FOOTNOTES:

[1] The "Introduction to Cryptogamous Botany," or third volume of "The Botanical Text Book," now in preparation by the author's colleague, Professor Farlow, will be the proper guide in the study of the Flowerless Plants, especially of the Algæ and Fungi.

SECTION XVIII. CLASSIFICATION AND NOMENCLATURE.

519. Classification, in botany, is the consideration of plants in respect to their kinds and relationships. Some system of Nomenclature, or naming, is necessary for fixing and expressing botanical knowledge so as to make it available. The vast multiplicity of plants and the various degrees of their relationship imperatively require order and system, not only as to names for designating the kinds of plants, but also as to terms for defining their differences. Nomenclature is concerned with the names of plants. Terminology supplies names of organs or parts, and terms to designate their differences.

[§ 1.] KINDS AND RELATIONSHIP.

520. Plants and animals have two great peculiarities: 1st, they form themselves; and 2d, they multiply themselves. They reproduce their kind in a continued succession of

[521.] Individuals. Mineral things occur as masses, which are divisible into smaller and still smaller ones without alteration of properties. But organic things (vegetables and animals) exist as individual beings. Each owes its existence to a parent, and produces similar individuals in its turn. So each individual is a link of a chain; and to this chain the natural-historian applies the name of

[522.] Species. All the descendants from the same stock therefore compose one species. And it was from our observing that the several sorts of plants or animals steadily reproduce themselves, or, in other words, keep up a succession of similar individuals, that the idea of species originated. There are few species, however, in which man has actually observed the succession for many generations. It could seldom be proved that all the White Pine trees or White Oaks of any forest came from the same stock. But observation having familiarized us with the general fact that individuals proceeding from the same stock are essentially alike, we infer from their close resemblance that these similar individuals belong to the same species. That is, we infer it when the individuals are as much like each other as those are which we know, or confidently suppose, to have sprung from the same stock.

523. Identity in species is inferred from close similarity in all essential respects, or whenever the differences, however considerable, are not known or reasonably supposed to have been originated in the course of time under changed conditions. No two individuals are exactly alike; a tendency to variation pervades all living things. In cultivation, where variations are looked after and cared for, very striking differences come to light; and if in wild nature they are less common or less conspicuous, it is partly because they are uncared for. When such variant forms are pretty well marked they are called

[524.] Varieties. The White Oak, for example, presents two or three varieties in the shape of the leaves, although they may be all alike upon each particular tree. The question often arises, and it is often hard to answer, whether the difference in a particular case is that of a variety, or is specific. If the former, it may commonly be proved by finding such intermediate degrees of difference in various individuals as to show that no clear distinction can be drawn between them; or else by observing the variety to vary back again in some of its offspring. The sorts of Apples, Pears, Potatoes, and the like, show that differences which are permanent in the individual, and continue unchanged through a long series of generations when propagated by division (as by offsets, cuttings, grafts, bulbs, tubers, etc.), are not likely to be reproduced by seed. Still they sometimes are so, and perhaps always tend in that direction. For the fundamental law in organic nature is that offspring shall be like parent.

Races are such strongly marked varieties, capable of coming true to seed. The different sorts of Wheat, Maize, Peas, Radishes, etc., are familiar examples. By selecting those individuals of a species which have developed or inherited any desirable peculiarity, keeping them from mingling with their less promising brethren, and selecting again the most promising plants raised from their seeds, the cultivator may in a few generations render almost any variety transmissible by seed, so long as it is cared for and kept apart. In fact, this is the way the cultivated domesticated races, so useful to man, have been fixed and preserved. Races, in fact, can hardly, if at all, be said to exist independently of man. But man does not really produce them. Such peculiarities—often surprising enough—now and then originate, we know not how (the plant sports, as the gardeners say); they are only preserved, propagated, and generally further developed, by the cultivator's skilful care. If left alone, they are likely to dwindle and perish, or else revert to the original form of the species. Vegetable races are commonly annuals, which can be kept up only by seed, or herbs of which a succession of generations can be had every year or two, and so the education by selection be completed without great lapse of time. But all fruit-trees could probably be fixed into races in an equal number of generations.

Bud-varieties are those which spring from buds instead of seed. They are uncommon to any marked extent. They are sometimes called Sports, but this name is equally applied to variations among seedlings.

Cross-breeds, strictly so-called, are the variations which come from cross-fertilizing one variety of a species with another.

Hybrids are the varieties, if they may be so called,—which come from the crossing of species ([331]). Only nearly related species can be hybridized; and the resulting progeny is usually self-sterile, but not always. Hybrid plants, however, may often be fertilized and made prolific by the pollen of one or the other parent. This produces another kind of cross-breeds.

525. Species are the units in classification. Varieties, although of utmost importance in cultivation and of considerable consequence in the flora of any country, are of less botanical significance. For they are apt to be indefinite and to shade off one form into another. But species, the botanist expects to be distinct. Indeed, the practical difference to the botanist between species and varieties is the definite limitation of the one and the indefiniteness of the other. The botanist's determination is partly a matter of observation, partly of judgment.

526. In an enlarged view, varieties may be incipient species; and nearly related species probably came from a common stock in earlier times. For there is every reason to believe that existing vegetation came from the more or less changed vegetation of a preceding geological era. However that may be, species are regarded as permanent and essentially unchanged in their succession of individuals through the actual ages.

527. There are, at nearly the lowest computation, as many as one hundred thousand species of phanerogamous plants, and the cryptogamous species are thought to be still more numerous. They are all connected by resemblances or relationships, near and remote, which show that they are all parts of one system, realizations in nature, as we may affirm, of the conception of One Mind. As we survey them, they do not form a single and connected chain, stretching from the lowest to the highest organized species, although there obviously are lower and higher grades. But the species throughout group themselves, as it were, into clusters or constellations, and these into still more comprehensive clusters, and so on, with gaps between. It is this clustering which is the ground of the recognition of kinds of species, that is, of groups of species of successive grades or degree of generality; such as that of similar species into Genera, of genera into Families or Orders, of orders into Classes. In classification the sequence, proceeding from higher or more general to lower or special, is always Class, Order, Genus, Species, Variety (if need be).

[528.] Genera (in the singular, Genus) are assemblages of closely related species, in which the essential parts are all constructed on the same particular type or plan. White Oak, Red Oak, Scarlet Oak, Live Oak, etc., are so many species of the Oak genus (Latin, Quercus). The Chestnuts compose another genus; the Beeches another. The Apple, Pear, and Crab are species of one genus, the Quince represents another, the various species of Hawthorn a third. In the animal kingdom the common cat, the wild-cat, the panther, the tiger, the leopard, and the lion are species of the cat kind or genus; while the dog, the jackal, the different species of wolf, and the foxes, compose another genus. Some genera are represented by a vast number of species, others by few, very many by only one known species. For the genus may be as perfectly represented in one species as in several, although, if this were the case throughout, genera and species would of course be identical. The Beech genus and the Chestnut genus would be just as distinct from the Oak genus even if but one Beech and Chestnut were known; as indeed was once the case.

[529.] Orders are groups of genera that resemble each other; that is, they are to genera what genera are to species. As familiar illustrations, the Oak, Chestnut, and Beech genera, along with the Hazel genus and the Hornbeams, all belong to one order. The Birches and the Alders make another; the Poplars and Willows, another; the Walnuts (with the Butternut) and the Hickories, still another. The Apple genus, the Quince and the Hawthorns, along with the Plums and Cherries and the Peach, the Raspberry with the Blackberry, the Strawberry, the Rose, belong to a large order, which takes its name from the Rose. Most botanists use the names "Order" and "Family" synonymously; the latter more popularly, as "the Rose Family," the former more technically, as "Order Rosaceæ."

530. But when the two are distinguished, as is common in zoölogy, Family is of lower grade than Order.

[531.] Classes are still more comprehensive assemblages, or great groups. Thus, in modern botany, the Dicotyledonous plants compose one class, the Monocotyledonous plants another ([36-40]).

532. These four grades, Class, Order, Genus, Species, are of universal use. Variety comes in upon occasion. For, although a species may have no recognized varieties, a genus implies at least one species belonging to it; every genus is of some order, and every order of some class.

533. But these grades by no means exhaust the resources of classification, nor suffice for the elucidation of all the distinctions which botanists recognize. In the first place, a higher grade than that of class is needful for the most comprehensive of divisions, that of all plants into the two Series of Phanerogamous and Cryptogamous ([6]); and in natural history there are the two Kingdoms or Realms, the Vegetable and the Animal.

534. Moreover, the stages of the scaffolding have been variously extended, as required, by the recognition of assemblages lower than class but higher than order, viz. Subclass and Cohort; or lower than order, a Suborder; or between this and genus, a Tribe; or between this and tribe, a Subtribe; or between genus and species, a Subgenus; and by some a species has been divided into Subspecies, and a variety into Subvarieties. Last of all are Individuals. Suffice it to remember that the following are the principal grades in classification, with the proper sequence; also that only those here printed in small capitals are fundamental and universal in botany:—

[§ 2.] NAMES, TERMS, AND CHARACTERS.

535. The name of a plant is the name of its genus followed by that of the species. The name of the genus answers to the surname (or family name); that of the species to the baptismal name of a person. Thus Quercus is the name of the Oak genus; Quercus alba, that of the White Oak, Q. rubra, that of Red Oak, Q. nigra, that of the Black-Jack, etc. Botanical names being Latin or Latinized, the adjective name of the species comes after that of the genus.

[536.] Names of Genera are of one word, a substantive. The older ones are mostly classical Latin, or Greek adopted into Latin; such as Quercus for the Oak genus, Fagus for the Beech, Corylus, the Hazel, and the like. But as more genera became known, botanists had new names to make or borrow. Many are named from some appearance or property of the flowers, leaves, or other parts of the plant. To take a few examples from the early pages of the "Manual of the Botany of the Northern United States,"—the genus Hepatica comes from the shape of the leaf, resembling that of the liver. Myosurus means mouse-tail. Delphinium is from delphin, a dolphin, and alludes to the shape of the flower, which was thought to resemble the classical figures of the dolphin. Xanthorrhiza is from two Greek words meaning yellow-root, the common name of the plant. Cimicifuga is formed of two Latin words meaning to drive away bugs, i. e. Bugbane, the Siberian species being used to keep away such vermin. Sanguinaria, the Bloodroot, is named from the blood-like color of its juice. Other genera are dedicated to distinguished botanists or promoters of science, and bear their names: such are Magnolia, which commemorates the early French botanist, Magnol; and Jeffersonia, named after President Jefferson, who sent the first exploring expedition over the Rocky Mountains. Others bear the name of the discoverer of the plant; as, Sarracenia, dedicated to Dr. Sarrazin, of Quebec, who was one of the first to send the common Pitcher-plant to the botanists of Europe; and Claytonia, first made known by the early Virginian botanist Clayton.

[537.] Names of Species. The name of a species is also a single word, appended to that of the genus. It is commonly an adjective, and therefore agrees with the generic name in case, gender, etc. Sometimes it relates to the country the species inhabits; as, Claytonia Virginica, first made known from Virginia; Sanguinaria Canadensis, from Canada, etc. More commonly it denotes some obvious or characteristic trait of the species; as, for example, in Sarracenia, our northern species is named purpurea, from the purple blossoms, while a more southern one is named flava, because its petals are yellow; the species of Jeffersonia is called diphylla, meaning two-leaved, because its leaf is divided into two leaflets. Some species are named after the discoverer, or in compliment to a botanist who has made them known; as, Magnolia Fraseri, named after the botanist Fraser, one of the first to find this species; and Sarracenia Drummondii, for a Pitcher-plant found by Mr. Drummond in Florida. Such personal specific names are of course written with a capital initial letter. Occasionally some old substantive name is used for the species; as Magnolia Umbrella, the Umbrella tree, and Ranunculus Flammula. These are also written with a capital initial, and need not accord with the generic name in gender. Geographical specific names, such as Canadensis, Caroliniana, Americana, in the later usage are by some written without a capital initial, but the older usage is better, or at least more accordant with English orthography.

[538.] Varietal Names, when any are required, are made on the plan of specific names, and follow these, with the prefix var. Ranunculus Flammula, var. reptans, the creeping variety: R. abortivus, var. micranthus, the small-flowered variety of the species.

539. In recording the name of a plant it is usual to append the name, or an abbreviation of the name, of the botanist who first published it; and in a flora or other systematic work, this reference to the source of the name is completed by a further citation of the name of the book, the volume and page where it was first published. So "Ranunculus acris, L.," means that this Buttercup was first so named and described by Linnæus; "R. multifidus, Pursh," that this species was so named and published by Pursh. The suffix is no part of the name, but is an abbreviated reference, to be added or omitted as convenience or definiteness may require. The authority for a generic name is similarly recorded. Thus, "Ranunculus, L.," means that the genus was so named by Linnæus; "Myosurus, Dill.," that the Mouse-tail was established as a genus under this name by Dillenius; Caulophyllum, Michx., that the Blue Cohosh was published under this name by Michaux. The full reference in the last-named instance would be, "in Flora Boreali-Americana, first volume, 205th page,"—in the customary abbreviation, "Michx. Fl. i. 205."

[540.] Names of Orders are given in the plural number, and are commonly formed by prolonging the name of a genus of the group taken as a representative of it. For example, the order of which the Buttercup or Crowfoot genus, Ranunculus, is the representative, takes from it the name of Ranunculaceæ; meaning Plantæ Ranunculaceæ when written out in full, that is, Ranunculaceous Plants. Some old descriptive names of orders are kept up, such as Cruciferæ for the order to which Cress and Mustard belong, from the cruciform appearance of their expanded corolla, and Umbelliferæ, from the flowers being in umbels.

[541.] Names of Tribes, also of suborders, subtribes, and the like, are plurals of the name of the typical genus, less prolonged, usually in eæ, ineæ, ideæ, etc. Thus the proper Buttercup tribe is Ranunculeæ, of the Clematis tribe, Clematideæ. While the Rose family is Rosaceæ, the special Rose tribe is Roseæ.

[542.] Names of Classes, etc. For these see the following synopsis of the actual classification adopted, p. [183].

543. So a plant is named in two words, the generic and the specific names, to which may be added a third, that of the variety, upon occasion. The generic name is peculiar: obviously it must not be used twice over in botany. The specific name must not be used twice over in the same genus, but is free for any other genus. A Quercus alba, or White Oak, is no hindrance to Betula alba, or White Birch; and so of other names.

[544.] Characters and Descriptions. Plants are characterized by a terse statement, in botanical terms, of their peculiarities or distinguishing marks. The character of the order should include nothing which is common to the whole class it belongs to; that of the genus, nothing which is common to the order; that of the species nothing which is shared with all other species of the genus; and so of other divisions. Descriptions may enter into complete details of the whole structure.

[545.] Terminology, also called Glossology, is nomenclature applied to organs or parts, and their forms or modifications. Each organ or special part has a substantive name of its own: shapes and other modifications of an organ or part are designated by adjective terms, or, when the forms are peculiar, substantive names are given to them. By the correct use of such botanical terms, and by proper subordination of the characters under the order, genus, species, etc., plants may be described and determined with much precision. The classical language of botany is Latin. While modern languages have their own names and terms, these usually lack the precision of the Latin or Latinized botanical terminology. Fortunately, this Latinized terminology has been largely adopted and incorporated into the English technical language of botany, thus securing precision. And these terms are largely the basis of specific names of plants.

546. A glossary or vocabulary of the principal botanical terms used in phanerogamous and vascular cryptogamous botany is appended to this volume, to which the student may refer, as occasion arises.

[§ 3.] SYSTEM.

547. Two systems of classification used to be recognized in botany,—the artificial and the natural; but only the latter is now thought to deserve the name of a system.

548. Artificial classifications have for object merely the ascertaining of the name and place of a plant. They do not attempt to express relationships, but serve as a kind of dictionary. They distribute the genera and species according to some one peculiarity or set of peculiarities (just as a dictionary distributes words according to their first letters), disregarding all other considerations. At present an artificial classification in botany is needed only as a key to the natural orders,—as an aid in referring an unknown plant to its proper family; and such keys are still very needful, at least for the beginner. Formerly, when the orders themselves were not clearly made out, an artificial classification was required to lead the student down to the genus. Two such classifications were long in vogue: First, that of Tournefort, founded mainly on the leaves of the flower, the calyx and corolla: this was the prevalent system throughout the first half of the eighteenth century; but it has long since gone by. It was succeeded by the well-known

[549.] Artificial System of Linnæus, which was founded on the stamens and pistils. It consists of twenty-four classes, and of a variable number of orders; the classes founded mainly on the number and disposition of the stamens; the orders partly upon the number of styles or stigmas, partly upon other considerations. Useful and popular as this system was down to a time within the memory of still surviving botanists, it is now completely obsolete. But the tradition of it survives in the names of its classes, Monandria, Diandria, Triandria, etc., which are familiar in terminology in the adjective terms monandrous, diandrous, triandrous, etc. ([284]); also of the orders, Monogynia, Digynia, Trigynia, etc., preserved in the form of monogynous, digynous, trigynous, etc. ([301]); and in the name Cryptogamia, that of the 24th class, which is continued for the lower series in the natural classification.

[550.] Natural System. A genuine system of botany consists of the orders or families, duly arranged under their classes, and having the tribes, the genera, and the species arranged in them according to their relationships. This, when properly carried out, is the Natural System; because it is intended to express, as well as possible, the various degrees of relationship among plants, as presented in nature; that is, to rank those species and those genera, etc., next to each other in the classification which are really most alike in all respects, or, in other words, which are constructed most nearly on the same particular plan.

551. There can be only one natural system of botany, if by this term is meant the plan according to which the vegetable creation was called into being, with all its grades and diversities among the species, as well of past as of the present time. But there may be many natural systems, if we mean the attempts of men to interpret and express that plan,—systems which will vary with advancing knowledge, and with the judgment and skill of different botanists. These must all be very imperfect, bear the impress of individual minds, and be shaped by the current philosophy of the age. But the endeavor always is to make the classification answer to Nature, as far as any system can which has to be expressed in a definite and serial arrangement.

552. So, although the classes, orders, genera, etc., are natural, or as natural as the systematist can make them, their grouping or order of arrangement in a book, must necessarily be in great measure artificial. Indeed, it is quite impossible to arrange the orders, or even the few classes, in a single series, and yet have each group stand next to its nearest relatives on both sides.

553. Especially it should be understood that, although phanerogamous plants are of higher grade than cryptogamous, and angiospermous or ordinary phanerogamous higher than the gymnospermous, yet there is no culmination in the vegetable kingdom, nor any highest or lowest order of phanerogamous plants.

[554.] The particular system most largely used at present in the classification of the orders is essentially the following:—

SECTION XIX. BOTANICAL WORK.

555. Some hints and brief instructions for the collection, examination, and preservation of specimens are added. They are especially intended for the assistance of those who have not the advantage of a teacher. They apply to phanerogamous plants and Ferns only, and to systematic botany.[1]

[§ 1.] COLLECTION, OR HERBORIZATION.

556. As much as possible, plants should be examined in the living state, or when freshly gathered. But dried specimens should be prepared for more leisurely examination and for comparison. To the working botanist good dried specimens are indispensable.

[557.] Botanical Specimens, to be complete, should have root or rootstock, stem, leaves, flowers, both open and in bud, and fruit. Sometimes these may all be obtained at one gathering; more commonly two or three gatherings at different times are requisite, especially for trees and shrubs.

[558.] In Herborizing, a good knife and a narrow and strong trowel are needed; but a very strong knife will serve instead of a trowel or small pick for digging out bulbs, tubers, and the like. To carry the specimens, either the tin box (vasculum) or a portfolio, or both are required. The tin box is best for the collection of specimens to be used fresh, as in the class-room; also for very thick or fleshy plants. The portfolio is indispensable for long expeditions, and is best for specimens which are to be preserved in the herbarium.

559. The Vasculum, or Botanical Collecting-box, is made of tin, in shape like a candle-box, only flatter, or the smaller sizes like an English sandwich-case; the lid opening for nearly the whole length of one side of the box. Any portable tin box of convenient size, and capable of holding specimens a foot or fifteen inches long, will answer the purpose. The box should shut close, so that the specimens may not wilt: then it will keep leafy branches and most flowers perfectly fresh for a day or two, especially if slightly moistened. They should not be wet.

560. The Portfolio is best made of two pieces of solid binder's-board, covered with enamel cloth, which also forms the back, and fastened by straps and buckles. It may be from a foot to twenty inches long, from nine to eleven or twelve inches wide. It should contain a needful quantity of smooth but strong and pliable paper (thin so-called Manilla paper is best), either fastened at the back as in a book, or loose in folded sheets when not very many specimens are required. As soon as gathered, the specimens should be separately laid between the leaves or in the folded sheets, and kept under moderate pressure in the closed portfolio.

561. Of small herbs, especially annuals, the whole plant, root and all, should be taken for a specimen. Of larger ones branches will suffice, with some leaves from near the root. Enough of the root or subterranean part of the plant should be collected to show whether it is an annual, a biennial, or a perennial. Thick roots, bulbs, tubers, or branches of specimens intended to be pressed should be thinned with a knife, or cut into slices. Keep the specimens within the length of fifteen or sixteen inches, by folding, or when that cannot be done, by cutting into lengths.

[562.] For Drying Specimens a good supply of soft and unsized paper is wanted; and some convenient means of applying considerable pressure. To make good dried botanical specimens, dry them as rapidly as possible between many thicknesses of sun-dried paper to absorb their moisture, under as much pressure as can be given without crushing the more delicate parts. This pressure may be had by a botanical press, of which various forms have been contrived; or by weights placed upon a board,—from forty to eighty or a hundred pounds, according to the quantity of specimens drying at the time. For use while travelling, a good portable press may be made of thick binders' boards for the sides, and the pressure may be applied by strong straps with buckles. Still better, on some accounts, are portable presses made of wire network, which allow the dampness to escape by evaporation between the meshes. For herborization in a small way, a light wire-press may be taken into the field and made to serve also as a portfolio.

563. It is well to have two kinds of paper, namely, driers of bibulous paper, stitched into pads (or the pads may be of thick carpet-paper, cut to size) and thin smooth paper, folded once; the specimens to be laid into the fold, either when gathered or on returning from the excursion. These sheets are to hold the specimens until they are quite dry. Every day, or at first even twice a day, the specimens, left undisturbed in their sheets, are to be shifted into fire-dried or sun-dried fresh driers, and the pressure renewed, while the moist sheets are spread out to dry, so as to take their turn again at the next shifting. This course must be continued until the specimens are no longer moist to the touch. Good and comely specimens are either made or spoiled within the first twenty-four or thirty-six hours. After that, when plenty of driers are used, it may not be necessary to change them so frequently.

564. Succulent plants, which long refuse to part with life and moisture, and Spruces and some other evergreens which are apt to cast off their leaves, may be plunged for a moment into boiling water, all but the flowers. Delicate flowers may be encased in thin tissue paper when put into the press. Thick parts, like the heads of Sunflowers and Thistles, may be cut in two or into slices.

565. Dried specimens may be packed in bundles, either in folded paper or upon single half-sheets. It is better that such paper should not be bibulous. The packages should be well wrapped or kept in close cases.

[566.] Poisoning is necessary if specimens are to be permanently preserved from the depredation of insects. The usual application is an almost saturated solution of corrosive sublimate in 95 per cent alcohol, freely applied with a large and soft brush, or the specimens dipped into some of the solution poured into a large and flat dish; the wetted specimens to be transferred for a short time to driers.

[§ 2.] HERBARIUM.

567. The botanist's collection of dried specimens, ticketed with their names, place, and time of collection, and systematically arranged under their genera, orders, etc., forms a Hortus Siccus or Herbarium. It comprises not only the specimens which the proprietor has himself collected, but those which he acquires through friendly exchanges, or in other ways. The specimens of an herbarium may be kept in folded sheets of paper; or they may be fastened on half-sheets of thick and white paper, either by gummed slips, or by glue applied to the specimens themselves. The former is best for private and small herbaria; the latter for large ones which are much turned over. Each sheet should be appropriated to one species; two or more different plants should never be attached to the same sheet. The generic and specific name of the plant should be added to the lower right-hand corner, either written on the sheet, or on a ticket pasted down; and the time of collection, the locality, the color of the flowers, and any other information which the specimens themselves do not afford, should be duly recorded upon the sheet or the ticket. The sheets of the herbarium should all be of exactly the same dimensions. The herbarium of Linnæus is on paper of the common foolscap size, about eleven inches long and seven wide. This is too small. Sixteen and three eighths inches by eleven and a half inches is an approved size.

568. The sheets containing the species of each genus are to be placed in genus-covers, made of a full sheet of thick paper (such as the strongest Manilla-hemp paper), to be when folded of the same dimensions as the species-sheet but slightly wider: the name of the genus is to be written on one of the lower corners. These are to be arranged under the orders to which they belong, and the whole kept in closed cases or cabinets, either laid flat in compartments, like "pigeon-holes," or else placed in thick portfolios, arranged like folio volumes. All should be kept, as much as practicable, in dust-proof and insect-proof cases or boxes.

569. Fruits, tubers, and other hard parts, too thick for the herbarium, may be kept in pasteboard or light wooden boxes, in a collection apart. Small loose fruits, seeds, detached flowers, and the like may be conveniently preserved in paper capsules or envelopes, attached to the herbarium-sheets.

[§ 3.] INVESTIGATION AND DETERMINATION OF PLANTS.

[570.] The Implements required are a hand magnifying glass, a pocket lens of an inch or two focus, or a glass of two lenses, one of the lower and the other of the higher power; and a sharp penknife for dissection. With these and reasonable perseverance the structure of the flowers and fructification of most phanerogamous plants and Ferns can be made out. But for ease and comfort, as well as for certainty and right training, the student should have some kind of simple stage microscope, and under this make all dissections of small parts. Without it the student will be apt to fall into the bad habit of guessing where he ought to ascertain.

571. The simple microscope may be reduced to a good lens or doublet, of an inch focus, mounted over a glass stage, so that it can be moved up and down and also sidewise, and with (or without) a little mirror underneath. A better one would have one or two additional lenses (say of half and of a quarter inch focus), a pretty large stage, on the glass of which several small objects can be placed and conveniently brought under the lens; and its height or that of the lens should be adjustable by a rack-work; also a swivel-mounted little mirror beneath, which is needed for minute objects to be viewed by transmitted light.

572. For dissecting and displaying small parts on the stage of the microscope, besides a thin-bladed knife, the only tools needed are a good stock of common needles of various sizes, mounted in handles, and one or more saddler's-needles, which, being triangular, may be ground to sharp edges convenient for dissection. Also a pair of delicate-pointed forceps; those with curved points used by the dentist are most convenient. A cup of clean water is indispensable, with which to moisten or wet, or in which occasionally to float delicate parts. Small flowers, buds, fruits, and seeds of dried specimens can be dissected quite as well as fresh ones. They have only to be soaked in warm or boiling water.

573. The compound microscope is rarely necessary except in cryptogamic botany and vegetable anatomy; but it is very useful and convenient, especially for the examination of pollen. To the advanced botanist it is a necessity, to all students of botany an aid and delight.

[574.] Analysis. A few directions and hints may be given. The most important is this: In studying an unknown plant, make a complete examination of all its parts, and form a clear idea of its floral structure and that of its fruit, from pericarp down to the embryo, or as far as the materials in hand allow, before taking a step toward finding out its name and relationship by means of the keys or other helps which the Manuals and Floras provide. If it is the name merely that is wanted, the shorter way is to ask some one who already knows it. To verify the points of structure one by one as they happen to occur in an artificial key, without any preparatory investigation, is a usual but is not the best nor the surest way. It is well to make drawings or outline sketches of the smaller parts, and especially diagrams of the plan of the flower, such as those of Fig. [225], [227], [241, 244], [275]-[277]. For these, cross sections of the flower-bud or flower are to be made: and longitudinal sections, such as Fig. [270]-[274], are equally important. The dissection even of small seeds is not difficult after some practice. Commonly they need to be soaked or boiled.

575. The right appreciation of characters and terms used in description needs practice and calls for judgment. Plants do not grow exactly by rule and plummet, and measurements must be taken loosely. Difference of soil and situation are responded to by considerable variations, and other divergences occur which cannot be accounted for by the surroundings, nor be anticipated in general descriptions. Annuals may be very depauperate in dry soils or seasons, or very large when particularly well nourished. Warm and arid situations promote, and wet ones are apt to diminish pubescence. Salt water causes increased succulence. The color of flowers is apt to be lighter in shade, and brighter in open and elevated situations. A color or hue not normal to the species now and then occurs, which nothing in the conditions will account for. A white-flowered variation of any other colored blossom may always be expected; this, though it may be notable, no more indicates a distinct variety of the species than an albino would a variety of the human species. The numerical plan is subject to variation in some flowers; those on the plan of five may now and then vary to four or to six. Variations of the outline or lobing of leaves are so familiar that they do not much mislead. Only wider and longer observation suffices to prevent or correct mistakes in botanical study. But the weighing of evidence and the balancing of probabilities, no less than the use of the well-ordered and logical system of classification, give as excellent training to the judgment as the search for the facts themselves does to the observing powers.

[§ 4.] SIGNS AND ABBREVIATIONS.

576. For a full account of these, whether of former or actual use, see "Structural Botany" of the "Botanical Text Book," pp. 367, 392, as also for the principles which govern the accentuation of names. It is needful here to explain only those used in the Manuals and Floras of this country, for which the present volume is an introduction and companion. They are not numerous.

577. In arranging the species, at least those of a large genus, the divisions are denoted and graduated as follows: The sign § is prefixed to sections of the highest rank: these sections when they have names affixed to them (as Prunus § Cerasus) may be called subgenera. When the divisions of a genus are not of such importance, or when divisions are made under the subgenus itself, the most comprehensive ones are marked by asterisks, * for the first, * * for the second, and so on. Subdivisions are marked with a prefixed +; those under this head with ++; and those under this with =, if there be so many grades. A similar notation is followed in the synopsis of the genera of an order.

578. The interrogation point is used in botany to indicate doubt. Thus Clematis crispa, L.? expresses a doubt whether the plant in question is really the Clematis crispa of Linnæus. Clematis? polypetala expresses a doubt whether the plant so named is really a Clematis. On the other hand the exclamation point (!) is used to denote certainty whenever there is special need to affirm this.

579. For size or height, the common signs of degrees, minutes, and seconds, have been used, thus, 1°, 2', 3", stand respectively for a foot, two inches, and three lines or twelfths of an inch. A better way, when such brevity is needed, is to write 1ft. 2in. 3l.

580. Signs for duration used by Linnæus were ☉ for an annual, ♂ for a biennial, ♃ for a perennial herb, [Symbol like numeral 5 without top bar] for a shrub or tree. DeCandolle brought in ☉ for a plant that died after once flowering, ① if annual, ② if biennial.

581. To indicate sexes, ♂ means staminate or male plant or blossom; ♀, pistillate or female; [Symbol like ☿ with two inverted breves], perfect or hermaphrodite.

582. To save room it is not uncommon to use ∞ in place of "many;" thus, "Stamens ∞," for stamens indefinitely numerous: "∞ flora" for pluriflora or many-flowered. Still more common is the form "Stamens 5-20," or "Calyx 4-5-parted," for stamens from five to twenty, calyx four-parted or five-parted, and the like. Such abbreviations hardly need explanation.

583. The same may be said of such abbreviations as Cal. for calyx, Cor. for corolla, Pet. for petals, St. for stamens, Pist. for pistil, Hab. for habitat, meaning place of growth, Herb. for herbarium, Hort. for garden. Also l. c., loco citato, which avoids repetition of volume and page.

584. "Structural Botany" has six pages of abbreviations of the names of botanists, mostly of botanical authors. As they are not of much consequence to the beginner, while the more advanced botanist will know the names in full, or know where to find them, only a selection is here appended.