The Elements of Botany, For Beginners and For Schools

by Asa Gray

FOOTNOTES:

[1] Beginning with one by C. C. Sprengel in 1793, and again in our day with Darwin, "On the Various Contrivances by which Orchids are fertilized by Insects," and in succeeding works.

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Section XIV. THE FRUIT.

[345.] Its Nature. The ovary matures into the Fruit. In the strictest sense the fruit is the seed-vessel, technically named the Pericarp. But practically it may include other parts organically connected with the pericarp. Especially the calyx, or a part of it, is often incorporated with the ovary, so as to be undistinguishably a portion of the pericarp, and it even forms along with the receptacle the whole bulk of such edible fruits as apples and pears. The receptacle is an obvious part in blackberries, and is the whole edible portion in the strawberry.

346. Also a cluster of distinct carpels may, in ripening, be consolidated or compacted, so as practically to be taken for one fruit. Such are raspberries, blackberries, the Magnolia fruit, etc. Moreover, the ripened product of many flowers may be compacted or grown together so as to form a single compound fruit.

[347.] Its kinds have therefore to be distinguished. Also various names of common use in descriptive botany have to be mentioned and defined.

348. In respect to composition, accordingly, fruits may be classified into

Simple, those which result from the ripening of a single pistil, and consist only of the matured ovary, either by itself, as in a cherry, or with calyx-tube completely incorporated with it, as in a gooseberry or cranberry.

Aggregate, when a cluster of carpels of the same flower are crowded into a mass; as in raspberries and blackberries.

Fig. 366. Forming fruit (capsule) of Gaultheria, with calyx thickening around its base. 367. Section of same mature, the berry-like calyx nearly enclosing the capsule.

Fig. 368. Section of a part of a strawberry. Compare with Fig. [360].

Fig. 369. Similar section of part of a blackberry. 370. One of its component simple fruits (drupe) in section, showing the pulp, stone, and contained seed; more enlarged. Compare with Fig. [375].

Accessory or Anthocarpous, when the surroundings or supports of the pistil make up a part of the mass; as does the loose calyx changed into a fleshy and berry-like envelope of our Wintergreen (Gaultheria, Fig. [366, 367]) and Buffalo-berry, which are otherwise simple fruits. In an aggregate fruit such as the strawberry the great mass is receptacle (Fig. [360], [368]); and in the blackberry (Fig. [369]) the juicy receptacle forms the central part of the savory mass.

Multiple or Collective, when formed from several flowers consolidated into one mass, of which the common receptacle or axis of inflorescence, the floral envelopes, and even the bracts, etc., make a part. A mulberry (Fig. [408], which superficially much resembles a blackberry) is of this multiple sort. A pine-apple is another example.

349. In respect to texture or consistence, fruits may be distinguished into three kinds, viz.—

Fleshy Fruits, those which are more or less soft and juicy throughout;

Stone Fruits, or Drupaceous, the outer part fleshy like a berry, the inner hard or stony, like a nut; and

Dry Fruits, those which have no flesh or pulp.

350. In reference to the way of disseminating the contained seed, fruits are said to be

Indehiscent when they do not open at maturity. Fleshy fruits and stone fruits are of course indehiscent. The seed becomes free only through decay or by being fed upon by animals. Those which escape digestion are thus disseminated by the latter. Of dry fruits many are indehiscent; and these are variously arranged to be transported by animals. Some burst irregularly; many are

Dehiscent, that is, they split open regularly along certain lines, and discharge the seeds. A dehiscent fruit almost always contains many or several seeds, or at least more than one seed.

Fig. 371. Leafy shoot and berry (cut across) of the larger Cranberry, Vaccinium macrocarpon.

Fig. 372, 373. Pepo of Gourd, in section. 373. One carpel of same in diagram.

Fig. 374. Longitudinal and transverse sections of a pear (pome).

351. The principal kinds of fruit which have received substantive names and are of common use in descriptive botany are the following. Of fleshy fruits the leading kind is

[352.] The Berry, such as the gooseberry and currant, the blueberry and cranberry (Fig. [371]), the tomato, and the grape. Here the whole flesh is soft throughout. The orange is a berry with a leathery rind.

[353.] The Pepo, or Gourd-fruit, is a hard-rinded berry, belonging to the Gourd family, such as the pumpkin, squash, cucumber, and melon, Fig. [372, 373].

[354.] The Pome is a name applied to the apple, pear (Fig. [374]), and quince; fleshy fruits, like a berry, but the principal thickness is calyx, only the papery pods arranged like a star in the core really belonging to the carpels. The fruit of the Hawthorn is a drupaceous pome, something between pome and drupe.

355. Of fruits which are externally fleshy and internally hard the leading kind is

[356.] The Drupe, or Stone-fruit; of which the cherry, plum, and peach (Fig. [375]) are familiar examples. In this the outer part of the thickness of the pericarp becomes fleshy, or softens like a berry, while the inner hardens, like a nut. From the way in which the pistil is constructed, it is evident that the fleshy part here answers to the lower, and the stone to the upper face of the component leaf. The layers or concentric portions of a drupe, or of any pericarp which is thus separable, are named, when thus distinguishable into three portions,—

Epicarp, the external layer, often the mere skin of the fruit,

Mesocarp, the middle layer, which is commonly the fleshy part, and

Endocarp, the innermost layer, the stone. But more commonly only two portions of a drupe are distinguished, and are named, the outer one

Sarcocarp or Exocarp, for the flesh, the first name referring to the fleshy character, the second to its being an external layer; and

Putamen or Endocarp, the Stone, within.

Fig. 375. Longitudinal section of a peach, showing flesh, stone, and seed.

357. The typical or true drupe is of a single carpel. But, not to multiply technical names, this name is extended to all such fruits when fleshy without and stony within, although of compound pistil,—even to those having several or separable stones, such as the fruit of Holly. These stones in such drupes, or drupaceous fruits, are called Pyrenæ, or Nucules, or simply Nutlets of the drupe.

358. Of Dry fruits, there is a greater diversity of kinds having distinct names. The indehiscent sorts are commonly one-seeded.

Fig. 376. Akene of a Buttercup. 377. The same, divided lengthwise, to show the contained seed.

Fig. 378. Akene of Virgin's-bower, retaining the feathered style, which aids in dissemination.

[359.] The Akene or Achenium is a small, dry and indehiscent one-seeded fruit, often so seed-like in appearance that it is popularly taken for a naked seed. The fruit of the Buttercup or Crowfoot is a good example, Fig. [376, 377]. Its nature, as a ripened pistil (in this case a simple carpel), is apparent by its bearing the remains of a style or stigma, or a scar from which this has fallen. It may retain the style and use it in various ways for dissemination (Fig. [378]).

360. The fruit of Compositæ (though not of a single carpel) is also an akene. In this case the pericarp is invested by an adherent calyx-tube; the limb of which, when it has any, is called the Pappus. This name was first given to the down like that of the Thistle, but is applied to all forms under which the limb of the calyx of the "compound flower" appears. In Lettuce, Dandelion (Fig. [384]), and the like, the achenium as it matures tapers upwards into a slender beak, like a stalk to the pappus.

Fig. 379. Akene of Mayweed (no pappus). 380. That of Succory (its pappus a shallow cup). 381. Of Sunflower (pappus of two deciduous scales). 382. Of Sneezeweed (Helenium), with its pappus of five scales. 383. Of Sow-Thistle, with its pappus of delicate downy hairs. 384. Of the Dandelion, its pappus raised on a long beak.

[361.] A Cremocarp (Fig. [385]), a name given to the fruit of Umbelliferæ, consists as it were of a pair of akenes united completely in the blossom, but splitting apart when ripe into the two closed carpels. Each of these is a Mericarp or Hemicarp, names seldom used.

[362.] A Utricle is the same as an akene, but with a thin and bladdery loose pericarp; like that of the Goosefoot or Pigweed (Fig. [386]). When ripe it may burst open irregularly to discharge the seed; or it may open by a circular line all round, the upper part falling off like a lid; as in the Amaranth (Fig. [387]).

Fig. 385. Fruit (cremocarp) of Osmorrhiza; the two akene-like ripe carpels separating at maturity from a slender axis or carpophore.

Fig. 386. Utricle of the common Pigweed (Chenopodium album).

Fig. 387. Utricle (pyxis) of Amaranth, opening all round (circumscissile).

[363.] A Caryopsis, or Grain, is like an akene with the seed adhering to the thin pericarp throughout, so that fruit and seed are incorporated into one body; as in wheat, Indian corn, and other kinds of grain.

[364.] A Nut is a dry and indehiscent fruit, commonly one-celled and one-seeded, with a hard, crustaceous, or bony wall, such as the cocoa-nut, hazelnut, chestnut, and the acorn (Fig. [37], [388].) Here the involucre, in the form of a cup at the base, is called the Cupule. In the Chestnut the cupule forms the bur; in the Hazel, a leafy husk.

Fig. 388. Nut (acorn) of the Oak, with its cup or cupule.

[365.] A Samara, or Key-fruit, is either a nut or an akene, or any other indehiscent fruit, furnished with a wing, like that of Ash (Fig. [389]), and Elm (Fig. [390]). The Maple-fruit is a pair of keys (Fig. [391]).

366. Dehiscent Fruits, or Pods, are of two classes, viz., those of a simple pistil or carpel, and those of a compound pistil. Two common sorts of the first are named as follows:—

[367.] The Follicle is a fruit of a simple carpel, which dehisces down one side only, i. e. by the inner or ventral suture. The fruits of Marsh Marigold (Fig. [392]), Pæony, Larkspur, and Milkweed are of this kind.

Fig. 389. Samara or key of the White Ash, winged at end. 390. Samara of the American Elm, winged all round.

Fig. 391. Pair of samaras of Sugar Maple.

Fig. 392. Follicle of Marsh Marigold (Caltha palustris).

Fig. 393. Legume of a Sweet Pea, opened.

Fig. 394. Loment or jointed legume of a Tick-Trefoil (Desmodium).

[368.] The Legume or true Pod, such as the peapod (Fig. [393]), and the fruit of the Leguminous or Pulse family generally, is one which opens along the dorsal as well as the ventral suture. The two pieces into which it splits are called Valves. A Loment is a legume which is constricted between the seeds, and at length breaks up crosswise into distinct joints, as in Fig. [394].

369. The pods or dehiscent fruits belonging to a compound ovary have several technical names: but they all may be regarded as kinds of

[370.] The Capsule, the dry and dehiscent fruit of any compound pistil. The capsule may discharge its seeds through chinks or pores, as in the Poppy, or burst irregularly in some part, as in Lobelia and the Snapdragon; but commonly it splits open (or is dehiscent) lengthwise into regular pieces, called Valves.

Fig. 395. Capsule of Iris, with loculicidal dehiscence; below, cut across.

Fig. 396. Pod of a Marsh St. John's-wort, with septicidal dehiscence.

[371.] Regular Dehiscence in a capsule takes place in two ways, which are best illustrated in pods of two or three cells. It is either

Loculicidal, or, splitting directly into the loculi or cells, that is, down the back (or the dorsal suture) of each cell or carpel, as in Iris (Fig. [395]); or

Septicidal, that is, splitting through the partitions or septa, as in St. John's-wort (Fig. [396]), Rhododendron, etc. This divides the capsule into its component carpels, which then open by their ventral suture.

Fig. 397, 398. Diagrams of the two modes.

Fig. 399. Diagram of septifragal dehiscence of the loculicidal type. 400. Same of the septicidal or marginicidal type.

372. In loculicidal dehiscence the valves naturally bear the partitions on their middle; in the septicidal, half the thickness of a partition is borne on the margin of each valve. See the annexed diagrams. A variation of either mode occurs when the valves break away from the partitions, these remaining attached in the axis of the fruit. This is called Septifragal dehiscence. One form is seen in the Morning-Glory (Fig. [400]).

373. The capsules of Rue, Spurge, and some others, are both loculicidal and septicidal, and so split into half-carpellary valves or pieces.

[374.] The Silique (Fig. [401]) is the technical name of the peculiar pod of the Mustard family; which is two-celled by a false partition stretched across between two parietal placentæ. It generally opens by two valves from below upward, and the placentæ with the partition are left behind when the valves fall off.

[375.] A Silicle or Pouch is only a short and broad silique, like that of the Shepherd's Purse, Fig. [402, 403].

Fig. 401. Silique of a Cadamine or Spring Cress.

Fig. 402. Silicle of Shepherd's Purse.

Fig. 403. Same, with one valve removed.

Fig. 404. Pyxis of Purslane, the lid detaching.

[376.] The Pyxis is a pod which opens by a circular horizontal line, the upper part forming a lid, as in Purslane (Fig. [404]), the Plantain, Henbane, etc. In these the dehiscence extends all round, or is circumscissile. So it does in Amaranth (Fig. [387]), forming a one-seeded utricular pyxis. In Jeffersonia, the line does not separate quite round, but leaves a portion for a hinge to the lid.

377. Of Multiple or Collective Fruits, which are properly masses of fruits aggregated into one body (as is seen in the Mulberry (Fig. [408]), Pine-apple, etc.), there are two kinds with special names and of peculiar structure.

Fig. 405. A fig-fruit when young. 406. Same in section. 407. Magnified portion, a slice, showing some of the flowers.

Fig. 408. A mulberry. 409. One of the grains younger, enlarged; seen to be a pistillate flower with calyx becoming fleshy. 410. Same, with fleshy calyx cut across.

[378.] The Syconium or Fig-fruit (Fig. [405, 406]) is a fleshy axis or summit of stem, hollowed out, and lined within by a multitude of minute flowers, the whole becoming pulpy, and in the common fig, luscious.

[379.] The Strobile or Cone (Fig. [411]), is the peculiar multiple fruit of Pines, Cypresses, and the like; hence named Coniferæ, viz. cone-bearing plants. As already shown ([313]), these cones are open pistils, mostly in the form of flat scales, regularly overlying each other, and pressed together in a spike or head. Each scale bears one or two naked seeds on its inner face. When ripe and dry, the scales turn back or diverge, and in the Pine the seed peels off and falls, generally carrying with it a wing, a part of the lining of the scale, which facilitates the dispersion of the seeds by the wind (Fig. [412, 413]). In Arbor-Vitæ, the scales of the small cone are few, and not very unlike the leaves. In Cypress they are very thick at the top and narrow at the base, so as to make a peculiar sort of closed cone. In Juniper and Red Cedar, the few scales of the very small cone become fleshy, and ripen into a fruit which closely resembles a berry.

Fig. 411. Cone of a common Pitch Pine. 412. Inside view of a separated scale or open carpel; one seed in place: 413, the other seed.

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Section XV. THE SEED.

380. Seeds are the final product of the flower, to which all its parts and offices are subservient. Like the ovule from which it originates, a seed consists of coats and kernel.

Fig. 414. Seed of a Linden or Basswood cut through lengthwise, and magnified, the parts lettered: a, the hilum or scar; b, the outer coat; c, the inner; d, the albumen; e, the embryo.

[381.] The Seed-coats are commonly two ([320]), the outer and the inner. Fig. [414] shows the two, in a seed cut through lengthwise. The outer coat is often hard or crustaceous, whence it is called the Testa, or shell of the seed; the inner is almost always thin and delicate.

Fig. 415. A winged seed of the Trumpet-Creeper.

Fig. 416. One of Catalpa, the kernel cut to show the embryo.

Fig. 417. Seed of Milkweed, with a Coma or tuft of long silky hairs at one end.

382. The shape and the markings, so various in different seeds, depend mostly on the outer coat. Sometimes this fits the kernel closely; sometimes it is expanded into a wing, as in the Trumpet-Creeper (Fig. [415]), and occasionally this wing is cut up into shreds or tufts, as in the Catalpa (Fig. [416]); or instead of a wing it may bear a Coma, or tuft of long and soft hairs, as in the Milkweed or Silkweed (Fig. [417]). The use of wings, or downy tufts is to render the seeds buoyant for dispersion by the winds. This is clear, not only from their evident adaptation to this purpose, but also from the fact that winged and tufted seeds are found only in fruits that split open at maturity, never in those that remain closed. The coat of some seeds is beset with long hairs or wool. Cotton, one of the most important vegetable products, since it forms the principal clothing of the larger part of the human race, consists of the long and woolly hairs which thickly cover the whole surface of the seed. There are also crests or other appendages of various sorts on certain seeds. A few seeds have an additional, but more or less incomplete covering, outside of the real seed-coats called an

[383.] Aril, or Arillus. The loose and transparent bag which encloses the seed of the White Water-Lily (Fig. [418]) is of this kind. So is the mace of the nutmeg; and also the scarlet pulp around the seeds of the Waxwork (Celastrus) and Strawberry-bush (Euonymus). The aril is a growth from the extremity of the seed-stalk, or from the placenta when there is no seed-stalk.

Fig. 418. Seed of White Water Lily, enclosed in its aril.

384. A short and thickish appendage at or close to the hilum in certain seeds is called a Caruncle or Strophiole (Fig. [419]).

Fig. 419. Seed of Ricinus or Castor oil plant, with caruncle.

385. The various terms which define the position or direction of the ovule (erect, ascending, etc.) apply equally to the seed: so also the terms anatropous, orthotropous, campylotropous, etc., as already defined ([320], [321]), and such terms as

Hilum, or Scar left where the seed-stalk or funiculus falls away, or where the seed was attached directly to the placenta when there is no seed-stalk.

Rhaphe, the line or ridge which runs from the hilum to the chalaza in anatropous and amphitropous seeds.

Chalaza, the place where the seed-coats and the kernel or nucleus are organically connected,—at the hilum in orthotropous and campylotropous seeds, at the extremity of the rhaphe or tip of the seed in other kinds.

Micropyle, answering to the Foramen or orifice of the ovule. Compare the accompanying figures and those of the ovules, Fig. [341]-[355].

Fig. 420. Seed of a Violet (anatropous): a, hilum; b, rhaphe; c, chalaza.

Fig. 421. Seed of a Larkspur (also anatropous); the parts lettered as in the last.

Fig. 422. The same, cut through lengthwise: a, the hilum; c, chalaza; d, outer seed coat; e, inner seed-coat; f, the albumen; g, the minute embryo.

Fig. 423. Seed of a St. John's-wort, divided lengthwise; here the whole kernel is embryo.

[386.] The Kernel, or Nucleus, is the whole body of the seed within the coats. In many seeds the kernel is all Embryo; in others a large part of it is the Albumen. For example, in Fig. [423], it is wholly embryo; in Fig. [422], all but the small speck (g) is albumen.

[387.] The Albumen or Endosperm of the seed is sufficiently characterized and its office explained in Sect. III., [31-35].

[388.] The Embryo or Germ, which is the rudimentary plantlet and the final result of blossoming, and its development in germination have been extensively illustrated in Sections [II.] and [III.] Its essential parts are the Radicle and the Cotyledons.

[389.] Its Radicle or Caulicle (the former is the term long and generally used in botanical descriptions, but the latter is the more correct one, for it is the initial stem, which merely gives origin to the root), as to its position in the seed, always points to and lies near the micropyle. In relation to the pericarp it is

Superior, when it points to the apex of the fruit or cell, and

Inferior, when it points to its base, or downward.

Fig. 424. Embryo of Calycanthus; upper part cut away, to show the convolute cotyledons.

[390.] The Cotyledons have already been illustrated as respects their number,—giving the important distinction of Dicotyledonous, Polycotyledonous and Monocotyledonous embryos ([36-43]),—also as regards their thickness, whether foliaceous or fleshy; and some of the very various shapes and adaptations to the seed have been figured. They may be straight, or folded, or rolled up. In the latter case the cotyledons may be rolled up as it were from one margin, as in Calycanthus (Fig. [424]), or from apex to base in a flat spiral, or they may be both folded (plicate) and rolled up (convolute), as in Sugar Maple (Fig. [11].) In one very natural family, the Cruciferæ, two different modes prevail in the way the two cotyledons are brought round against the radicle. In one series they are

Accumbent, that is, the edges of the flat cotyledons lie against the radicle, as in Fig. [425, 426]. In another they are

Fig. 425. Seed of Bitter Cress, Barbarea, cut across to show the accumbent cotyledons. 426. Embryo of same, whole.

Incumbent, or with the plane of the cotyledons brought up in the opposite direction, so that the back of one of them lies against the radicle, as shown in Fig. [427, 428].

Fig. 427. Seed of a Sisymbrium, cut across to show the incumbent cotyledons. 428. Embryo of the same, detached whole.

391. As to the situation of the embryo with respect to the albumen of the seed, when this is present in any quantity, the embryo may be Axile, that is occupying the axis or centre, either for most of its length, as in Violet (Fig. [429]), Barberry (Fig. [48]), and Pine (Fig. [56]); and in these it is straight. But it may be variously curved or coiled in the albumen, as in Helianthemum (Fig. [430]), in a Potato-seed (Fig. [50]), or Onion-seed (Fig. [60]), and Linden (Fig. [414]); or it may be coiled around the outside of the albumen, partly or into a circle, as in Chickweed (Fig. [431, 432]) and in Mirabilis (Fig. [52]). The latter mode prevails in Campylotropous seeds. In the cereal grains, such as Indian Corn (Fig. [67]) and Rice (Fig. [430^a]), and in all other Grasses, the embryo is straight and applied to the outside of the abundant albumen.

Fig. 429. Section of seed of Violet; anatropous with straight axile embryo in the albumen. 430. Section of seed of Rock Rose, Helianthemum Canadense; orthotropous, with curved embryo in the albumen. 430^a. Section of a grain of Rice, lengthwise, showing the embryo outside the albumen, which forms the principal bulk.

Fig. 431. Seed of a Chickweed, campylotropous. 432. Section of same, showing slender embryo coiled around the outside of the albumen of the kernel.

392. The matured seed, with embryo ready to germinate and reproduce the kind, completes the cycle of the vegetable life in a phanerogamous plant, the account of which began with the seed and seedling.

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Section XVI. VEGETABLE LIFE AND WORK.

393. The following simple outlines of the anatomy and physiology of plants ([3]) are added to the preceding structural part for the better preparation of students in descriptive and systematic botany; also to give to all learners some general idea of the life, growth, intimate structure, and action of the beings which compose so large a part of organic nature. Those who would extend and verify the facts and principles here outlined will use the Physiological Botany of the "Botanical Text Book," by Professor Goodale, or some similar book.

[§ 1.] ANATOMICAL STRUCTURE AND GROWTH.

[394.] Growth is the increase of a living thing in size and substance. It appears so natural that plants and animals should grow, that one rarely thinks of it as requiring explanation. It seems enough to say that a thing is so because it grew so. Growth from the seed, the germination and development of an embryo into a plantlet, and at length into a mature plant (as illustrated in Sections [II.] and [III.]), can be followed by ordinary observation. But the embryo is already a miniature plantlet, sometimes with hardly any visible distinction of parts, but often one which has already made very considerable growth in the seed. To investigate the formation and growth of the embryo itself requires well-trained eyes and hands, and the expert use of a good compound microscope. So this is beyond the reach of a beginner.

395. Moreover, although observation may show that a seedling, weighing only two or three grains, may double its bulk and weight every week of its early growth, and may in time produce a huge amount of vegetable matter, it is still to be asked what this vegetable matter is, where it came from, and by what means plants are able to increase and accumulate it, and build it up into the fabric of herbs and shrubs and lofty trees.

[396.] Protoplasm. All this fabric was built up under life, but only a small portion of it is at any one time alive. As growth proceeds, life is passed on from the old to the new parts, much as it has passed on from parent to offspring, from generation to generation in unbroken continuity. Protoplasm is the common name of that plant-stuff in which life essentially resides. All growth depends upon it; for it has the peculiar power of growing and multiplying and building up a living structure,—the animal no less than the vegetable structure, for it is essentially the same in both. Indeed, all the animal protoplasm comes primarily from the vegetable, which has the prerogative of producing it; and the protoplasm of plants furnishes all that portion of the food of animals which forms their flesh and living fabric.

397. The very simplest plants (if such may specifically be called plants rather than animals, or one may say, the simplest living things) are mere particles, or pellets, or threads, or even indefinite masses of protoplasm of vague form, which possess powers of motion or of changing their shape, of imbibing water, air, and even other matters, and of assimilating these into plant-stuff for their own growth and multiplication. Their growth is increase in substance by incorporation of that which they take in and assimilate. Their multiplication is by spontaneous division of their substance or body into two or more, each capable of continuing the process.

398. The embryo of a phanerogamous plant at its beginning ([344]) is essentially such a globule of protoplasm, which soon constricts itself into two and more such globules, which hold together inseparably in a row; then the last of the row divides without separation in the two other planes, to form a compound mass, each grain or globule of which goes on to double itself as it grows; and the definite shaping of this still increasing mass builds up the embryo into its form.

Fig. 433-436. Figures to illustrate the earlier stages in the formation of an embryo; a single mass of protoplasm (Fig. 433) dividing into two, three, and then into more incipient cells, which by continued multiplication build up an embryo.

[399.] Cell-walls. While this growth was going on, each grain of the forming structure formed and clothed itself with a coat, thin and transparent, of something different from protoplasm,—something which hardly and only transiently, if at all, partakes of the life and action. The protoplasm forms the living organism; the coat is a kind of protective covering or shell. The protoplasm, like the flesh of animals which it gives rise to, is composed of four chemical elements: Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, and Nitrogen. The coating is of the nature of wood (is, indeed, that which makes wood), and has only the three elements, Carbon, Hydrogen, and Oxygen, in its composition.

Fig. 437. Magnified view of some of a simple fresh water Alga, the Tetraspora lubrica, each sphere of which may answer to an individual plant.

400. Although the forming structure of an embryo in the fertilized ovule is very minute and difficult to see, there are many simple plants of lowest grade, abounding in pools of water, which more readily show the earlier stages or simplest states of plant-growth. One of these, which is common in early spring, requires only moderate magnifying power to bring to view what is shown in Fig. [437]. In a slimy mass which holds all loosely together, little spheres of green vegetable matter are seen, assembled in fours, and these fours themselves in clusters of fours. A transient inspection shows, what prolonged watching would confirm, that each sphere divides first in one plane, then in the other, to make four, soon acquiring the size of the original, and so on, producing successive groups of fours. These pellets each form on their surface a transparent wall, like that just described. The delicate wall is for some time capable of expansive growth, but is from the first much firmer than the protoplasm within; through it the latter imbibes surrounding moisture, which becomes a watery sap, occupying vacuities in the protoplasmic mass which enlarge or run together as the periphery increases and distends. When full grown the protoplasm may become a mere lining to the wall, or some of it central, as a nucleus, this usually connected with the wall-lining by delicate threads of the same substance. So, when full grown, the wall with its lining—a vesicle, containing liquid or some solid matters and in age mostly air—naturally came to be named a Cell. But the name was suggested by, and first used only for, cells in combination or built up into a fabric, much as a wall is built of bricks, that is, into a

[401.] Cellular Structure or Tissue. Suppose numerous cells like those of Fig. [437] to be heaped up like a pile of cannon-balls, and as they grew, to be compacted together while soft and yielding; they would flatten where they touched, and each sphere, being touched by twelve surrounding ones would become twelve-sided. Fig. [438] would represent one of them. Suppose the contiguous faces to be united into one wall or partition between adjacent cavities, and a cellular structure would be formed, like that shown in Fig. [439]. Roots, stems, leaves, and the whole of phanerogamous plants are a fabric of countless numbers of such cells. No such exact regularity in size and shape is ever actually found; but a nearly truthful magnified view of a small portion of a slice of the flower-stalk of a Calla Lily (Fig. [440]) shows a fairly corresponding structure; except that, owing to the great air-spaces of the interior, the fabric may be likened rather to a stack of chimneys than to a solid fabric. In young and partly transparent parts one may discern the cellular structure by looking down directly on the surface, as of a forming root. (Fig. [82], [441, 442]).

Fig. 438. Diagram of a vegetable cell, such as it would be if when spherical it were equally pressed by similar surrounding cells in a heap.

Fig. 439. Ideal construction of cellular tissue so formed, in section.

Fig. 440. Magnified view of a portion of a transverse slice of stem of Calla Lily. The great spaces are tubular air-channels built up by the cells.

[402.] The substance of which cell-walls are mainly composed is called Cellulose. It is essentially the same in the stem of a delicate leaf or petal and in the wood of an Oak, except that in the latter the walls are much thickened and the calibre small. The protoplasm of each living cell appears to be completely shut up and isolated in its shell of cellulose; but microscopic investigation has brought to view, in many cases, minute threads of protoplasm which here and there traverse the cell-wall through minute pores, thus connecting the living portion of one cell with that of adjacent cells. (See Fig. [447], &c.)

Fig. 441. Much magnified small portion of young root of a seedling Maple (such as of Fig. [82]); and 442, a few cells of same more magnified. The prolongations from the back of some of the cells are root hairs.

403. The hairs of plants are cells formed on the surface; either elongated single cells (like the root-hairs of Fig. [441, 442]), or a row of shorter cells. Cotton fibres are long and simple cells growing from the surface of the seed.

404. The size of the cells of which common plants are made up varies from about the thirtieth to the thousandth of an inch in diameter. An ordinary size of short or roundish cells is from 1/300 to 1/500 of an inch; so that there may generally be from 27 to 125 millions of cells in the compass of a cubic inch!

405. Some parts are built up as a compact structure; in others cells are arranged so as to build up regular air-channels, as in the stems of aquatic and other water-loving plants (Fig. [440]), or to leave irregular spaces, as in the lower part of most leaves, where the cells only here and there come into close contact (Fig. [443]).

Fig. 443. Magnified section through the thickness of a leaf of Florida Star-Anise.

406. All such soft cellular tissue, like this of leaves, that of pith, and of the green bark, is called Parenchyma, while fibrous and woody parts are composed of Prosenchyma, that is, of peculiarly transformed

[407.] Strengthening Cells. Common cellular tissue, which makes up the whole structure of all very young plants, and the whole of Mosses and other vegetables of the lowest grade, even when full grown, is too tender or too brittle to give needful strength and toughness for plants which are to rise to any considerable height and support themselves. In these needful strength is imparted, and the conveyance of sap through the plant is facilitated, by the change, as they are formed, of some cells into thicker-walled and tougher tubes, and by the running together of some of these, or the prolongation of others, into hollow fibres or tubes of various size. Two sorts of such transformed cells go together, and essentially form the

[408.] Wood. This is found in all common herbs, as well as in shrubs and trees, but the former have much less of it in proportion to the softer cellular tissue. It is formed very early in the growth of the root, stem, and leaves,—traces of it appearing in large embryos even while yet in the seed. Those cells that lengthen, and at the same time thicken their walls form the proper Woody Fibre or Wood-cells; those of larger size and thinner walls, which are thickened only in certain parts so as to have peculiar markings, and which often are seen to be made up of a row of cylindrical cells, with the partitions between absorbed or broken away, are called Ducts, or sometimes Vessels. There are all gradations between wood-cells and ducts, and between both these and common cells. But in most plants the three kinds are fairly distinct.

Fig. 444. Magnified wood-cells of the bark (bast-cells) of Basswood, one and part of another. 445. Some wood cells from the wood (and below part of a duct); and 446, a detached wood-cell of the same; equally magnified.

Fig. 447. Some wood cells from Buttonwood, Platanus, highly magnified, a whole cell and lower end of another on the left; a cell cut half away lengthwise, and half of another on the right; some pores or pits (a) seen on the left; while b b mark sections through these on the cut surface. When living and young the protoplasm extends into these and by minuter perforations connects across them. In age the pits become open passages, facilitating the passage of sap and air.

409. The proper cellular tissue, or parenchyma, is the ground-work of root, stem, and leaves; this is traversed, chiefly lengthwise, by the strengthening and conducting tissue, wood-cells and duct-cells, in the form of bundles or threads, which, in the stems and stalks of herbs are fewer and comparatively scattered, but in shrubs and trees so numerous and crowded that in the stems and all permanent parts they make a solid mass of wood. They extend into and ramify in the leaves, spreading out in a horizontal plane, as the framework of ribs and veins, which supports the softer cellular portion or parenchyma.

[410.] Wood-Cells, or Woody Fibres, consist of tubes, commonly between one and two thousandths, but in Pine-wood sometimes two or three hundredths, of an inch in diameter. Those from the tough bark of the Basswood, shown in Fig. [444], are only the fifteen-hundredth of an inch wide. Those of Buttonwood (Fig. [447]) are larger, and are here highly magnified besides. The figures show the way wood-cells are commonly put together, namely, with their tapering ends overlapping each other,—spliced together, as it were,—thus giving more strength and toughness. In hard woods, such as Hickory and Oak, the walls of these tubes are very thick, as well as dense; while in soft woods, such as White Pine and Basswood, they are thinner.

[411.] Wood-cells in the bark are generally longer, finer, and tougher than those of the proper wood, and appear more like fibres. For example, Fig. [446] represents a cell of the wood of Basswood of average length, and Fig. [444] one (and part of another) of the fibrous bark, both drawn to the same scale. As these long cells form the principal part of fibrous bark, or bast, they are named Bast-cells or Bast-fibres. These give the great toughness and flexibility to the inner bark of Basswood (i. e. Bast-wood) and of Leatherwood; and they furnish the invaluable fibres of flax and hemp; the proper wood of their stems being tender, brittle, and destroyed by the processes which separate for use the tough and slender bast-cells. In Leatherwood (Dirca) the bast-cells are remarkably slender. A view of one, if magnified on the scale of Fig. [444], would be a foot and a half long.

Fig. 448. Magnified bit of a pine shaving, taken parallel with the silver grain. 449. Separate whole wood-cell, more magnified. 450. Same, still more magnified; both sections represented: a, disks in section, b, in face.

412. The wood-cells of Pines, and more or less of all other Coniferous trees, have on two of their sides very peculiar disk-shaped markings (Fig. [448-450]) by which that kind of wood is recognizable.

Fig. 451, 452. A large and a smaller dotted duct from Grape-Vine.

[413.] Ducts, also called Vessels, are mostly larger than wood-cells: indeed, some of them, as in Red Oak, have calibre large enough to be discerned on a cross section by the naked eye. They make the visible porosity of such kinds of wood. This is particularly the case with

Dotted ducts (Fig. [451, 452]), the surface of which appears as if riddled with round or oval pores. Such ducts are commonly made up of a row of large cells more or less confluent into a tube.

Scalariform ducts (Fig. [458, 459]), common in Ferns, and generally angled by mutual pressure in the bundles, have transversely elongated thin places, parallel with each other, giving a ladder-like appearance, whence the name.

Annular ducts (Fig. [457]) are marked with cross lines or rings, which are thickened portions of the cell-wall.

Fig. 453, 454. Spiral ducts which uncoil into a single thread. 455. Spiral duct which tears up as a band. 456. An annular duct, with variations above. 457. Loose spiral duct passing into annular. 458. Scalariform ducts of a Fern; part of a bundle, prismatic by pressure. 459. One torn into a band.

Spiral ducts or vessels (Fig. [453-455]) have thin walls, strengthened by a spiral fibre adherent within. This is as delicate and as strong as spider-web: when uncoiled by pulling apart, it tears up and annihilates the cell-wall. The uncoiled threads are seen by gently pulling apart many leaves, such as those of Amaryllis, or the stalk of a Strawberry leaflet.

Fig. 460. Milk Vessels of Dandelion, with cells of the common cellular tissue. 461. Others from the same older and gorged with milky juice. All highly magnified.

Laticiferous ducts, Vessels of the Latex, or Milk-vessels are peculiar branching tubes which hold latex or milky juice in certain plants. It is very difficult to see them, and more so to make out their nature. They are peculiar in branching and inosculating, so as to make a net-work of tubes, running in among the cellular tissue; and they are very small, except when gorged and old (Fig. [460, 461]).

[§ 2.] CELL-CONTENTS.

414. The living contents of young and active cells are mainly protoplasm with water or watery sap which this has imbibed. Old and effete cells are often empty of solid matter, containing only water with whatever may be dissolved in it, or air, according to the time and circumstances. All the various products which plants in general elaborate, or which particular plants specially elaborate, out of the common food which they derive from the soil and the air, are contained in the cells, and in the cells they are produced.

[415.] Sap is a general name for the principal liquid contents,—Crude sap, for that which the plant takes in, Elaborated sap for what it has digested or assimilated. They must be undistinguishably mixed in the cells.

416. Among the solid matters into which cells convert some of their elaborated sap two are general and most important. These are Chlorophyll and Starch.

[417.] Chlorophyll (meaning leaf-green) is what gives the green color to herbage. It consists of soft grains of rather complex nature, partly wax-like, partly protoplasmic. These abound in the cells of all common leaves and the green rind of plants, wherever exposed to the light. The green color is seen through the transparent skin of the leaf and the walls of the containing cells. Chlorophyll is essential to ordinary assimilation in plants: by its means, under the influence of sunlight, the plant converts crude sap into vegetable matter.

418. Far the largest part of all vegetable matter produced is that which goes to build up the plant's fabric or cellular structure, either directly or indirectly. There is no one good name for this most important product of vegetation. In its final state of cell-walls, the permanent fabric of herb and shrub and tree, it is called Cellulose ([408]): in its most soluble form it is Sugar of one or another kind; in a less soluble form it is Dextrine, a kind of liquefied starch: in the form of solid grains stored up in the cells it is Starch. By a series of slight chemical changes (mainly a variation in the water entering into the composition), one of these forms is converted into another.

[419.] Starch (Farina or Fecula) is the form in which this common plant material is, as it were, laid by for future use. It consists of solid grains, somewhat different in form in different plants, in size varying from 1/300 to 1/4000 of an inch, partly translucent when wet, and of a pearly lustre. From the concentric lines, which commonly appear under the microscope, the grains seem to be made up of layer over layer. When loose they are commonly oval, as in potato-starch (Fig. [462]): when much compacted the grains may become angular (Fig. [463]).

Fig. 462. Some magnified starch-grains, in two cells of a potato. 463. Some cells of the albumen or floury part of Indian Corn, filled with starch-grains.

420. The starch in a potato was produced in the foliage. In the soluble form of dextrine, or that of sugar, it was conveyed through the cells of the herbage and stalks to a subterranean shoot, and there stored up in the tuber. When the potato sprouts, the starch in the vicinity of developing buds or eyes is changed back again, first into mucilaginous dextrine, then into sugar, dissolved in the sap, and in this form it is made to flow to the growing parts, where it is laid down into cellulose or cell-wall.

Fig. 464. Four cells from dried Onion-peel, each holding a crystal of different shape, one of them twinned. 465. Some cells from stalk of Rhubarb-plant, three containing chlorophyll; two (one torn across) with rhaphides. 466. Rhaphides in a cell, from Arisæma, with small cells surrounding. 467. Prismatic crystals from the bark of Hickory. 468. Glomerate crystal in a cell, from Beet-root. 469. A few cells of Locust-bark, a crystal in each. 470. A detached cell, with rhaphides being forced out, as happens when put in water.

421. Besides these cell-contents which are in obvious and essential relation to nutrition, there are others the use of which is problematical. Of such the commonest are

[422.] Crystals. These when slender or needle-shaped are called Rhaphides. They are of inorganic matter, usually of oxalate or phosphate or sulphate of lime. Some, at least of the latter, may be direct crystallizations of what is taken in dissolved in the water absorbed, but others must be the result of some elaboration in the plant. Some plants have hardly any; others abound in them, especially in the foliage and bark. In Locust-bark almost every cell holds a crystal; so that in a square inch not thicker than writing-paper there may be over a million and a half of them. When needle-shaped (rhaphides), as in stalks of Calla-Lily, Rhubarb, or Four-o'clock, they are usually packed in sheaf-like bundles. (Fig. [465, 466].)

[§ 3.] ANATOMY OF ROOTS AND STEMS.

423. This is so nearly the same that an account of the internal structure of stems may serve for the root also.

424. At the beginning, either in the embryo or in an incipient shoot from a bud, the whole stem is of tender cellular tissue or parenchyma. But wood (consisting of wood-cells and ducts or vessels) begins to be formed in the earliest growth; and is from the first arranged in two ways, making two general kinds of wood. The difference is obvious even in herbs, but is more conspicuous in the enduring stems of shrubs and trees.

425. On one or the other of these two types the stems of all phanerogamous plants are constructed. In one, the wood is made up of separate threads, scattered here and there throughout the whole diameter of the stem. In the other, the wood is all collected to form a layer (in a slice across the stem appearing as a ring) between a central cellular part which has none in it, the Pith, and an outer cellular part, the Bark.

Fig. 471. Diagram of structure of Palm or Yucca. 472. Structure of a Corn stalk, in transverse and longitudinal section. 473. Same of a small Palm stem. The dots on the cross sections represent cut ends of the woody bundles or threads.

426. An Asparagus-shoot and a Corn-stalk for herbs, and a rattan for a woody kind, represent the first kind. To it belong all plants with monocotyledonous embryo ([40]). A Bean-stalk and the stem of any common shrub or tree represent the second; and to it belong all plants with dicotyledonous or polycotyledonous embryo. The first has been called, not very properly, Endogenous, which means inside-growing; the second, properly enough, Exogenous, or outside-growing.

[427.] Endogenous Stems, those of Monocotyls ([40]), attain their greatest size and most characteristic development in Palms and Dragon-trees, therefore chiefly in warm climates, although the Palmetto and some Yuccas become trees along the southern borders of the United States. In such stems the woody bundles are more numerous and crowded toward the circumference, and so the harder wood is outside; while in an exogenous stem the oldest and hardest wood is toward the centre. An endogenous stem has no clear distinction of pith, bark, and wood, concentrically arranged, no silver grain, no annual layers, no bark that peels off clean from the wood. Yet old stems of Yuccas and the like, that continue to increase in diameter, do form a sort of layers and a kind of scaly bark when old. Yuccas show well the curving of the woody bundles (Fig. [471]) which below taper out and are lost at the rind.

Fig. 474. Short piece of stem of Flax, magnified, showing the bark, wood, and pith in a cross section.

[428.] Exogenous Stems, those of Dicotyls ([37]), or of plants coming from dicotyledonous and also polycotyledonous embryos, have a structure which is familiar in the wood of our ordinary trees and shrubs. It is the same in an herbaceous shoot (such as a Flax-stem, Fig. [474]) as in a Maple-stem of the first year's growth, except that the woody layer is commonly thinner or perhaps reduced to a circle of bundles. It was so in the tree-stem at the beginning. The wood all forms in a cylinder,—in cross section a ring—around a central cellular part, dividing the cellular core within, the pith, from a cellular bark without. As the wood-bundles increase in number and in size, they press upon each other and become wedge-shaped in the cross section; and they continue to grow from the outside, next the bark, so that they become very thin wedges or plates. Between the plates or wedges are very thin plates (in cross section lines) of much compressed cellular tissue, which connect the pith with the bark. The plan of a one-year-old woody stem of this kind is exhibited in the figures, which are essentially diagrams.

Fig. 475. Diagram of a cross section of a very young exogenous stem, showing six woody bundles or wedges. 476. Same later, with wedges increased to twelve. 477. Still later, the wedges filling the space, separated only by the thin lines, or medullary rays, running from pith to bark.

429. When such a stem grows on from year to year, it adds annually a layer of wood outside the preceding one, between that and the bark. This is exogenous growth, or outside-growing, as the name denotes.

Fig. 478. Piece of a stem of Soft Maple, of a year old, cut crosswise and lengthwise.

Fig. 479. A portion of the same, magnified.

Fig. 480. A small piece of the same, taken from one side, reaching from the bark to the pith, and highly magnified: a, a small bit of the pith; b, spiral ducts of what is called the medullary sheath; c, the wood; d, d, dotted ducts in the wood; e, e, annular ducts; f, the liber or inner bark; g, the green bark; h, the corky layer; i, the skin, or epidermis; j, one of the medullary rays, or plates of silver grain, seen on the cross-section.

430. Some new bark is formed every year, as well as new wood, the former inside, as the latter is outside of that of the year preceding. The ring or zone of tender forming tissue between the bark and the wood has been called the Cambium Layer. Cambium is an old name of the physiologists for nutritive juice. And this thin layer is so gorged with rich nutritive sap when spring growth is renewed, that the bark then seems to be loose from the wood and a layer of viscid sap (or cambium) to be poured out between the two. But there is all the while a connection of the bark and the wood by delicate cells, rapidly multiplying and growing.

[431.] The Bark of a year-old stem consists of three parts, more or less distinct, namely,—beginning next the wood,—

1. The Liber or Fibrous Bark, the Inner Bark. This contains some wood-cells, or their equivalent, commonly in the form of bast or bast-cells ([411], Fig. [444]), such as those of Basswood or Linden, and among herbs those of flax and hemp, which are spun and woven or made into cordage. It also contains cells which are named sieve-cells, on account of numerous slits and pores in their walls, by which the protoplasm of contiguous cells communicates. In woody stems, whenever a new layer of wood is formed, some new liber or inner bark is also formed outside of it.

2. The Green Bark or Middle Bark. This consists of cellular tissue only, and contains the same green matter (chlorophyll, [417]) as the leaves. In woody stems, before the season's growth is completed, it becomes covered by

3. The Corky Layer or Outer Bark, the cells of which contain no chlorophyll, and are of the nature of cork. Common cork is the thick corky layer of the bark of the Cork-Oak of Spain. It is this which gives to the stems or twigs of shrubs and trees the aspect and the color peculiar to each,—light gray in the Ash, purple in the Red Maple, red in several Dogwoods, etc.

4. The Epidermis, or skin of the plant, consisting of a layer of thick-sided empty cells, which may be considered to be the outermost layer, or in most herbaceous stems the only layer, of cork-cells.

Fig. 481. Magnified view of surface of a bit of young Maple wood from which the bark has been torn away, showing the wood-cells and the bark-ends of medullary rays.

Fig. 482. Section in the opposite direction, from bark (on the left) to beginning of pith (on the right), and a medullary ray extending from one to the other.

432. The green layer of bark seldom grows much after the first season. Sometimes the corky layer grows and forms new layers, inside of the old, for years, as in the Cork-Oak, the Sweet Gum-tree, and the White and the Paper Birch. But it all dies after a while; and the continual enlargement of the wood within finally stretches it more than it can bear, and sooner or later cracks and rends it, while the weather acts powerfully upon its surface; so the older bark perishes and falls away piecemeal year by year.

433. So on old trunks only the inner bark remains. This is renewed every year from within and so kept alive, while the older and outer layers die, are fissured and rent by the distending trunk, weathered and worn, and thrown off in fragments,—in some trees slowly, so that the bark of old trunks may acquire great thickness; in others, more rapidly. In Honeysuckles and Grape-Vines, the layers of liber loosen and die when only a year or two old. The annual layers of liber are sometimes as distinct as those of the wood, but often not so.

[434.] The Wood of an exogenous trunk, having the old growths covered by the new, remains nearly unchanged in age, except from decay. Wherever there is an annual suspension and renewal of growth, as in temperate climates, the annual growths are more or less distinctly marked, in the form of concentric rings on the cross section, so that the age of the tree may be known by counting them. Over twelve hundred layers have been counted on the stumps of Sequoias in California, and it is probable that some trees now living antedate the Christian era.

435. The reason why the annual growths are distinguishable is, that the wood formed at the beginning of the season is more or less different in the size or character of the cells from that of the close. In Oak, Chestnut, etc., the first wood of the season abounds in dotted ducts, the calibre of which is many times greater than that of the proper wood-cells.

[436.] Sap-wood, or Alburnum. This is the newer wood, living or recently alive, and taking part in the conveyance of sap. Sooner or later, each layer, as it becomes more and more deeply covered by the newer ones and farther from the region of growth, is converted into

[437.] Heart-wood, or Duramen. This is drier, harder, more solid, and much more durable as timber, than sap-wood. It is generally of a different color, and it exhibits in different species the hue peculiar to each, such as reddish in Red-Cedar, brown in Black-Walnut, black in Ebony, etc. The change of sap-wood into heart-wood results from the thickening of the walls of the wood-cells by the deposition of hard matter, lining the tubes and diminishing their calibre; and by the deposition of a vegetable coloring-matter peculiar to each species. The heart-wood, being no longer a living part, may decay, and often does so, without the least injury to the tree, except by diminishing the strength of the trunk, and so rendering it more liable to be overthrown.

[438.] The Living Parts of a Tree, of the exogenous kind, are only these: first, the rootlets at one extremity; second, the buds and leaves of the season at the other; and third, a zone consisting of the newest wood and the newest bark, connecting the rootlets with the buds or leaves, however widely separated these may be,—in the tallest trees from two to four hundred feet apart. And these parts of the tree are all renewed every year. No wonder, therefore, that trees may live so long, since they annually reproduce everything that is essential to their life and growth, and since only a very small part of their bulk is alive at once. The tree survives, but nothing now living has been so long. In it, as elsewhere, life is a transitory thing, ever abandoning the old, and renewed in the young.

[§ 4.] ANATOMY OF LEAVES.

439. The wood in leaves is the framework of ribs, veins, and veinlets ([125]), serving not only to strengthen them, but also to bring in the sap, and to distribute it throughout every part. The cellular portion is the green pulp, and is nearly the same as the green layer of the bark. So that the leaf may properly enough be regarded as a sort of expansion of the fibrous and green layers of the bark. It has no proper corky layer; but the whole is covered by a transparent skin or epidermis, resembling that of the stem.

440. The cells of the leaf are of various forms, rarely so compact as to form a close cellular tissue, usually loosely arranged, at least in the lower part, so as to give copious intervening spaces or air passages, communicating throughout the whole interior (Fig. [443], [483]). The green color is given by the chlorophyll ([417]), seen through the very transparent walls of the cells and through the translucent epidermis of the leaf.

Fig. 483. Magnified section of a leaf of White Lily, to exhibit the cellular structure, both of upper and lower stratum, the air-passages of the lower, and the epidermis or skin, in section, also a little of that of the lower face, with some of its stomates.

441. In ordinary leaves, having an upper and under surface, the green cells form two distinct strata, of different arrangement. Those of the upper stratum are oblong or cylindrical, and stand endwise to the surface of the leaf, usually close together, leaving hardly any vacant spaces; those of the lower are commonly irregular in shape, most of them with their longer diameter parallel to the face of the leaf, and are very loosely arranged, leaving many and wide air-chambers. The green color of the lower is therefore diluted, and paler than that of the upper face of the leaf. The upper part of the leaf is so constructed as to bear the direct action of the sunshine; the lower so as to afford freer circulation of air, and to facilitate transpiration. It communicates more directly than the upper with the external air by means of Stomates.

[442.] The Epidermis or skin of leaves and all young shoots is best seen in the foliage. It may readily be stripped off from the surface of a Lily-leaf, and still more so from more fleshy and soft leaves, such as those of Houseleek. The epidermis is usually composed of a single layer, occasionally of two or three layers, of empty cells, mostly of irregular outline. The sinuous lines which traverse it, and may be discerned under low powers of the microscope (Fig. [487]), are the boundaries of the epidermal cells.

Fig. 484. Small portion of epidermis of the lower face of a White-Lily leaf, with stomata.

Fig. 485. One of these, more magnified, in the closed state. 486. Another stoma, open.

Fig. 487. Small portion of epidermis of the Garden Balsam, highly magnified, showing very sinuous-walled cells, and three stomata.

[443.] Breathing-pores, or Stomates, Stomata (singular, a Stoma,—literally, a mouth) are openings through the epidermis into the air-chambers or intercellular passages, always between and guarded by a pair of thin-walled guardian cells. Although most abundant in leaves, especially on their lower face (that which is screened from direct sunlight), they are found on most other green parts. They establish a direct communication between the external air and that in the loose interior of the leaf. Their guardian cells or lips, which are soft and delicate, like those of the green pulp within, by their greater or less turgidity open or close the orifice as the moisture or dryness varies.

444. In the White Lily the stomata are so remarkably large that they may be seen by a simple microscope of moderate power, and may be discerned even by a good hand lens. There are about 60,000 of them to the square inch of the epidermis of the lower face of this Lily-leaf, and only about 3000 to the same space on the upper face. It is computed that an average leaf of an Apple-tree has on its lower face about 100,000 of these mouths.

[§ 5.] PLANT FOOD AND ASSIMILATION.

445. Only plants are capable of originating organizable matter, or the materials which compose the structure of vegetables and animals. The essential and peculiar work of plants is to take up portions of earth and air (water belonging to both) upon which animals cannot live at all, and to convert them into something organizable; that is, into something that, under life, may be built up into vegetable and animal structures. All the food of animals is produced by plants. Animals live upon vegetables, directly or at second hand, the carnivorous upon the herbivorous; and vegetables live upon earth and air, immediately or at second hand.

[446.] The Food of plants, then, primarily, is earth and air. This is evident enough from the way in which they live. Many plants will flourish in pure sand or powdered chalk, or on the bare face of a rock or wall, watered merely with rain. And almost any plant may be made to grow from the seed in moist sand, and increase its weight many times, even if it will not come to perfection. Many naturally live suspended from the branches of trees high in the air, and nourished by it alone, never having any connection with the soil; and some which naturally grow on the ground, like the Live-forever of the gardens, when pulled up by the roots and hung in the air will often flourish the whole summer long.

447. It is true that fast-growing plants, or those which produce much vegetable matter in one season (especially in such concentrated form as to be useful as food for man or the higher animals) will come to maturity only in an enriched soil. But what is a rich soil? One which contains decomposing vegetable matter, or some decomposing animal matter; that is, in either case, some decomposing organic matter formerly produced by plants. Aided by this, grain-bearing and other important vegetables will grow more rapidly and vigorously, and make a greater amount of nourishing matter, than they could if left to do the whole work at once from the beginning. So that in these cases also all the organic or organizable matter was made by plants, and made out of earth and air. Far the larger and most essential part was air and water.

448. Two kinds of material are taken in and used by plants; of which the first, although more or less essential to perfect plant-growth, are in a certain sense subsidiary, if not accidental, viz.:—

Earthy constituents, those which are left in the form of ashes when a leaf or a stick of wood is burned in the open air. These consist of some potash (or soda in a marine plant), some silex (the same as flint), and a little lime, alumine, or magnesia, iron or manganese, sulphur, phosphorus, etc.,—some or all of these in variable and usually minute proportions. They are such materials as happen to be dissolved, in small quantity, in the water taken up by the roots; and when that is consumed by the plant, or flies off pure (as it largely does) by exhalation, the earthy matter is left behind in the cells,—just as it is left incrusting the sides of a teakettle in which much hard water has been boiled. Naturally, therefore, there is more earthy matter (i. e. more ashes) in the leaves than in any other part (sometimes as much as seven per cent, when the wood contains only two per cent); because it is through the leaves that most of the water escapes from the plant. Some of this earthy matter incrusts the cell-walls, some goes to form crystals or rhaphides, which abound in many plants ([422]), some enters into certain special vegetable products, and some appears to be necessary to the well-being of the higher orders of plants, although forming no necessary part of the proper vegetable structure.

The essential constituents of the organic fabric are those which are dissipated into air and vapor in complete burning. They make up from 88 to 99 per cent of the leaf or stem, and essentially the whole both of the cellulose of the walls and the protoplasm of the contents. Burning gives these materials of the plant's structure back to the air, mainly in the same condition in which the plant took them, the same condition which is reached more slowly in natural decay. The chemical elements of the cell-walls (or cellulose, [402]), as also of starch, sugar, and all that class of organizable cell-material, are carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen ([399]). The same, with nitrogen, are the constituents of protoplasm, or the truly vital part of vegetation.

449. These chemical elements out of which organic matters are composed are supplied to the plant by water, carbonic acid, and some combinations of nitrogen.

Water, far more largely than anything else, is imbibed by the roots; also more or less by the foliage in the form of vapor. Water consists of oxygen and hydrogen; and cellulose or plant-wall, starch, sugar, etc., however different in their qualities, agree in containing these two elements in the same relative proportions as in water.

Carbonic acid gas (Carbon dioxide) is one of the components of the atmosphere,—a small one, ordinarily only about 1/2500 of its bulk,—sufficient for the supply of vegetation, but not enough to be injurious to animals, as it would be if accumulated. Every current or breeze of air brings to the leaves expanded in it a succession of fresh atoms of carbonic acid, which it absorbs through its multitudinous breathing-pores. This gas is also taken up by water. So it is brought to the ground by rain, and is absorbed by the roots of plants, either as dissolved in the water they imbibe, or in the form of gas in the interstices of the soil. Manured ground, that is, soil containing decomposing vegetable or animal matters, is constantly giving out this gas into the interstices of the soil, whence the roots of the growing crop absorb it. Carbonic acid thus supplied, primarily from the air, is the source of the carbon which forms much the largest part of the substance of every plant. The proportion of carbon may be roughly estimated by charring some wood or foliage; that is, by heating it out of contact with the air, so as to decompose and drive off all the other constituents of the fabric, leaving the large bulk of charcoal or carbon behind.

Nitrogen, the remaining plant-element, is a gas which makes up more than two thirds of the atmosphere, is brought into the foliage and also to the roots (being moderately soluble in water) in the same ways as is carbonic acid. The nitrogen which, mixed with oxygen, a little carbonic acid, and vapor of water, constitutes the air we breathe, is the source of this fourth plant-element. But it is very doubtful if ordinary plants can use any nitrogen gas directly as food; that is, if they can directly cause it to combine with the other elements so as to form protoplasm. But when combined with hydrogen (forming ammonia), or when combined with oxygen (nitric acid and nitrates) plants appropriate it with avidity. And several natural processes are going on in which nitrogen of the air is so combined and supplied to the soil in forms directly available to the plant. The most efficient is nitrification, the formation of nitre (nitrate of potash) in the soil, especially in all fertile soils, through the action of a bacterial ferment.

[450.] Assimilation in plants is the conversion of these inorganic substances—essentially, water, carbonic acid, and some form of combined or combinable nitrogen—into vegetable matter. This most dilute food the living plant concentrates and assimilates to itself. Only plants are capable of converting these mineral into organizable matters; and this all-important work is done by them (so far as all ordinary vegetation is concerned) only

451. Under the light of the sun, acting upon green parts or foliage, that is, upon the chlorophyll, or upon what answers to chlorophyll, which these parts contain. The sun in some way supplies a power which enables the living plant to originate these peculiar chemical combinations,—to organize matter into forms which are alone capable of being endowed with life. The proof of this proposition is simple; and it shows at the same time, in the simplest way, what a plant does with the water and carbonic acid it consumes. Namely, 1st, it is only in sunshine or bright daylight that the green parts of plants give out oxygen gas,—then they regularly do so; and 2d, the giving out of this oxygen gas is required to render the chemical composition of water and carbonic acid the same as that of cellulose, that is, of the plant's permanent fabric. This shows why plants spread out so large a surface of foliage. Leaves are so many workshops, full of machinery worked by sun-power. The emission of oxygen gas from any sun-lit foliage is seen by placing some of this under water, or by using an aquatic plant, by collecting the air bubbles which rise, and by noting that a taper burns brighter in this air. Or a leafy plant in a glass globe may be supplied with a certain small percentage of carbonic acid gas, and after proper exposure to sunshine, the air on being tested will be found to contain less carbonic acid and just so much the more oxygen gas.

452. Now if the plant is making cellulose or any equivalent substance,—that is, is making the very materials of its fabric and growth, as must generally be the case,—all this oxygen gas given off by the leaves comes from the decomposition of carbonic acid taken in by the plant. For cellulose, and also starch, dextrine, sugar, and the like are composed of carbon along with oxygen and hydrogen in just the proportions to form water. And the carbonic acid and water taken in, less the oxygen which the carbon brought with it as carbonic acid, and which is given off from the foliage in sunshine, just represents the manufactured article, cellulose.

453. It comes to the same if the first product of assimilation is sugar, or dextrine which is a sort of soluble starch, or starch itself. And in the plant all these forms are readily changed into one another. In the tiny seedling, as fast as this assimilated matter is formed it is used in growth, that is, in the formation of cell-walls. After a time some or much of the product may be accumulated in store for future growth, as in the root of the turnip, or the tuber of the potato, or the seed of corn or pulse. This store is mainly in the form of starch. When growth begins anew, this starch is turned into dextrine or into sugar, in liquid form, and used to nourish and build up the germinating embryo or the new shoot, where it is at length converted into cellulose and used to build up plant-structure.

454. But that which builds plant-fabric is not the cellular structure itself; the work is done by the living protoplasm which dwells within the walls. This also has to take and to assimilate its proper food, for its own maintenance and growth. Protoplasm assimilates, along with the other three elements, the nitrogen of the plant's food. This comes primarily from the vast stock in the atmosphere, but mainly through the earth, where it is accumulated through various processes in a fertile soil,—mainly, so far as concerns crops, from the decomposition of former vegetables and animals. This protoplasm, which is formed at the same time as the simpler cellulose, is essentially the same as the flesh of animals, and the source of it. It is the common basis of vegetable and of animal life.

455. So plant-assimilation produces all the food and fabric of animals. Starch, sugar, the oils (which are, as it were, these farinaceous matters more deoxidated), chlorophyll, and the like, and even cellulose itself, form the food of herbivorous animals and much of the food of man. When digested they enter into the blood, undergo various transformations, and are at length decomposed into carbonic acid and water, and exhaled from the lungs in respiration,—in other words, are given back to the air by the animal as the very same materials which the plant took from the air as its food,—are given back to the air in the same form that they would have taken if the vegetable matter had been left to decay where it grew, or if it had been set on fire and burned; and with the same result, too, as to the heat,—the heat in this case producing and maintaining the proper temperature of the animal.

456. The protoplasm and other products containing nitrogen (gluten, legumine, etc.), and which are most accumulated in grains and seeds (for the nourishment of their embryos when they germinate), compose the most nutritious vegetable food consumed by animals; they form their proper flesh and sinews, while the earthy constituents of the plant form the earthy matter of the bones, etc. At length decomposed, in the secretions and excretions, these nitrogenous constituents are through successive changes finally resolved into mineral matter, into carbonic acid, water, and ammonia or some nitrates,—into exactly or essentially the same materials which the plants took up and assimilated. Animals depend upon vegetables absolutely and directly for their subsistence; also indirectly, because

457. Plants purify the air for animals. In the very process by which they create food they take from the air carbonic acid gas, injurious to animal respiration, which is continually poured into it by the breathing of all animals, by all decay, by the burning of fuel and all other ordinary combustion; and they restore an equal bulk of life-sustaining oxygen needful for the respiration of animals,—needful, also, in a certain measure, for plants in any work they do. For in plants, as well as in animals, work is done at a certain cost.

[§ 6.] PLANT WORK AND MOVEMENT.

458. As the organic basis and truly living material of plants is identical with that of animals, so is the life at bottom essentially the same; but in animals something is added at every rise from the lowest to highest organisms. Action and work in living beings require movement.

459. Living things move; those not living are only moved. Plants move as truly as do animals. The latter, nourished as they are upon organized food, which has been prepared for them by plants, and is found only here and there, must needs have the power of going after it, of collecting it, or at least of taking it in; which requires them to make spontaneous movements. But ordinary plants, with their wide-spread surface, always in contact with the earth and air on which they feed,—the latter everywhere the same, and the former very much so,—might be thought to have no need of movement. Ordinary plants, indeed, have no locomotion; some float, but most are rooted to the spot where they grew. Yet probably all of them execute various movements which must be as truly self-caused as are those of the lower grades of animals,—movements which are overlooked only because too slow to be directly observed. Nevertheless, the motion of the hour-hand and of the minute-hand of a watch is not less real than that of the second-hand.

Fig. 488. Two individuals of an Oscillaria, magnified.

[460.] Locomotion. Moreover, many microscopic plants living in water are seen to move freely, if not briskly, under the microscope; and so likewise do more conspicuous aquatic plants in their embryo-like or seedling state. Even at maturity, species of Oscillaria (such as in Fig. [488], minute worm-shaped plants of fresh waters, taking this name from their oscillating motions) freely execute three different kinds of movement, the very delicate investing coat of cellulose not impeding the action of the living protoplasm within. Even when this coat is firmer and hardened with a siliceous deposit, such crescent-shaped or boat-shaped one-celled plants as Closterium or Naricula are able in some way to move along from place to place in the water.

Fig. 489. A few cells of a leaf of Naias flexilis, highly magnified: the arrows indicate the courses of the circulating currents.

[461.] Movements in Cells, or Cell-circulation, sometimes called Cyclosis, has been detected in so many plants, especially in comparatively transparent aquatic plants and in hairs on the surface of land plants (where it is easiest to observe), that it may be inferred to take place in all cells during the most active part of their life. This motion is commonly a streaming movement of threads of protoplasm, carrying along solid granules by which the action may be observed and the rate measured, or in some cases it is a rotation of the whole protoplasmic contents of the cell. A comparatively low magnifying power will show it in the cells of Nitella and Chara (which are cryptogamous plants); and under a moderate power it is well seen in the Tape Grass of fresh water, Vallisneria, and in Naias flexilis (Fig. [489]). Minute particles and larger greenish globules are seen to be carried along, as if in a current, around the cell, passing up one side, across the end, down the other and across the bottom, completing the circuit sometimes within a minute or less when well warmed. To see it well in the cell, which like a string of beads form the hairs on the stamens of Spiderwort, a high magnifying power is needed.

[462.] Transference of Liquid from Cell to Cell, and so from place to place in the plant, the absorption of water by the rootlets, and the exhalation of the greater part of it from the foliage,—these and similar operations are governed by the physical laws which regulate the diffusion of fluids, but are controlled by the action of living protoplasm. Equally under vital control are the various chemical transformations which attend assimilation and growth, and which involve not only molecular movements but conveyance. Growth itself, which is the formation and shaping of new parts, implies the direction of internal activities to definite ends.

[463.] Movements of Organs. The living protoplasm, in all but the lowest grade of plants, is enclosed and to common appearance isolated in separate cells, the walls of which can only in their earliest state be said to be alive. Still plants are able to cause the protoplasm of adjacent cells to act in concert, and by their combined action to effect movements in roots, stems, or leaves, some of them very slow and gradual, some manifest and striking. Such movements are brought about through individually minute changes in the form or tension in the protoplasm of the innumerable cells which make up the structure of the organ. Some of the slower movements are effected during growth, and may be explained by inequality of growth on the two sides of the bending organ. But the more rapid changes of position, and some of the slow ones, cannot be so explained.

[464.] Root-movements. In its growth a root turns or bends away from the light and toward the centre of the earth, so that in lengthening it buries itself in the soil where it is to live and act. Every one must have observed this in the germination of seeds. Careful observations have shown that the tip of a growing root also makes little sweeps or short movements from side to side. By this means it more readily insinuates itself into yielding portions of the soil. The root-tips will also turn toward moisture, and so secure the most favorable positions in the soil.

[465.] Stem-movements. The root end of the caulicle or first joint of stem (that below the cotyledons) acts like the root, in turning downward in germination (making a complete bend to do so if it happens to point upward as the seed lies in the ground), while the other end turns or points skyward. These opposite positions are taken in complete darkness as readily as in the light, in dryness as much as in moisture: therefore, so far as these movements are physical, the two portions of the same internode appear to be oppositely affected by gravitation or other influences.

466. Rising into the air, the stem and green shoots generally, while young and pliable, bend or direct themselves toward the light, or toward the stronger light when unequally illuminated; while roots turn toward the darkness.

467. Many growing stems have also a movement of Nutation, that is, of nodding successively in different directions. This is brought about by a temporary increase of turgidity of the cells along one side, thus bowing the stem over to the opposite side; and this line of turgescence travels round the shoot continually, from right to left or from left to right according to the species: thus the shoot bends to all points of the compass in succession. Commonly this nutation is slight or hardly observable. It is most marked in

[468.] Twining Stems (Fig. [90]). The growing upper end of such stems, as is familiar in the Hop, Pole Beans, and Morning-Glory, turns over in an inclined or horizontal direction, thus stretching out to reach a neighboring support, and by the continual change in the direction of the nodding, sweeps the whole circle, the sweeps being the longer as the stem lengthens. When it strikes against a support, such as a stem or branch of a neighboring plant, the motion is arrested at the contact, but continues at the growing apex beyond, and this apex is thus made to wind spirally around the supporting body.

[469.] Leaf-movements are all but universal. The presentation by most leaves of their upper surface to the light, from whatever direction that may come, is an instance; for when turned upside down they twist or bend round on the stalk to recover this normal position. Leaves, and the leaflets of compound leaves, change this position at nightfall, or when the light is withdrawn; they then take what is called their sleeping posture, resuming the diurnal position when daylight returns. This is very striking in Locust-trees, in the Sensitive Plant (Fig. [490]), and in Woodsorrel. Young seedlings droop or close their leaves at night in plants which are not thus affected in the adult foliage. All this is thought to be a protection against the cold by nocturnal radiation.

470. Various plants climb by a coiling movement of their leaves or their leaf-stalks. Familiar examples are seen in Clematis, Maurandia, Tropæolum, and in a Solanum which is much cultivated in greenhouses (Fig. [172]). In the latter, and in other woody plants which climb in this way, the petioles thicken and harden after they have grasped their support, thus securing a very firm hold.

[471.] Tendril movements. Tendrils are either leaves or stems ([98], [168]), specially developed for climbing purposes. Cobæa is a good example of partial transformation; some of the leaflets are normal, some of the same leaf are little tendrils, and some intermediate in character. The Passion-flowers give good examples of simple stem-tendrils (Fig. [92]); Grape-Vines, of branched ones. Most tendrils make revolving sweeps, like those of twining stems. Those of some Passion-flowers, in sultry weather, are apt to move fast enough for the movement actually to be seen for a part of the circuit, as plainly as that of the second-hand of a watch. Two herbaceous species, Passiflora gracilis and P. sicyoides (the first an annual, the second a strong-rooted perennial of the easiest cultivation), are admirable for illustration both of revolving movements and of sensitive coiling.

Fig. 490. Piece of stem of Sensitive Plant (Mimosa pudica), with two leaves, the lower open, the upper in the closed state.

[472.] Movements under Irritation. The most familiar case is that of the Sensitive Plant (Fig. [490]). The leaves suddenly take their nocturnal position when roughly touched or when shocked by a jar. The leaflets close in pairs, the four outspread partial petioles come closer together, and the common petiole is depressed. The seat of the movements is at the base of the leaf-stalk and stalklets. Schrankia, a near relative of the Sensitive Plant, acts in the same way, but is slower. These are not anomalous actions, but only extreme manifestations of a faculty more or less common in foliage. In Locust and Honey-Locusts for example, repeated jars will slowly produce similar effects.

473. Leaf-stalks and tendrils are adapted to their uses in climbing by a similar sensitiveness. The coiling of the leaf-stalk is in response to a kind of irritation produced by contact with the supporting body. This may be shown by gentle rubbing or prolonged pressure upon the upper face of the leaf-stalk, which is soon followed by a curvature. Tendrils are still more sensitive to contact or light friction. This causes the free end of the tendril to coil round the support, and the sensitiveness, propagated downward along the tendril, causes that side of it to become less turgescent or the opposite side more so, thus throwing the tendril into coils. This shortening draws the plant up to the support. Tendrils which have not laid hold will at length commonly coil spontaneously, in a simple coil, from the free apex downward. In Sicyos, Echinocystis, and the above mentioned Passion-flowers ([471]), the tendril is so sensitive, under a high summer temperature, that it will curve and coil promptly after one or two light strokes by the hand.

Fig. 491. Portion of stem and leaves of Telegraph-plant (Desmodium gyrans), almost of natural size.

474. Among spontaneous movements the most singular are those of Desmodium gyrans of India, sometimes called Telegraph-plant, which is cultivated on account of this action. Of its three leaflets, the larger (terminal) one moves only by drooping at nightfall and rising with the dawn. But its two small lateral leaflets, when in a congenial high temperature, by day and by night move upward and downward in a succession of jerks, stopping occasionally, as if to recover from exhaustion. In most plant-movements some obviously useful purpose is subserved: this of Desmodium gyrans is a riddle.

[475.] Movements in Flowers are very various. The most remarkable are in some way connected with fertilization (Sect. [XIII.]). Some occur under irritation: the stamens of Barberry start forward when touched at the base inside: those of many polyandrous flowers (of Sparmannia very strikingly) spread outwardly when lightly brushed: the two lips or lobes of the stigma in Mimulus close after a touch. Some are automatic and are connected with dichogamy ([339]): the style of Sabbatia and of large-flowered species of Epilobium bends over strongly to one side or turns downward when the blossom opens, but slowly erects itself a day or two later.

[476.] Extraordinary Movements connected with Capture of Insects. The most striking cases are those of Drosera and Dionæa; for an account of which see "How Plants Behave," and Goodale's "Physiological Botany."

477. The upper face of the leaves of the common species of Drosera, or Sundew, is beset with stout bristles, having a glandular tip. This tip secretes a drop of a clear but very viscid liquid, which glistens like a dew-drop in the sun; whence the popular name. When a fly or other small insect, attracted by the liquid, alights upon the leaf, the viscid drops are so tenacious that they hold it fast. In struggling it only becomes more completely entangled. Now the neighboring bristles, which have not been touched, slowly bend inward from all sides toward the captured insect, and bring their sticky apex against its body, thus increasing the number of bonds. Moreover, the blade of the leaf commonly aids in the capture by becoming concave, its sides or edges turning inward, which brings still more of the gland-tipped bristles into contact with the captive's body. The insect perishes; the clear liquid disappears, apparently by absorption into the tissue of the leaf. It is thought that the absorbed secretion takes with it some of the juices of the insect or the products of its decomposition.

Fig. 492. Plant of Dionæa muscipula, or Venus's Fly-trap, reduced in size.

478. Dionæa muscipula, the most remarkable vegetable fly-trap (Fig. [176], [492]), is related to the Sundews, and has a more special and active apparatus for fly-catching, formed of the summit of the leaf. The two halves of this rounded body move as if they were hinged upon the midrib; their edges are fringed with spiny but not glandular bristles, which interlock when the organ closes. Upon the face are two or three short and delicate bristles, which are sensitive. They do not themselves move when touched, but they propagate the sensitiveness to the organ itself, causing it to close with a quick movement. In a fresh and vigorous leaf, under a high summer temperature, and when the trap lies widely open, a touch of any one of the minute bristles on the face, by the finger or any extraneous body, springs the trap (so to say), and it closes suddenly; but after an hour or so it opens again. When a fly or other small insect alights on the trap, it closes in the same manner, and so quickly that the intercrossing marginal bristles obstruct the egress of the insect, unless it be a small one and not worth taking. Afterwards and more slowly it completely closes, and presses down upon the prey; then some hidden glands pour out a glairy liquid, which dissolves out the juices of the insect's body; next all is re-absorbed into the plant, and the trap opens to repeat the operation. But the same leaf perhaps never captures more than two or three insects. It ages instead, becomes more rigid and motionless, or decays away.

479. That some few plants should thus take animal food will appear less surprising when it is considered that hosts of plants of the lower grade, known as Fungi, moulds, rusts, ferments, Bacteria, etc., live upon animal or other organized matter, either decaying or living. That plants should execute movements in order to accomplish the ends of their existence is less surprising now when it is known that the living substance of plants and animals is essentially the same; that the beings of both kingdoms partake of a common life, to which, as they rise in the scale, other and higher endowments are successively superadded.

[480.] Work uses up material and energy in plants as well as in animals. The latter live and work by the consumption and decomposition of that which plants have assimilated into organizable matter through an energy derived from the sun, and which is, so to say, stored up in the assimilated products. In every internal action, as well as in every movement and exertion, some portion of this assimilated matter is transformed and of its stored energy expended. The steam-engine is an organism for converting the sun's radiant energy, stored up by plants in the fuel, into mechanical work. An animal is an engine fed by vegetable fuel in the same or other forms, from the same source, by the decomposition of which it also does mechanical work. The plant is the producer of food and accumulator of solar energy or force. But the plant, like the animal, is a consumer whenever and by so much as it does any work except its great work of assimilation. Every internal change and movement, every transformation, such as that of starch into sugar and of sugar into cell-walls, as well as every movement of parts which becomes externally visible, is done at the expense of a certain amount of its assimilated matter and of its stored energy; that is, by the decomposition or combustion of sugar or some such product into carbonic acid and water, which is given back to the air, just as in the animal it is given back to the air in respiration. So the respiration of plants is as real and as essential as that of animals. But what plants consume or decompose in their life and action is of insignificant amount in comparison with what they compose.

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Section XVII. CRYPTOGAMOUS OR FLOWERLESS PLANTS.

481. Even the beginner in botany should have some general idea of what cryptogamous plants are, and what are the obvious distinctions of the principal families. Although the lower grades are difficult, and need special books and good microscopes for their study, the higher orders, such as Ferns, may be determined almost as readily as phanerogamous plants.

482. Linnæus gave to this lower grade of plants the name of Cryptogamia, thereby indicating that their organs answering to stamens and pistils, if they had any, were recondite and unknown. There is no valid reason why this long-familiar name should not be kept up, along with the counterpart one of Phanerogamia ([6]), although organs analogous to stamens and pistil, or rather to pollen and ovule, have been discovered in all the higher and most of the lower grades of this series of plants. So also the English synonymous name of Flowerless Plants is both good and convenient: for they have not flowers in the proper sense. The essentials of flowers are stamens and pistils, giving rise to seeds, and the essential of a seed is an embryo ([8]). Cryptogamous or Flowerless plants are propagated by Spores; and a spore is not an embryo-plantlet, but mostly a single plant-cell ([399]).

[483.] Vascular Cryptogams, which compose the higher orders of this series of plants, have stems and (usually) leaves, constructed upon the general plan of ordinary plants; that is, they have wood (wood-cells and vessels, [408]) in the stem and leaves, in the latter as a frame work of veins. But the lower grades, having only the more elementary cellular structure, are called Cellular Cryptogams. Far the larger number of the former are Ferns: wherefore that class has been called

[484.] Pteridophyta, Pteridophytes in English form, meaning Fern-plants,—that is, Ferns and their relatives. They are mainly Horsetails, Ferns, Club-Mosses, and various aquatics which have been called Hydropterides, i. e. Water-Ferns.

[485.] Horsetails, Equisetaceæ, is the name of a family which consists only (among now-living plants) of Equisetum, the botanical name of Horsetail and Scouring Rush. They have hollow stems, with partitions at the nodes; the leaves consist only of a whorl of scales at each node, these coalescent into a sheath: from the axils of these leaf-scales, in many species, branches grow out, which are similar to the stem but on a much smaller scale, close-jointed, and with the tips of the leaves more apparent. At the apex of the stem appears the fructification, as it is called for lack of a better term, in the form of a short spike or head. This consists of a good number of stalked shields, bearing on their inner or under face several wedge-shaped spore-cases. The spore-cases when they ripen open down the inner side and discharge a great number of green spores of a size large enough to be well seen by a hand-glass. The spores are aided in their discharge and dissemination by four club-shaped threads attached to one part of them. These are hygrometric: when moist they are rolled up over the spore; when dry they straighten, and exhibit lively movements, closing over the spore when breathed upon, and unrolling promptly a moment after as they dry. (See Fig. [493-498].)

Fig. 493. Upper part of a stem of a Horsetail, Equisetum sylvaticum. 494. Part of the head or spike of spore-cases, with some of the latter taken off. 495. View (more enlarged) of under side of the shield-shaped body, bearing a circle of spore-cases. 496. One of the latter detached and more magnified. 497. A spore with the attached arms moistened. 498. Same when dry, the arms extended.

Fig. 499. A Tree-Fern, Dicksonia arborescens, with a young one near its base. In front a common herbaceous Fern (Polypodium vulgare) with its creeping stem or rootstock.

Fig. 500. A section of the trunk of a Tree-Fern.

[486.] Ferns, or Filices, a most attractive family of plants, are very numerous and varied. In warm and equable climates some rise into forest-trees, with habit of Palms; but most of them are perennial herbs. The wood of a Fern-trunk is very different, however, from that of a palm, or of any exogenous stem either. A section is represented in Fig. [500]. The curved plates of wood each terminate upward in a leaf-stalk. The subterranean trunk or stem of any strong-growing herbaceous Fern shows a similar structure. Most Ferns are circinate in the bud; that is, are rolled up in the manner shown in Fig. [197]. Uncoiling as they grow, they have some likeness to a crosier.

Fig. 501. The Walking-Fern, Camptosorus, reduced in size, showing its fruit-dots on the veins approximated in pairs. 502. A small piece (pinnule) of a Shield-Fern: a row of fruit-dots on each side of the midrib, each covered by its kidney-shaped indusium. 503. A spore-case from the latter, just bursting by the partial straightening of the incomplete ring; well magnified. 504. Three of the spores of [509], more magnified. 505. Schizæa pusilla, a very small and simple-leaved Fern, drawn nearly of natural size. 506. One of the lobes of its fruit-bearing portion, magnified, bearing two rows of spore-cases. 507. Spore-case of the latter, detached, opening lengthwise. 508. Adder-tongue, Ophioglossum; spore-cases in a kind of spike: a, a portion of the fruiting part, about natural size; showing two rows of the firm spore-cases, which open transversely into two valves.

487. The fructification of Ferns is borne on the back or under side of the leaves. The early botanists thought this such a peculiarity that they always called a Fern-leaf a Frond, and its petiole a Stipe. Usage continues these terms, although they are superfluous. The fruit of Ferns consists of Spore-cases, technically Sporangia, which grow out of the veins of the leaf. Sometimes these are distributed over the whole lower surface of the leaf or frond, or over the whole surface when there are no proper leaf-blades to the frond, but all is reduced to stalks. Commonly the spore-cases occupy only detached spots or lines, each of which is called a Sorus, or in English merely a Fruit-dot. In many Ferns these fruit-dots are naked; in others they are produced under a scale-like bit of membrane, called an Indusium. In Maidenhair-Ferns a little lobe of the leaf is folded back over each fruit-dot, to serve as its shield or indusium. In the true Brake or Bracken (Pteris) the whole edge of the fruit-bearing part of the leaf is folded back over it like a hem.

488. The form and structure of the spore-cases can be made out with a common hand magnifying glass. The commonest kind (shown in Fig. [503]) has a stalk formed of a row of jointed cells, and is itself composed of a layer of thin-walled cells, but is incompletely surrounded by a border of thicker-walled cells, forming the Ring. This extends from the stalk up one side of the spore-case, round its summit, descends on the other side, but there gradually vanishes. In ripening and drying the shrinking of the cells of the ring on the outer side causes it to straighten; in doing so it tears the spore-case open on the weaker side and discharges the minute spores that fill it, commonly with a jerk which scatters them to the wind. Another kind of spore-case (Fig. [507]) is stalkless, and has its ring-cells forming a kind of cap at the top: at maturity it splits from top to bottom by a regular dehiscence. A third kind is of firm texture and opens across into two valves, like a clam-shell (Fig. [508^a]): this kind makes an approach to the next family.

Fig. 509. A young prothallus of a Maiden-hair, moderately enlarged, and an older one with the first fern-leaf developed from near the notch. 510. Middle portion of the young one, much magnified, showing below, partly among the rootlets, the antheridia or fertilizing organs, and above, near the notch, three pistillidia to be fertilized.

489. The spores germinate on moistened ground. In a conservatory they may be found germinating on a damp wall or on the edges of a well-watered flower-pot. Instead of directly forming a fern-plantlet, the spore grows first into a body which closely resembles a small Liverwort. This is named a Prothallus (Fig. [509]): from some point of this a bud appears to originate, which produces the first fern-leaf, soon followed by a second and third, and so the stem and leaves of the plant are set up.

Fig. 511. Lycopodium Carolinianum, of nearly natural size. 512. Inside view of one of the bracts and spore-case, magnified.

Fig. 513. Open 4-valved spore-case of a Selaginella, and its four large spores (macrospores), magnified. 514. Macrospores of another Selaginella. 515. Same separated.

Fig. 516. Plant of Isoetes. 517. Base of a leaf and contained sporocarp filled with microspores cut across, magnified. 518. Same divided lengthwise, equally magnified; some microspores seen at the left. 519. Section of a spore-case containing macrospores, equally magnified; at the right three macrospores more magnified.

490. Investigation of this prothallus under the microscope resulted in the discovery of a wholly unsuspected kind of fertilization, taking place at this germinating stage of the plant. On the under side of the prothallus two kinds of organs appear (Fig. [510]). One may be likened to an open and depressed ovule, with a single cell at bottom answering to nucleus; the other, to an anther; but instead of pollen, it discharges corkscrew-shaped microscopic filaments, which bear some cilia of extreme tenuity, by the rapid vibration of which the filaments move freely over a wet surface. These filaments travel over the surface of the prothallus, and even to other prothalli (for there are natural hybrid Ferns), reach and enter the ovule-like cavities, and fertilize the cell. This thereupon sets up a growth, forms a vegetable bud, and so develops the new plant.

491. An essentially similar process of fertilization has been discovered in the preceding and the following families of Pteridophytes; but it is mostly subterranean and very difficult to observe.

[492.] Club-Mosses or Lycopodiums. Some of the common kinds, called Ground Pine, are familiar, being largely used for Christmas wreaths and other decoration. They are low evergreens, some creeping, all with considerable wood in their stems: this thickly beset with small leaves. In the axils of some of these leaves, or more commonly, in the axils of peculiar leaves changed into bracts (as in Fig. [511, 512]) spore-cases appear, as roundish or kidney-shaped bodies, of firm texture, opening round the top into two valves, and discharging a great quantity of a very fine yellow powder, the spores.

493. The Selaginellas have been separated from Lycopodium, which they much resemble, because they produce two kinds of spores, in separate spore-cases. One kind (Microspores) is just that of Lycopodium; the other consists of only four large spores (Macrospores), in a spore-case which usually breaks in pieces at maturity (Fig. [513-515]).

[494.] The Quillworts, Isoetes (Fig. [516-519]), are very unlike Club Mosses in aspect, but have been associated with them. They look more like Rushes, and live in water, or partly out of it. A very short stem, like a corm, bears a cluster of roots underneath; above it is covered by the broad bases of a cluster of awl-shaped or thread-shaped leaves. The spore-cases are immersed in the bases of the leaves. The outer leaf-bases contain numerous macrospores; the inner are filled with innumerable microspores.

Fig. 520. Plant of Marsilia quadrifoliata, reduced in size; at the right a pair of sporocarps of about natural size.

[495.] The Pillworts (Marsilia and Pilularia) are low aquatics, which bear globular or pill-shaped fruit (Sporocarps) on the lower part of their leaf-stalks or on their slender creeping stems. The leaves of the commoner species of Marsilia might be taken for four-leaved Clover. (See Fig. [520].) The sporocarps are usually raised on a short stalk. Within they are divided lengthwise by a partition, and then crosswise by several partitions. These partitions bear numerous delicate sacs or spore-cases of two kinds, intermixed. The larger ones contain each a large spore, or macrospore; the smaller contain numerous microspores, immersed in mucilage. At maturity the fruit bursts or splits open at top, and the two kinds of spores are discharged. The large ones in germination produce a small prothallus; upon which the contents of the microspores act in the same way as in Ferns, and with a similar result.

[496.] Azolla is a little floating plant, looking like a small Liverwort or Moss. Its branches are covered with minute and scale-shaped leaves. On the under side of the branches are found egg-shaped thin-walled sporocarps of two kinds. The small ones open across and discharge microspores; the larger burst irregularly, and bring to view globose spore-cases, attached to the bottom of the sporocarp by a slender stalk. These delicate spore-cases burst and set free about four macrospores, which are fertilized at germination, in the manner of the Pillworts and Quillworts. (See Fig. [521-526].)

Fig. 521. Small plant of Azolla Caroliniana. 522. Portion magnified, showing the two kinds of sporocarp; the small ones contain microspores. 523 represents one more magnified. 524. The larger sporocarp more magnified. 525. Same more magnified and burst open, showing stalked spore-cases. 526. Two of the latter highly magnified; one of them bursting shows four contained macrospores; between the two, three of these spores highly magnified.

[497.] Cellular Cryptogams ([483]) are so called because composed, even in their higher forms, of cellular tissue only, without proper wood-cells or vessels. Many of the lower kinds are mere plates, or ribbons, or simple rows of cells, or even single cells. But their highest orders follow the plan of Ferns and phanerogamous plants in having stem and leaves for their upward growth, and commonly roots, or at least rootlets, to attach them to the soil, or to trunks, or to other bodies on which they grow. Plants of this grade are chiefly Mosses. So as a whole they take the name of

[498.] Bryophyta, Bryophytes in English form, Bryum being the Greek name of a Moss. These plants are of two principal kinds: true Mosses (Musci, which is their Latin name in the plural); and Hepatic Mosses, or Liverworts (Hepaticæ).

Fig. 527. Single plant of Physcomitrium pyriforme, magnified. 528. Top of a leaf, cut across; it consists of a single layer of cells.

[499.] Mosses or Musci. The pale Peat-mosses (species of Sphagnum, the principal component of sphagnous bogs) and the strong-growing Hair-cap Moss (Polytrichum) are among the larger and commoner representatives of this numerous family; while Fountain Moss (Fontinalis) in running water sometimes attains the length of a yard or more. On the other hand, some are barely individually distinguishable to the naked eye. Fig. [527] represents a common little Moss, enlarged to about twelve times its natural size; and by its side is part of a leaf, much magnified, showing that it is composed of cellular tissue (parenchyma-cells) only. The leaves of Mosses are always simple, distinct, and sessile on the stem. The fructification is an urn-shaped spore-case, in this as in most cases raised on a slender stalk. The spore-case loosely bears on its summit a thin and pointed cap, like a candle-extinguisher, called a Calyptra. Detaching this, it is found that the spore-case is like a pyxis ([376]), that is, the top at maturity comes off as a lid (Operculum); and that the interior is filled with a green powder, the spores, which are discharged through the open mouth. In most Mosses there is a fringe of one or two rows of teeth or membrane around this mouth or orifice, the Peristome. When moist the peristome closes hygrometrically over the orifice more or less; when drier the teeth or processes commonly bend outward or recurve; and then the spores more readily escape. In Hair-cap Moss a membrane is stretched quite across the mouth, like a drum-head, retaining the spores until this wears away. See Figures [527]-[541] for details.

500. Fertilization in Mosses is by the analogues of stamens and pistils, which are hidden in the axils of leaves, or in the cluster of leaves at the end of the stem. The analogue of the anther (Antheridium) is a cellular sac, which in bursting discharges innumerable delicate cells floating in a mucilaginous liquid; each of these bursts and sets free a vibratile self-moving thread. These threads, one or more, reach the orifice of the pistil-shaped body, the Pistillidium, and act upon a particular cell at its base within. This cell in its growth develops into the spore-case and its stalk (when there is any), carrying on its summit the wall of the pistillidium, which becomes the calyptra.

Fig. 529. Mnium cuspidatum, smaller than nature. 530. Its calyptra, detached, enlarged. 531. Its spore-case, with top of stalk, magnified, the lid (532) being detached, the outer peristome appears. 533. Part of a cellular ring (annulus) which was under the lid, outside of the peristome, more magnified. 534. Some of the outer and of the inner peristome (consisting of jointed teeth) much magnified. 535. Antheridia and a pistillidium (the so-called flower) at end of a stem of same plant, the leaves torn away (♂, antheridia, ♀, pistillidium), magnified. 536. A bursting antheridium, and some of the accompanying jointed threads, highly magnified. 537. Summit of an open spore-case of a Moss, which has a peristome of 16 pairs of teeth. 538. The double peristome of a Hypnum. 539-541. Spore-case, detached calyptra, and top of more enlarged spore-case and detached lid, of Physcomitrium pyriforme (Fig. [527]): orifice shows that there is no peristome.

[501.] Liverworts or Hepatic Mosses (Hepaticæ) in some kinds resemble true Mosses, having distinct stem and leaves, although their leaves occasionally run together; while in others there is no distinction of stem and leaf, but the whole plant is a leaf-like body, which produces rootlets on the lower face and its fructification on the upper. Those of the moss-like kind (sometimes called Scale-Mosses) have their tender spore-cases splitting into four valves; and with their spores are intermixed some slender spiral and very hygrometric threads (called Elaters) which are thought to aid in the dispersion of the spores. (Fig. [542-544].)

Fig. 542. Fructification of a Jungermannia, magnified; its cellular spore-stalk, surrounded at base by some of the leaves, at summit the 4-valved spore-case opening, discharging spores and elaters. 543. Two elaters and some spores from the same, highly magnified.

Fig. 544. One of the frondose Liverworts, Steetzia, otherwise like a Jungermannia; the spore-case not yet protruded from its sheath.

502. Marchantia, the commonest and largest of the true Liverworts, forms large green plates or fronds on damp and shady ground, and sends up from some part of the upper face a stout stalk, ending in a several-lobed umbrella-shaped body, under the lobes of which hang several thin-walled spore-cases, which burst open and discharge spores and elaters. Riccia natans (Fig. [545]) consists of wedge-shaped or heart-shaped fronds, which float free in pools of still water. The under face bears copious rootlets; in the substance of the upper face are the spore-cases, their pointed tips merely projecting: there they burst open, and discharge their spores. These are comparatively few and large, and are in fours; so they are very like the macrospores of Pillworts or Quillworts.

[503.] Thallophyta, or Thallophytes in English form. This is the name for the lower class of Cellular Cryptogams,—plants in which there is no marked distinction into root, stem, and leaves. Roots in any proper sense they never have, as organs for absorbing, although some of the larger Seaweeds (such as the Sea Colander, Fig. [553]) have them as holdfasts. Instead of axis and foliage, there is a stratum of frond, in such plants commonly called a Thallus (by a strained use of a Greek and Latin word which means a green shoot or bough), which may have any kind of form, leaf-like, stem-like, branchy, extended to a flat plate, or gathered into a sphere, or drawn out into threads, or reduced to a single row of cells, or even reduced to single cells. Indeed, Thallophytes are so multifarious, so numerous in kinds, so protean in their stages and transformations, so recondite in their fructification, and many so microscopic in size, either of the plant itself or its essential organs, that they have to be elaborately described in separate books and made subjects of special study.

Fig. 545, 546. Two plants of Riccia natans, about natural size. 547. Magnified section of a part of the frond, showing two immersed spore-cases, and one emptied space. 548. Magnified section of a spore-case with some spores. 549. Magnified spore-case torn out, and spores; one figure of the spores united; the other of the four separated.

504. Nevertheless, it may be well to try to give some general idea of what Algæ and Lichens and Fungi are. Linnæus had them all under the orders of Algæ and Fungi. Afterwards the Lichens were separated; but of late it has been made most probable that a Lichen consists of an Alga and a Fungus conjoined. At least it must be so in some of the ambiguous forms. Botanists are in the way of bringing out new classifications of the Thallophytes, as they come to understand their structure and relations better. Here, it need only be said that

505. Lichens live in the air, that is, on the ground, or on rocks, trunks, walls, and the like, and grow when moistened by rains. They assimilate air, water, and some earthy matter, just as do ordinary plants. Algæ, or Seaweeds, live in water, and live the same kind of life as do ordinary plants. Fungi, whatever medium they inhabit, live as animals do, upon organic matter,—upon what other plants have assimilated, or upon the products of their decay. True as these general distinctions are, it is no less true that these orders run together in their lowest forms; and that Algæ and Fungi may be traced down into forms so low and simple that no clear line can be drawn between them; and even into forms of which it is uncertain whether they should be called plants or animals. It is as well to say that they are not high enough in rank to be distinctively either the one or the other. On the other hand there is a peculiar group of plants, which in simplicity of composition resemble the simpler Algæ, while in fructification and in the arrangements of their simple cells into stem and branches they seem to be of a higher order, viz.:—

Fig. 550. Branch of a Chara, about natural size. 551. A fruiting portion, magnified, showing the structure; a sporocarp, and an antheridium. 552. Outlines of a portion of the stem in section, showing the central cell and the outer or cortical cells.

[506.] Characeæ. These are aquatic herbs, of considerable size, abounding in ponds. The simpler kinds (Nitella) have the stem formed of a single row of tubular cells, and at the nodes, or junction of the cells, a whorl of similar branches. Chara (Fig. [550-552]) is the same, except that the cells which make up the stem and the principal branches are strengthened by a coating of many smaller tubular cells, applied to the surface of the main or central cell. The fructification consists of a globular sporocarp of considerable size, which is spirally enwrapped by tubular cells twisted around it: by the side of this is a smaller and globular antheridium. The latter breaks up into eight shield-shaped pieces, with an internal stalk, and bearing long and ribbon shaped filaments, which consist of a row of delicate cells, each of which discharges a free-moving microscopic thread (the analogue of the pollen or pollen-tube), nearly in the manner of Ferns and Mosses. One of these threads reaches and fertilizes a cell at the apex of the nucleus or solid body of the sporocarp. This subsequently germinates and forms a new individual.

[507.] Algæ or Seaweeds. The proper Seaweeds may be studied by the aid of Professor Farlow's "Marine Algæ of New England;" the fresh-water species, by Prof. H. C. Woods's "Fresh-water Algæ of North America," a larger and less accessible volume. A few common forms are here very briefly mentioned and illustrated, to give an idea of the family. But they are of almost endless diversity.

Fig. 553. Agarum Turneri, Sea Colander (so called from the perforations with which the frond, as it grows, becomes riddled); very much reduced in size.

Fig. 554. Upper end of a Rockweed, Fucus vesiculosus, reduced half or more, b, the fructification.

508. The common Rockweed (Fucus vesiculosus, Fig. [554], abounding between high and low water mark on the coast), the rarer Sea Colander (Agarum Turneri, Fig. [553]), and Laminaria, of which the larger forms are called Devil's Aprons, are good representatives of the olive green or brownish Seaweeds. They are attached either by a disk-like base or by root-like holdfasts to the rocks or stones on which they grow.

Fig. 555. Magnified section through a fertile conceptacle of Rockweed, showing the large spores in the midst of threads of cells. 556. Similar section of a sterile conceptacle, containing slender antheridia. From Farlow's "Marine Algæ of New England."

509. The hollow and inflated places in the Fucus vesiculosus or Rockweed (Fig. [554]) are air-bladders for buoyancy. The fructification forms in the substance of the tips of the frond: the rough dots mark the places where the conceptacles open. The spores and the fertilizing cells are in different plants. Sections of the two kinds of conceptacles are given in Fig. [555 and 556]. The contents of the conceptacles are discharged through a small orifice which in each figure is at the margin of the page. The large spores are formed eight together in a mother-cell. The minute motile filaments of the antheridia fertilize the large spores after injection into the water: and then the latter promptly acquire a cell-wall and germinate.

510. The Florideæ or Rose-red series of marine Algæ (which, however, are sometimes green or brownish) are the most attractive to amateurs. The delicate Porphyra or Laver is in some countries eaten as a delicacy, and the cartilaginous Chondrus crispus has been largely used for jelly. Besides their conceptacles, which contain true spores (Fig. [560]), they mostly have a fructification in Tetraspores, that is, of spores originating in fours (Fig. [559]).

Fig. 557. Small plant of Chondrus crispus, or Carrageen Moss, reduced in size, in fruit; the spots represent the fructification, consisting of numerous tetraspores in bunches in the substance of the plant. 558. Section through the thickness of one of the lobes, magnified, passing through two of the imbedded fruit-clusters. 559. Two of its tetraspores (spores in fours), highly magnified.

Fig. 560. Section through a conceptacle of Delesseria Leprieurei, much magnified, showing the spores, which are single specialized cells, two or three in a row.

Fig. 561. A piece of the rose-red Delesseria Leprieurei, double natural size. 562. A piece cut out and much magnified, showing that it is composed of a layer of cells. 563. A few of the cells more highly magnified: the cells are gelatinous and thick-walled.

511. The Grass-green Algæ sometimes form broad membranous fronds, such as those of the common Ulva of the sea-shore, but most of them form mere threads, either simple or branched. To this division belong almost all the Fresh-water Algæ, such as those which constitute the silky threads or green slime of running streams or standing pools, and which were all called Confervas before their immense diversity was known. Some are formed of a single row of cells, developed each from the end of another. Others branch, the top of one cell producing more than one new one (Fig. [564]). Others, of a kind which is very common in fresh water, simple threads made of a line of cells, have the chlorophyll and protoplasm of each cell arranged in spiral lines or bands. They form spores in a peculiar way, which gives to this family the designation of conjugating Algæ.

Fig. 564. The growing end of a branching Conferva (Cladophora glomerata), much magnified; showing how, by a kind of budding growth, a new cell is formed by a cross partition separating the newer tip from the older part below; also, how the branches arise.

Fig. 565. Two magnified individuals of a Spirogyra, forming spores by conjugation; a completed spore at base: above, successive stages of the conjugation are represented.

512. At a certain time two parallel threads approach each other more closely; contiguous parts of a cell of each thread bulge or grow out, and unite when they meet; the cell-wall partitions between them are absorbed so as to open a free communication; the spiral band of green matter in both cells breaks up; the whole of that of one cell passes over into the other; and of the united contents a large green spore is formed. Soon the old cells decay, and the spore set free is ready to germinate. Fig. [565] represents several stages of the conjugating process, which, however, would never be found all together like this in one pair of threads.

Fig. 566. Closterium acutum, a common Desmid, moderately magnified. It is a single firm-walled cell, filled with green protoplasmic matter.

Fig. 567. More magnified view of three stages of the conjugation of a pair of the same.

513. Desmids and Diatomes, which are microscopic one-celled plants of the same class, conjugate in the same way, as is shown in a Closterium by Fig. [566, 567]. Here the whole living contents of two individuals are incorporated into one spore, for a fresh start. A reproduction which costs the life of two individuals to make a single new one would be fatal to the species if there were not a provision for multiplication by the prompt division of the new-formed individual into two, and these again into two, and so on in geometrical ratio. And the costly process would be meaningless if there were not some real advantage in such a fresh start, that is, in sexes.

Fig. 568. Early stage of a species of Botrydium, a globose cell. 569, 570. Stages of growth. 571. Full-grown plant, extended and ramified below in a root-like way. 572. A Vaucheria; single cell grown on into a much-branched thread; the end of some branches enlarging, and the green contents in one (a) there condensed into a spore. 573. More magnified view of a, and the mature spore escaping. 574. Bryopsis plumosa; apex of a stem with its branchlets; all the extension of one cell. Variously magnified.

514. There are other Algæ of the grass-green series which consist of single cells, but which by continued growth form plants of considerable size. Three kinds of these are represented in Fig. [568-574].

[515.] Lichens, Latin Lichenes, are to be studied in the works of the late Professor Tuckerman, but a popular exposition is greatly needed. The subjoined illustrations (Fig. [575-580]) may simply indicate what some of the commoner forms are like. The cup, or shield-shaped spot, or knob, which bears the fructification is named the Apothecium. This is mainly composed of slender sacs (Asci), having thread-shaped cells intermixed; and each ascus contains few or several spores, which are commonly double or treble. Most Lichens are flat expansions of grayish hue; some of them foliaceous in texture, but never of bright green color; more are crustaceous; some are wholly pulverulent and nearly formless. But in several the vegetation lengthens into an axis (as in Fig. [580]), or imitates stem and branches or threads, as in the Reindeer-Moss on the ground in our northern woods, and the Usnea hanging from the boughs of old trees overhead.

Fig. 575. A stone on which various Lichens are growing, such as (passing from left to right) a Parmelia, a Sticta, and on the right, Lecidia geographica, so called from its patches resembling the outline of islands or continents as depicted upon maps. 576. Piece of thallus of Parmelia conspersa, with section through an apothecium. 577. Section of a smaller apothecium, enlarged. 578. Two asci of same, and contained spores, and accompanying filaments; more magnified. 579. Piece of thallus of a Sticta, with section, showing the immersed apothecia; the small openings of these dot the surface. 580. Cladonia coccinea; the fructification is in the scarlet knobs, which surround the cups.

[516.] Fungi. For this immense and greatly diversified class, it must here suffice to indicate the parts of a Mushroom, a Sphæria, and of one or two common Moulds. The true vegetation of common Fungi consists of slender cells which form what is called a Mycelium. These filamentous cells lengthen and branch, growing by the absorption through their whole surface of the decaying, or organizable, or living matter which they feed upon. In a Mushroom (Agaricus), a knobby mass is at length formed, which develops into a stout stalk (Stipe), bearing the cap (Pileus): the under side of the cap is covered by the Hymenium, in this genus consisting of radiating plates, the gills or Lamellæ; and these bear the powdery spores in immense numbers. Under the microscope, the gills are found to be studded with projecting cells, each of which, at the top, produces four stalked spores. These form the powder which collects on a sheet of paper upon which a mature Mushroom is allowed to rest for a day or two. (Fig. [581-586].)

517. The esculent Morel, also Sphæria (Fig. [585, 586]), and many other Fungi bear their spores in sacs (asci) exactly in the manner of Lichens ([515]).

Fig. 581. Agaricus campestris, the common edible Mushroom. 582. Section of cap and stalk. 583. Minute portion of a section of a gill, showing some spore-bearing cells, much magnified. 584. One of these, with its four spores, more magnified.

Fig. 585. Sphæria rosella. 586. Two of the asci and contained double spores, quite like those of a Lichen; much magnified.

518. Of the Moulds, one of the commoner is the Bread-Mould (Fig. [587]). In fruiting it sends up a slender stalk, which bears a globular sac; this bursts at maturity and discharges innumerable spores. The blue Cheese-Mould (Fig. [588]) bears a cluster of branches at top, each of which is a row of naked spores, like a string of beads, all breaking apart at maturity. Botrytis (Fig. [589]), the fruiting stalk of which branches, and each branch is tipped with a spore, is one of the many moulds which live and feed upon the juices of other plants or of animals, and are often very destructive. The extremely numerous kinds of smut, rust, mildew, the ferments, bacteria, and the like, many of them very destructive to other vegetable and to animal life, are also low forms of the class of Fungi.[1]

Fig. 587. Ascophora, the Bread-Mould. 588. Aspergillus glaucus, the mould of cheese, but common on mouldy vegetables. 589. A species of Botrytis. All magnified.