VOCABULARY.

=anteayer=, the day before yesterday =apresurar=, to hasten, to urge (a.) =apresurarse=, to hasten (n.) =apresurarse con sus órdenes=, to rush one's orders =árbol de eje=, axle shaft =cámara de comercio=, chamber of commerce =cigüeña, árbol de cigüeña, cigüeñal=, crank-shaft =compañía de ferrocarril=, railway company =con manchas=, (designs)—spot =con puntitas, con bolitas=, (designs) spot =contestar=, to answer, to reply =cuadritos=, (designs) checks =cuenta simulada=, pro forma account =culpa=, blame, fault =daño=, damage, injury, breakdown =de buena tinta=, from a good source =derecho=, right =duda=, doubt =equivocarse=, to be mistaken =existencias=, stocks of goods =expedidor=, sender =fecha de=, dated =listados=, (designs) striped =á listas, á rayas=, (designs) striped =malcontento=, uneasiness, discontent =mundial=, world (adj.) =próximamente=, about, approximately =pues=, well =redactar=, to write out =repentinamente=, suddenly =representación exclusiva=, sole agency =responsabilidad=, responsibility =retardar=, to delay, to be delayed =*romperse=, to break (n.) =roto=, broken =todavía=, yet =vivir=, to live, to reside =ya=, already

EXERCISE 1 (31).

Translate into English—

1. En la Asociación de Agricultores de España (Society of Spanish Agriculturists) dará mañana viernes á las seis y media de la tarde una conferencia (lecture) el ilustrado Sr. Fulano.

2. ¿Como mañana? ya la ha dado esta mañana.

3. No sabía que la había dado ya.

4. Pues tengo esta noticia de buena tinta y no hay duda que así es.

5. Tenemos recibida su estimada, fecha de anteayer.

6. Mucho tiempo ha que tengo proyectadas estas empresas.

7. Habrá un mes que me escribió y no le he contestado todavía.

8. La Cámara de Comercio de Londres votó, después de larga discusión, una protesta contra el nuevo Tratado de Comercio con Cuba y redactó una petición que será dirigida al gobierno.

9. El vapor inglés "Raleigh" que sale para Montevideo ha recibido un marconigrama anunciando que reina allí el malcontento político.

10. El aviador acaba de batir el "record" mundial de velocidad y distancia recorriendo (covering) ciento veintidós kilómetros en hora y media, á saber (namely) próximamente 80 kilómetros por hora.

11. No se equivoca V. en la interpretación de lo que hemos escrito acerca de las facturas simuladas.

12. El árbol de eje y el cigüeñal se han roto.

EXERCISE 2 (32).

Translate into Spanish—

1. Have you obtained the sole agency for (de) that firm?

2. Not yet, but I hope to get it.

3. How long have you been living in England?

4. Two weeks ago prices were so high that buyers were rushing their orders; now they have suddenly fallen to an unprecedented level (nivel sin precedente).

5. He has examined the samples and found that the designs of the light grounds (fondos claros) are not as ordered.

6. He also complains of the checks and stripes.

7. The spot muslins have been delayed owing to a breakdown in the works (la fábrica).

8. The senders are trying to throw the blame on (á) the Railway Company, but we have no right of claim (derecho de reclamar) against the latter (ésta); it is they who (son ellos quienes) must indemnify us for the loss.

9. It is a well-founded (bien establecida) and respectable firm and they will not deny their responsibility—there is no doubt about (de) that.

10. Is it long since you received their last (última) letter?

11. Have they been long established? (Hace mucho tiempo que….)

12. They have been for 15 years.

13. Our friends have large stocks but they say the market is looking up (mejorando).

LESSON XVII.
(Lección décima séptima.)

"SER" AND "ESTAR."

=Ser= is used as a true auxiliary, when it forms the passive voice.

=Estar= is an auxiliary when it forms the progressive tenses, as

Estoy escribiendo (I am writing).
Estaba escribiendo (he was writing).

The difficulty in the employment of ser and estar is, by some, unduly magnified. Others give the following rule—

Ser denotes a permanent state. Estar "temporary"

This rule should not be adopted because often it would not apply, as the following two examples will show—

Él es soldado porque se ha alistado por dos años: He is a soldier as he has enlisted for two years.

Aquellos montes están eternamente cubiertos de nieve: Those mountains are perpetually covered with snow.

The following simple and true rules will enable the student to understand the difference between ser and estar and to apply them correctly.

Ser is used—

1. To form the Passive Voice, as—

El cartero trajo las cartas—Active: The postman brought the letters.

La carta fué traída[114] por el cartero—Passive[115]: The letter was brought by the postman.

[Footnote 114: The Past Part. following "Ser" and "Estar" agrees in gender and number with the subject of these verbs.]

[Footnote 115: Este cuarto es barrido todos los días (this room is swept every day) is passive voice, because we speak of the action of sweeping, viz., somebody sweeps the room every day. Este cuarto está barrido—no voice; "barrido" is used as an adjective to denote state or condition.]

2. To denote an inherent[116] quality, as—

La nieve es blanca: Snow is white.
El hombre es mortal: Man is mortal.

[Footnote 116: Inherence = a fixed state of being in another body. A quality may be inherent "for the time being," as: Juan se ha alistado por dos años, entonces es soldado: John has enlisted for two years, then he is a soldier.]

Estar is used to denote—

1. State in locality, viz., to be in a place, as—

Estoy aquí I am here.
Londres está en Inglaterra: London is in England.

2. A condition, as—

Estoy candado: I am tired.
Está enfermo: He is ill.

SUPPLEMENTARY RULES.

Ser must be used—

1. Before any noun (even if an adjective or article intervenes), as—

Soy negociante: I am a merchant.

Es un corredor de cambios bien conocido: He is a well-known exchange broker.

Son buenos valores: They are good securities.

2. When "to be" is used to denote possession, as—

Los trapiches son de estos fabricantes: The sugar mills belong to these makers.

3. When "to be" us used impersonally, as—

Es necesario tomar medidas legales: It is necessary to take legal proceedings.

4. Before the words "Feliz," "Infeliz," "Pobre," and "Rico."[117]

[Footnote 117: These are not, strictly speaking, "inherent qualities," but they are spoken of as such.]

Estar must, of course, be always used before Present Participles,[118] as—

Está activando sus esfuerzos: He is making still further efforts.
Estamos extendiendo nuestras relaciones: We are extending our connection.

[Footnote 118: A Pres. Part. can only express a condition, not a quality.]

Verbs ending in cer, cir, ger and gir change the c into =z= and the g into =j= before a or o as—

Verbs ending in guir and quir change the gu into =g= and the qu into =c= before a or o, as—

[Footnote 119: The only verb ending in quir.]