should be kept on for a fortnight or three weeks, until the bird is dry. The tail should be kept in its place, also, for the same time, by a piece of thin wire bent over it.

The only thing now to do is to put in the eyes. The color, of course, depends on the bird, and these you may buy at any fishing-tackle store. If you do not use eyes too large, you will find little difficulty; the juice of the lids will act as a sufficient cement. As to the mounting, I shall say nothing about that now, but shall only advert shortly to a French method of preserving, which is more difficult, but has the advantage of superior firmness. It is this: Measuring from the insertion of the neck to the tail, make a wire frame. Upon this wind hemp for the neck only, and place in the skin in the same way as before directed, only that, instead of one wire being passed through that in which the tail grows, it is a fork that is passed through it. Having formed this frame, fit on to it two legs, and after the frame itself is in the skin, pass these from the inside down each leg, instead of from the outside, and fasten them on to the frame with the plyers, by twisting the ends round the frame. This will make all firm, and you can then fill the body with cut hemp, and sew up. One word as to the other preparations used by bird preservers. These are either corrosive sublimate or regulus of arsenic, which is yellow and of a consistence like butter. As I have said before, in cold weather, when there are no flies about, alum will do perfectly well; in warm weather either of the two others may be used. I should prefer the former—corrosive sublimate—as the other is “messy,” and the chief object is to dry up anything which can be attacked by flesh-seeking insects. When you have finished your bird, you can lay the feathers with a large needle—it is as well to have one fixed in a handle and kept for this purpose—and, tying the two mandibles of the bill together with a piece of thread until the whole specimen has hardened and dried, the work is done.

THE ART OF MOUNTING BIRDS, DRIED SKINS, FEATHERS, ETC.

MOUNTING IN GENERAL.

We will suppose that a proficiency, from practice, has been attained in the art of bird-preserving, according to the instructions given. The proficiency in preserving may apply only to the preservation and the form, great and necessary things, no doubt, as preliminaries; but, like matter without manner, of little avail alone. For attitude, I would say, as has been said to many a young artist, go to Nature, and there you will find an original in perfection. Would you make a willow-wren look like a willow-wren, watch him as he there hangs upon the weeping birch, or stands on a bough peering in quest of food? Each bird has its own manner, and if you cannot hit the manner, or make your stuffed skin so far amenable as to assume the attitude, it is either ill-stuffed, or you want the requisite knowledge of that which you should copy.

Bird Pinned Up. Having fixed on the attitude, it now only remains to put the feathers into their natural order as smoothly and regularly as possible; and to keep them in this state they should be bound around with small fillets of muslin fastened with pins. The bird should then be thoroughly dried, by placing it in an airy situation, if in summer; or if in winter, near the fire, but not so close as to affect the natural oil contained in the feathers. The want of proper attention in drying ruins many a fine specimen; if long kept damp putridity ensues despite all preservatives, when the skin will become rotten, and the feathers will soon fall off; besides, the mold and long-continued damp change the chemical properties of the preservatives used.

After the bird has been thoroughly dried, the fillets are removed; the wire which protruded from the head is cut off as close to the skull as possible, with the wire-cutting pincers elsewhere shown. It must then be attached to a circular, or other shaped piece of wood, with the generic and specific name and sex, as well as its country and locality attached to it, on a small ticket, when it may be placed in a museum.

Young hands commonly suppose that a bird should stand bolt upright, with the legs almost perpendicular, or at right angles to the perch. This is a great mistake, and never to be found in nature. Do we stand rigid, like a foot-soldier on drill? Does not a bird, as well as ourselves, accommodate itself to the thing on which it rests? Assuredly it does; for birds do not, as a young bird-stuffer endeavors to do, find always a perch to rest upon in the plane of the horizon. It therefore follows that, as he keeps himself upright, his legs must accommodate themselves to his perch. So in the ground-birds there is a gentle slope backwards from the hind toe, the balance being preserved in both cases by throwing the body forward in proportion. It is not uncommon to see birds preserved with wings and tail spread. Now, ordinarily speaking, this is very objectionable, because very unnatural. A bird preserved is supposed to represent a bird in a state of repose, that is, not in flight; the only modification allowable being with regard to those birds whose manner it may be to have the wings more or less open on occasions; thus the falcon tribe, supposing they are represented as devouring a quarry, or two birds toying with each other. It may be that a bird essentially aërial, like the swift, or perhaps some of the terns or the frigate bird, may be represented as actually on the wing. In this case, of course, the wings must be spread; and this is best done by passing a wire, not too thick, from the base of the quill-feathers on the under side, alongside the bone into the body, where it should be carefully and coaxingly inserted towards the tail until you feel that you have a pretty good hold. You may then pass it carefully under the longest quill-feather, and through the back of the case, and fasten it by bringing it back again through and clinching it, concealing it so by the oblique position of the bird that it is not detectable. It is obvious that by passing the wire alongside the bone, you may bend the wings to any angle you please. With regard to the case there are two methods: one a bell-glass, which, glass being now so reasonable, is certainly a very pretty and reasonable way of mounting, but inapplicable to birds which are to be placed on a wall, or to be represented flying; although this may be managed by attaching one wire from the point of the wing to a twig sufficiently firm, which it will scarcely appear to touch, if managed adroitly. It is likewise indispensable that a bird for a shade should be stuffed so well as to look nicely in all positions. One thing must always be remembered, do not have your case a shade too large, just clear the object so as not to stint it for room; and in flat cases this applies chiefly to depth, for it should have sufficient light, or it will not look well. Wooden cases should be made as slight (in thickness) as is consistent with firmness; well-seasoned white deal is best; and the case should be formed of back, top and bottom, open at the front and sides, and at each corner of the front two slight deal supports, rabbited on their inner edges, and presenting on the whole a good appearance.

Having the case prepared, it should be papered with ordinary demy paper on the top and back within, and, when the paste is dry, washed over carefully with size and whitening, tinted with a little stone-blue; some add some touches of white subsequently to represent clouds, the ground representing the air; some also paste a landscape on the back, but this must be good, or you had better have plain color. The bird to be placed in this case is either perching, standing, or flying. For the latter, directions have been given. As to the two former, the perch must be firmly fixed in the small piece of flat wood upon which it previously stood, and put in upon it, the wood being fastened to the bottom of the case, either by screwing from below, from above, or gluing with stout glue, or by passing wire through two holes in the bottom of the case and the wood, and clinching above. In this case, or in screwing from below, let the wire or the screw into the wood, and putty over, and so if the bird is represented standing. The bird being fixed, the next thing is the decorating or “weeding,” as it is technically called, and here we enter upon a subject so entirely of taste and fancy, that no fixed rules as to the disposition can in all cases be given. One rule applies equally to this as to landscape painting, viz., that there should always be a compensation of objects. That is, if you have a tuft of grass on one side which rises towards the top of the case, there should be something in the lower opposite corner to strike the eye, but not to rise above midway up at the furthest, and the ground, or floor, should not be overfurnished with mosses, etc. After the bird is fixed, the whole bottom should be carefully glued over with thin glue, taking care, where the bird’s feet are on the bottom, not to touch the toes with the glue. Some fine-sifted sand or gravel should then be sifted over it, and it will adhere wherever the glue has touched; for this purpose a small tin shovel is best, about two inches wide by four long, with a handle in proportion, which can be made to order at any tinman’s for a trifle.

Everything used in “weeding” should be baked in a slow oven, otherwise spider’s eggs and minute creatures, which are pretty sure to be contained in it, will make their appearance after the case is closed in the disagreeable form of destroying your specimen. Moss, etc., by being slowly dried, will also keep its color better. Yellow moss, found on the roofs of old barns, and dark gray of the same species, are very generally useful; and where yellow moss cannot be had, the white or gray may be colored with chrome, and looks as well. Water plants fade, being more or less succulent, and hence a little common water-color with gum will be used with advantage and look less artificial than oil plant, which is often used. Fern looks very pretty as an adjunct for heath-birds, but it should be dried gradually and carefully, when quite full grown, and a small touch of light green, permanent white forming a portion of it, will give it a freshness and more natural appearance. Grass in seed (not in flower) of various kinds is also a very pretty addition; but bird preservers have a habit of using dyed grass, and yellow and red Xeranthymum, or Everlasting, which is certainly to be avoided, and indeed anything which is unnatural. If it is wished to introduce a lump of earth, or an apparent bank, a piece of thick brown paper, bent to the requisite shape, and glued over and covered with sifted sand or gravel, has a very good effect; but insects and butterflies, or artificial flowers, unless they are extremely natural, should certainly be avoided. Regard should also be had to the season at which the bird is usually seen. For instance, summer birds are, of course, surrounded by green and living objects, but autumn or winter visitants by decaying or dead herbage. It has often been made an experiment to represent snow, but it is difficult to obtain anything white enough, and at the same time of a crystalline character, which, of course, it should be. Potato farina nicely dried, mixed with Epsom salts pounded very fine, does not make a bad substitute; but the real difficulty lies behind, namely, in fixing it, and, more than all, the least damp takes very much from its appearance, if it does not destroy the effect, and hence we must have recourse to mineral aid, and any very white mineral powder mingled with pounded glass is perhaps best. It is unnecessary to say that the herbage upon which it is meant to rest should be touched all over with paste, not glue, and the white mixture shaken over and left to dry. What will heighten the effect very much, if prettily executed, is a black landscape with a dark leaden sky and nearly black earth mingled with moss. To represent water, a piece of looking-glass, surrounded by moss, etc., answers very well. The bills and legs of birds should be always varnished, and where the natural color fades after death it should be restored by a thin coat of oil-color of the required shade. The bird being fixed and the case garnished, nothing remains but to put in the glass; this is in three pieces, one for the front and a piece at each end. This can be pasted in with very strong paper round the edge, advancing sufficiently over the glass to hold it. In doing this it is not necessary to be very particular to avoid pasting the glass, as after it is dried it can be wiped clean with a damp cloth. The last operation is a very simple one, and done in a few minutes. You must procure some black spirit-varnish, which you can make yourself by dissolving the best black sealing-wax in spirits of wine, and should be kept corked; when this is good it acts as paint and varnish at the same time, and dries as fast as it is put on. One or two brass rings screwed on at the top of the back of the case will finish the bird, and if the case be nicely and closely made, there is no limit of time to which the preservation of the specimen may not extend.

Method of Mounting Dried Skins. We must now say something respecting the setting up of skins which have been preserved by travelers, and sent home from distant parts.

The general method is exactly the same as in stuffing recent specimens. There are, however, some preliminary steps, which it is necessary to know.

If the specimen sent home has been partially stuffed, our first business is to undo the stitches, if it has been sewed—which was an unnecessary process. We then remove the whole cotton or tow from the inside, by the assistance of forceps, and from the neck with a small piece of wire, twisted or hooked at the end. Having finished this, small balls of wet cotton are placed in the orbits of the eyes, and the legs and feet are wrapped round with wet cotton or linen rags. A damp cloth is then thrown over the bird, and it is allowed to remain in this state till next day. The neck and body are then filled with wet linen or cotton, and it will be ready for commencing setting up in four or five hours.

The eyes are now put in, as directed in the recent subjects, and then stuffed in exactly the same manner. Some difficulty will, however, be experienced with respect to the leg-wires, and it will require more time and care, from the dryness of the legs, to get the wire to penetrate. Having proceeded so far as to get the bird generally formed, the wings are next adjusted; this also is frequently difficult, owing to the stiffness of the tendons, and want of proper attention in skinning and drying them at first. Indeed, with some of the South American birds, a proper adjustment of the wings is found impracticable, owing to the attempts of the native Indians of Guyana, who seldom dispose them properly.

When these skins—frequently exceedingly valuable from their rarity—are undone, to be remounted, it is oftentimes found utterly impossible to get the wings to take a natural set, in which case there is no other remedy but cutting them off close to the body, and fixing them anew. The scapulars are separated, they are softened with damp cloths, and then wrapped up with bands of sheet lead, to give them a proper set. When we have got them in their natural shape, they must be fixed to the sides by cement and cotton, and a long pin through each, with the head concealed amongst the feathers. The scapulars, which we have cut off, must then be cemented on, and they will effectually cover the joining of the wings. The bird being now arranged, and all the feathers adjusted, it is wrapped round with small bands of fine linen or muslin, and set aside till thoroughly dry.

Should any feathers be disengaged during the mounting, they must be kept, and, when the bird is dry, we can replace them in their proper situations with a pair of forceps, after they have been touched on their shafts with the cement; the feathers around the place in which we intend to insert them, must be held up with the probing-needle.

If any of the feathers are deranged in mounting, and have got a wrong set, the only way to remedy the defect is to pull them out with forceps, and re-insert them with cement.

Of Mounting Birds, Feather by Feather. Rare birds are frequently received from foreign countries, the skins of which are in such a state of decay, that it is impossible to mount them by the ordinary processes above described. The only way in which they can be preserved, is to mount them feather by feather, which, however, is a very tedious method. It is as follows:

Procure a piece of soft pliable wire, such as is used by bell-hangers; or take some of the ordinary wire used, and make it red-hot in the fire, and allow it to cool gradually, when it will become quite pliable. Take five pieces of this, of different lengths, and form them into the skeleton of a body; namely, two for the back, one on each side, and one to represent the breast bone. Imitate the shape of the bird’s body, as nearly as possible. The wires must be roughened with a file, at the place where all the wires meet, at the neck and rump; and first wrap the place next the neck round with strong thread or fine brass wire. Two pieces intended for the back must bend gently downwards, and be gradually separated from each other towards the center, and brought together again at the place intended for the rump, where they must intersect each other, and be twisted two or three times, to keep them in their place; they are then spread out as supports for the tail; the side pieces are next formed, so as to represent the natural bulge of a bird’s body, and attached to the rump; the piece representing the breast is then formed, joined at the rump, and afterwards continued as long as the other tail-pieces, to support the center of the tail; while at the front extremity a piece is left, for the purpose of forming a neck to which to attach the head. The leg-wires are attached to the side-wires, being rolled round them for several turns, making a framework the shape of the bird.

After this body has been properly formed, it must be wrapped round with tow-sliver, and the neck thickened to its required dimensions. When this is accomplished, the head, legs, wings and tail are softened in the usual manner; the eyes are then fixed in with some cotton introduced into the orbits, with a little of the cement. The wings and tail are now placed on a table, with a flat leaden weight above each, to restore them to their natural shape. The leg-wires are then passed through the legs, commencing at the top, and bringing them out at the soles of the feet, and left with a piece extending beyond the claws.

The tail is now fixed on, by first attaching to it a quantity of cotton with the cement, and, when dry, it is fixed to the part intended as the rump.

The feet of the bird must be fixed into a piece of wood, as a perch, the ends of which must be left some inches beyond the body. The end next the tail is fixed into a table-vice, with the belly upwards, and the head pointing towards the operator. The feathers are now put on, commencing, under the tail, or crissum, with what are termed the under-tail coverts; a coating of cement must be previously laid on, to attach the feathers with. It is proceeded with upwards to the breast, and finally the length of the neck, taking care to put the proper feathers on their respective sides, as the side-feathers have all an inclination to one side. The bird is now turned with the back up, still keeping the head towards the stuffer; and the wings are fixed on with cement, and pins forced through the beards of the feathers to conceal the heads. When this is done, put on the feathers of the rump, and proceed upwards, as has been done with the belly. After reaching the top of the neck, the head is then fixed on with some cotton immersed in the cement, and allowed to dry before attempting to put on the feathers.

In this mode of mounting a bird there are several things which must be attentively adhered to; these are—first, not to put the feathers too thick, for there is a danger of running short; secondly, all the shafts of the feathers must have a small bit cut off the tip, so as to admit the cement and to give them a firmer hold; and thirdly, that the feathers should all occupy their respective parts; and fourthly, that they should be arranged as they are in nature on these parts, as the disposition of every part of the body is peculiar to itself.

At first, this mode of setting up birds will be found a difficult task, but, by a little practice and experience, it will become familiar and comparatively easy, although it will always be found a tedious process. We have seen some specimens set up in this way, which we could hardly detect from those mounted in the ordinary manner.

Besides what we have already said concerning the stuffing and preparing of birds, there are many details connected with particular species which demand our attention, and which can only be described as regarding that species. It will, however, be impossible for us to enter into all these minutely, but only give a few examples as general guides. We shall take these in systematic succession.

Preservation of Colors. In the preservation of the feathers of birds, little else is required to prevent the dissipation of their colors than to keep them as much as possible from air and light. These two agents, which were indispensable to their beauty and perfection in a living state, now exercise their influence as destroyers, and that influence will sooner or later work its ends according to the quality, texture, or color of the object with which it is contending. The feathers are now deprived of two agents, which in a living state contributed to their vigor and their beauty, namely, the internal circulating juices which they received from the body of the animal, and the external application of oil by the bill of the bird, supplied from a gland which is placed over the rump of all birds.

The colors of the rapacious tribes are not so evanescent as those of many others, as they, for the most part, are composed of intense browns and blacks, which are not so easily absorbed by light or air, so that they continue for a very long period without any sensible difference. There are, however, certain other points which are liable to almost immediate change of color after the death of the animals, and these are the cere and skin of the legs and feet, and the naked skin on the heads and necks of vultures and their congeners. We shall treat of these individually.

Now, as all these colors which we have described are liable to change immediately after death, it is evident that considerable nicety will be required to give the preserved specimen the appearance of nature. These must, therefore, be supplied artificially with the varnish colors, which we have particularly described in their proper place, as also the combinations for the formation of compound colors. The reddish-brown color mentioned, of which the fold is composed, must be touched by a mixture of the scarlet varnish, with a little powdered burnt umber, and the blue streaks with which it is traversed, colored above with cobalt blue. All the varnish colors have a tendency to shine, which, it will be evident, is not the character of any part of the skin or caruncle of the bird described. As soon, therefore, as it is thoroughly dry, which will be in about an hour, the whole surface must be gently rubbed with very fine sand-paper, which will completely remove the gloss and give the appearance of nature.

Some nicety will be required in painting betwixt the hairs, but it can be easily managed with a little caution. Sometimes these hairs are liable to become brown, in which case they can be touched with the black varnish.

As these birds are inhabitants of warm climates, some care is requisite after killing them, to prevent decay; the tendons of the legs should be extracted to prevent their being attacked by moths, and their place supplied by some cotton and preservatives. The tendons are extracted by means of a longitudinal incision made behind the tarsus. The edges of this incision can easily be brought together when the bird is under the process of preparation.

COLLECTING AND PRESERVING BIRDS’ EGGS AND NESTS.

Few objects of natural history are more interesting than the nests of birds. To the reflecting naturalist they open up a wide field for inquiry. Speaking of the examination of birds, in the exercise of their mechanical arts of constructing nests, Professor Rennie says: “This work is the business of their lives—the duty which calls forth that wonderful ingenuity which no experience can teach, and which no human skill can rival. The infinite variety of modes in which the nests of birds are constructed, and the exquisite adaptation of the nest to the peculiar habits of the individual, offer a subject of almost exhaustless interest.” The number and variety of the eggs of birds are curious subjects of contemplation, and should be carefully noted whenever opportunity offers. They are as essential to the personal history of the species, as any other part of our inquiries.

The eggs are emptied of their contents by making a very small hole at each end with a point. By blowing at one of the ends, the contents will escape by the other, unless the young has been already formed; in which case a larger hole must be made in the side of the egg, and the contents removed with a small hook. The hole should then be stopped up by pasting a little goldbeater’s leaf over it. The eggs are then either returned to their nest, in which they ought to be cemented, or should be fixed down by one side to cards, with the name and locality attached.

The best manner of conveying loose eggs to a distance, is to put some cotton at the bottom of the nest, and then another layer above them. The nests should all be put in separate boxes if possible, and so packed that the pressure of the lid may not injure the eggs, or a box with several compartments should be used, taking care that each is carefully marked. It would also be of consequence to have the nests attached to the branches, with those species which build on trees, which will enable us to trace the ingenious means employed by those little animals in constructing their habitations. In sending home specimens from a foreign country, the seams of the box should be covered by pitched cloth to protect them from the influence of moisture.

To preserve the shells of eggs, first take care to clear them of their contents; get a small, fine-pointed common syringe, such as is sold in toy-shops for a penny or twopence, and inject the specimen with water until it comes out quite clean. When an egg has been partly hatched or addled, the removal of the contents generally includes that of the internal membrane or pellicle; this makes the shell weaker. When the specimens are quite clean internally, and have become dry (which will be in a day or two), take the syringe and inject them with a strong solution of isinglass (with a little sugar-candy added to prevent its cracking); blow this out again whilst warm. Let the shell get dry, and then wash the outside with a soft wet cloth to remove saline particles, dirt from the nest, etc. This method varnishes the inside, and the first specimen on which it has been tried was the before-mentioned hedge-accentor’s egg, which is to this day as bright in color as a fresh specimen.

Also in a pair of nightjar’s eggs, of which species the delicate gray tint is particularly evanescent, one was injected in the manner described, and the other was not; in the first the gray is still perfectly defined, in the other it has entirely disappeared. Eggs which have lost their internal pellicle become strengthened by this process, and those which have not lost their color greatly improved.