1. DECLENSION.

NOUNS.

89. (1) During the late Vulgar Latin and early Romance period neuter nouns gradually became masculine; this change was doubtless due in part to phonetic developments which obliterated distinctive endings: dōnum ＞ dọn, m.; nōmen ＞ nọm, m. Mare, however, became almost always feminine in Gaul: la mar. Some neuter plurals in -a, used mainly in a collective sense, were preserved and eventually became feminine singulars: fŏlium fŏlia ＞ fǫlha, f. sg.; lĭgnum lĭgna ＞ lẹnha, f. sg.; so luǫgua, pọma, prada, beside lǫc, pọm, prat (and, by analogy, grasa, beside gras ＜ gradus); similarly labia ＞ lavias, f. pl.

(2) Masculine and feminine nouns usually kept their original gender. Abstract nouns in -or, however, regularly became feminine in Gaul, other abstract nouns being mostly feminine in Latin: honōrem ＞ onọr, f.; sapōrem ＞ sabọr, f. With the exception of manus, which generally retained its gender, feminine nouns of the second and fourth declensions, unless they passed into the first declension (pĭrus ＞ pẹra), became masculine, to conform to the usual -us type: fraxĭnus ＞ fraisnes, m.; pīnus ＞ pins, m. Attracted by such words as these, arbor became masculine. There were some other less important shifts.

1. Juventus, passing into the second declension, became masculine (ioven); but we find also ioventut, f. Laus became masculine in Provençal; fin, on the other hand, is always feminine. Mĕrŭla ＞ merle, m. Correitz, linh, both m., occur beside correia ＜ corrĭgia, linha ＜ līnea. Other similar changes might be noted. Pr. dia (also di), like Latin dīes, is usually masculine.

90. Some nouns passed from the fourth to the second declension in the classic Latin period (dŏmus, fīcus); the rest doubtless followed in Vulgar Latin (frūctus,[82] gradus, manus). Fifth declension nouns in -ies went over, for the most part, to the first declension:[83] dīes ＞ dia, facies ＞ fassa, glacies ＞ glassa, rabies ＞ rabia; but we find also di, fatz, glatz (ratge is probably French), following the third declension type. Fifth declension nouns which did not shift to the first came to be declined after the model of the third (fides, res, spes). The five declensions were therefore reduced to three, presumably in Vulgar Latin times. Among these there were some exchanges: polvera, vergena; cf. § [89], (1), (2), 1.

91. The use of cases became more and more restricted in Vulgar Latin, prepositional constructions taking the place of pure case distinction. At the beginning of the Romance period, nouns probably had, in unstudied speech, only two cases in constant use: a nominative and an accusative or accusative-ablative. These two cases were generally retained in Provençal, for the second and third declensions, until the literary period: we may call them nominative and objective.

(1) The locative, which had almost vanished in classic Latin, lingered in Vulgar Latin only in names of places. It has left no sure traces in Provençal.

(2) The vocative, in classic Latin, was like the nominative for most words; in Vulgar Latin it probably disappeared, except in Church phrases, such as mī dŏmĭne. In Provençal we find the nominative regularly used in address (chanzọs, companh, emperaire, ioglars, Papiols), although the objective occasionally occurs in its stead (barọns pl., ioglar malastrüc, trachọr).

(3) The genitive, in the popular language, was little by little replaced by other constructions—commonly by the ablative with de or by the dative; the beginnings of this substitution may be observed as early as Plautus. Among Provençal nouns—aside from such learned forms as ancianọr, christianọr, companhọr, paianọr, parentọr—we find remnants of the genitive only in a few compound words, as diiǫus ＜ dīe Jŏvis, and in the standing phrase ẹs mestięr ＜ est ministĕrii.

(4) The dative, which in most words had the same ending as the ablative, came to be replaced, in the greater part of the Empire, by the accusative with ad; this construction, too, goes back as far as Plautus. Provençal nouns retain no traces of the dative.

(5) The ablative, after the fall of final m (§ [55], M) and the loss of quantitive distinctions in unstressed syllables (§ [21]), differed little or not at all from the accusative in the singular of nearly all nouns: causăm causā, dōnŭm dōnō, patrĕm patrĕ, frūctŭm frūctū, dīĕm dīē. Furthermore, some prepositions (especially in) were used both with the accusative and with the ablative. It was inevitable, then, that the two cases should be confounded in the singular, and we have evidence of such confusion as early as the first century of our era; this led gradually to a substitution of the accusative for the ablative in the plural, the accusative plural being somewhat commoner and frequently simpler than the ablative. We may, therefore, take the accusative as the basis of the Provençal objective, remembering, however, that this accusative has been more or less blended with the ablative.

(6) The two-case declension remained theoretically in use in Provençal literature through the 14th century; but in texts later than the 12th, cases are often confused. From the spoken language the declension disappeared, in the west (as in Catalan), before the literary period; in the centre and east, probably in the 12th century; in the north, in the 13th. The case preserved was usually the objective, but sometimes the nominative. Some nouns in -aire -adọr kept both forms, with a differentiation of meaning.

92. In the discussion of declensions some phonetic peculiarities must not be overlooked:—

(1) In the nom. pl. of the 2d declension, a stressed ẹ, followed in the next syllable by final -ị, would regularly give ị (cf. § [27], 1); but the ẹ is preserved by the analogy of the nom. and obj. sg. and the obj. pl.: capĭllī ＞ cabẹl, mĭssī ＞ mẹs, quētī ＞ quẹt, sērī ＞ sẹr. We do, however, find cabil, and (perhaps by analogy) auzil ＜ aucĕllī.

(2) In the nom. pl. of the 2d declension, a c or g before the final -ị would regularly be palatalized (cf. § [55], C, G); but it is preserved from palatalization by the analogy of the other three forms: amīcī ＞ amic, lŏngī ＞ lonc.

(3) For the development of a t between a palatal or an n and a final s, see § [82], S: annos ＞ anz, fīlios ＞ filz.

(4) For the simplification of final scs, sts to cs, ts, see § [78], 2: ✱bŭscus? ＞ bǫcs, trīstes ＞ tritz.

(5) For the history of -arius and -tōrius, see § [23], 1 and § [73], Ry, 1.

93. (1) Nouns whose objective singular ended in s were invariable in the earlier part of the literary period; bracchium ＞ bratz, cŏrpus ＞ cǫrs, imperatrīcem ＞ emperairitz, fascem ＞ fais, latus ＞ latz, lūcem ＞ lütz, mĭssum ＞ mẹs, nasum ＞ nas, ŏpus ＞ ǫps, ŭrsum ＞ ọrs, pĭscem ＞ pẹis, pĕctus ＞ pęitz, prĕtium ＞ prętz, tĕmpus ＞ tems, vĕrsum ＞ vęrs, vīsum ＞ vis, vōcem ＞ vọtz. Later, however, a plural (originally obj. pl.) was made for such words by adding -es, generally at a time when final ts had been reduced to s (§ [64]): brasses, cǫrses, mẹsses, pẹisses, vęrses; examples occur as early as the end of the 12th century.

(2) Other invariable nouns are midons, sidons, and often laus and rẹs; the last two sometimes have an objective lau, rẹ. Midons comes from the Church Latin mī dŏmĭne, which was popularized by the substitution of the Provençal don for dŏmĭne and the addition of the nom. -s; the term was transferred from religious to feudal, and thence to amatory use, and came to mean ‘my lady.’ Mi domina was common in Church Latin. Sidons is formed on the model of midons.

(3) For nouns in tš, see § [63], (1): ✱disdūctum ＞ desdüg, frūctum ＞ früch, gaudium ＞ gaug, nŏctem ＞ nuech. Such words were very often written in the plural with -gz, which was pronounced either ts or tš. The pronunciation ts is attested by such rhymes as malfagz: alumenatz.

94. Infinitives used substantively conformed to the 2d declension type: lauzars lauzar (like fǫcs fǫc), rire-s rire (like fabre-s fabre): see § [96]. The same thing is true of masculine post-verbal nouns: (getar) gętz gęt, (guidar) guitz guit, (lansar) lans (invariable).

First Declension.

95. This declension came to include a part of the fifth and also some neuter plurals of the second and third. With the exception of dia (nearly always masculine) and of a few learned words, it contained only feminine nouns. As the nominative, accusative, and ablative singular early became identical, leaving only one form in the singular, the plural forms were reduced to one, the accusative crowding out the nominative; this substitution, which must have been begun before the Provençal period, was doubtless helped by the identity of nominative and accusative plural in feminine nouns of the third declension. Causa will serve as a model:—

causa	＞ causa
causam	＞ causa
causæ ✱causas	＞ causas
causas	＞ causas

1. Dia sometimes has a nom. sg. dias, following the example of other masculine nouns.

2. Many feminine proper names, in Gaul and elsewhere, developed a Low Latin declension -a -āne(m) or -a -ēne(m), as Anna Annāne. Provençal has few traces of this inflection. The word putana ＜?pūtĭda + ānem + a may be a remnant of it. Cf. Meyer-Lübke, Gram., II, p. 27; E. Philipon, Les accusatifs en -on et en -ain, Rom., XXXI, 201.

Second Declension.

96. This declension came to include the fourth. With the exception of mas, ‘hand’ (generally feminine), it contained only masculine nouns. The different types may be illustrated by fŏcus, dōnum, faber:—

fŏcus	＞ fǫcs	dōnum ✱dōnus	＞ dọns	faber	＞ faure fabre fabres
fŏcum	＞ fǫc	dōnum	＞ dọn	fabrum	＞ fabre
fŏcī	＞ fǫc	dōna ✱dōnī	＞ dọn	fabrī	＞ fabre
fŏcos	＞ fǫcs	dōna ✱dōnos	＞ dọns	fabros	＞ fabres

For the c of fŏcī, see § [92], (2). For ✱dŏnus, etc., see § [89] (1). Nom. fabre is due to the analogy of the other three cases; the s of fabres is borrowed from the prevailing fǫcs type.

1. Neuters which long preserved their gender often have no -s in the nom. sg.: segle or segles. Nouns in -age from -aticum commonly have no -s: corage, damnage, message, senhorage; but forms with -s occur also. Learned nouns in -i from -ium regularly have no -s: breviari, emperi, iuzizi, testimoni. Post-verbal nouns, on the other hand, usually take the nom. -s: albires, blasme-s, consires, desires (cf. § [94]). By the analogy of the fabre-s, segle-s, blasme-s types, many masculines in -e sometimes drop the -s: clergue-s, diable-s, morgue-s, oncle-s, poble-s. Maestre, prestre regularly have no -s.

2. Most proper names are declined like common nouns: Arnautz Arnaut, Boecis Boeci, Enrics Enric, Lozoics Lozoic, Peire-s Peire. Many proper names, however, developed in Gaul and elsewhere, from the 9th century on, a Low Latin declension -us -ōne(m), as Petrus Petrōnis (cf. § [95], 2): hence Carle-s Carló, Peire-s Peiró, etc.; so Bergonhs Bergonhó, etc.

3. Mas, being usually feminine, has a nom. pl. mas.

4. For pagadi, salvi, soli, etc., and beill, peccah, efanh, etc., see § [51], 1.

Third Declension.

97. This declension absorbed a part of the fifth: cf. § [90].

98. Nouns whose stem was different in the nominative and the accusative singular, reconstructed the nominative to correspond to the accusative, the new form being similar to the original genitive: papĭlio papiliōnem ＞ papiliōnis papiliōnem, pēs pĕdem ＞ pĕdis pĕdem. The change began in the Vulgar Latin period. Exceptions to the rule are names of persons, unless they ended in -ans or -ens: nĕpos nepōtem ＞ nęps nebọt; but amans amantem ＞ ✱amantis amantem ＞ amáns amán.

1. Carnis for caro is used by classic writers. Grūis for grūs occurs in the Appendix Probi III, belonging perhaps to the 3d century. Papiliōnis, pĕdis, travis = trabs, and some others are found in the 8th century Glossary of Reichenau.

99. Masculine nouns of the third declension, early in the Provençal period, made their nominative plural conform to the second declension type, thus distinguishing it from the objective plural: pater patrem patres patres ＞ paire paire paire paires (cf. Old French and Italian). Feminines, on the other hand, kept the nominative plural in -s: mater matrem matres matres ＞ maire maire maires maires.

100. A few neuter nouns, becoming masculine in Vulgar Latin, developed distinctively masculine forms in the singular: gĕnus gĕnus ＞ ✱gĕneris ✱gĕnĕrem ＞ genres genre; so fŭlgur (＞ fŭlger) ＞ ✱fŭlgĕrem ＞ fọuzer. Most neuters, however, kept in the singular their original stem: sēmen ＞ sẹm, tĕmpus ＞ tems. But those in -men regularly, and those in -r sometimes, took an -s in the nominative singular: flūmen flūmen ＞ flüms flüm, marmor marmor ＞ marme-s marme; cǫr, in the literary language, usually has no nominative -s. In the plural most neuters brought their forms into harmony with the masculine type, but those in -us kept the -s throughout: (caput >) capus ✱capum capĭta capĭta ＞ caps cap cap caps, cŏr cŏr cŏrda cŏrda ＞ cǫr cǫr cǫr cǫrs, nōmen nōmen nōmĭna nōmĭna ＞ nọms nọm nọm nọms; but cŏrpus cŏrpus cŏrpŏra cŏrpŏra ＞ cǫrs cǫrs cǫrs cǫrs. Mare, becoming feminine, was declined thus: mars mar mars mars.

1. Gĕnus also became ges, which was used as an adverb.

101. The third declension comprises three principal types: (1) nouns which in Latin had no difference of stem or of accent between the nominative and the accusative singular; (2) those which had a difference of stem but not of accent; (3) those which had a difference of accent.

(1) Nouns with no difference of stem or of accent:—

MASCULINE
canis	＞ cas	pater	＞ paire-s	sōl	＞ sọ-s
canem	＞ ca	patrem	＞ paire	sōlem	＞ sọ
canes	＞ ca	patres	＞ paire	sōles	＞ sọl
canes	＞ cas	patres	＞ paires	sōles	＞ sọls
FEMININE
fīnis[84]	＞ fis	mater	＞ maire	fĭdes	＞ fẹs
fīnem	＞ fi	matrem	＞ maire	fĭdem	＞ fẹ
fīnes	＞ fis	matres	＞ maires	fĭdes	＞ fẹs
fīnes	＞ fis	matres	＞ maires	fĭdes	＞ fẹs

1. Masculine nouns of this type which etymologically had no -s in the nom. sg., often took one, even in the earliest times.

2. Laus and res were often invariable, but were sometimes declined like sols and fes.

(2) Nouns with a difference of stem but not of accent:—

MASCULINE		FEMININE		NEUTER
pōns ✱pŏntis	＞ ponz	pars ✱partis	＞ partz	lūmen	＞ lüm-s
pŏntem	＞ pon	partem	＞ part	lūmen	＞ lüm
pŏntes	＞ pon	partes	＞ partz	lūmĭna	＞ lüm
pŏntes	＞ ponz	partes	＞ partz	lūmĭna	＞ lüms

NAMES OF PERSONS
cŏmes	＞ coms	hŏmo	＞ om
cŏmĭtem	＞ comte	hŏmĭnem	＞ ome omne [85]
cŏmĭtes	＞ comte	hŏmĭnes	＞ ome omne
cŏmĭtes	＞ comtes	hŏmĭnes	＞ omes omnes

1. For other neuter types, see § [100].

2. Om later developed an inflection oms om om oms.

3. Lex, rex became leis lei leis leis, reis rei rei reis.

(3) Nouns with a difference of accent:—

MASCULINE		FEMININE
sĕrmo ✱sermōnis	＞ sermọs	ratio ✱ratiōnis	＞ razǫs
sermōnem	＞ sermọ	ratiōnem	＞ razọ
sermōnes	＞ sermọ	ratiōnes	＞ razọs
sermōnes	＞ sermọs	ratiōnes	＞ razọs

NAMES OF PERSONS IN -ANS, -ENS
amans ✱amantis	＞ amáns	parens ✱parĕntis	＞ paréns
amantem	＞ amán	parĕntem	＞ parén
amantes	＞ amán (f. amáns)	parĕntes	＞ parén (f. paréns)
amantes	＞ amáns	parĕntes	＞ paréns

NAMES OF PERSONS NOT IN -ANS, -ENS
amātor	＞ amaire	sĕnior	＞ sęnher	mŭlier	＞ mọler
amatōrem	＞ amadọr	seniōrem	＞ senhọr	muliĕ́rem[86]	＞ molhęr
amatōres	＞ amadọr	seniōres	＞ senhọr	muliĕ́res	＞ molhęrs
amatōres	＞ amadọrs	seniōres	＞ senhọrs	muliĕ́res	＞ molhęrs
servītor	＞ servire	baro	＞ bar	sŏror	＞ sǫrre sǫr [87]
servitōrem	＞ servidọr	barōnem	＞ barọ	sorōrem	＞ sorọr
servitōres	＞ servidọr	barōnes	＞ barọ	sorōres	＞ sorọrs
servitōres	＞ servidọrs	barōnes	＞ barọs	sorōres	＞ sorọrs

1. After the same pattern as senher, we have pastor pastōrem ＞ pastre pastór, etc.; after the bar pattern, ✱companio (Einf., § 43) ✱companiōnem ＞ companh companhó, ✱fĭllo (Körting) ✱fillōnem? ＞ fel feló, glŭtto (= glūto) gluttōnem ＞ glot glotó, latro latrōnem ＞ laire lairó, lĕo (treated like the name of a person) leōnem ＞ leu leó, etc. On the model of amaire, servire, we find trobaire trobadór, etc., iauzire iauzidór, etc.; and, for the second and third conjugations, teneire tenedór, etc., beveire bevedór, etc. The inflection of such words became much confused, and some of them eventually developed double declensions: bars bar bar bars, barós baró baró barós; emperaires emperaire emperaire emperaires, emperadórs emperadór emperadór emperadórs. Some proper names follow the bar model: Bret Bretó, Folc-s (Folques) Folcó (later Folcós Folcó), Gasc Gascó, Uc Ugó, (later Ucs Uc); cf. § [96], 2.

ADJECTIVES.

102. What has been said concerning the inflection of nouns applies also to adjectives: see §§ [91-101]. For pronominal adjectives see §§ [114 ff.]

1. The operation of phonetic laws sometimes results in a difference in stem between the m. and the f.: bos bona, larcs larga, nutz nuda, preon preonda; mut muda, prezat prezada. For pauc pauca, rauc rauca, see § [65], C, 1. For -arius -aria, -tōrius -tōria, see § [23], 1; § [73], Ry, 1.

2. Adjectives in -s or -š are undeclinable in the m. sg.: glorios, perfieg. Those in -s originally had no inflectional ending in the m. pl., but later they sometimes added -es: divers diverses, frances franceses. For the pl. of those in š, see § [93], (3).

103. We must recognize two classes of adjectives: (1) those which in Latin distinguish the feminine from the masculine; (2) those which do not.

1. Adjectives like acer, which, though inflected after the 3d declension type, could distinguish the m. from the f. in the nom. sg., fell into one or the other—usually the first—of the following classes (agre agra, alegre alegra; terrestre terrestre).

(1) Masculine and feminine different:—

MASCULINE		FEMININE
bĕllus	＞ bęls	bĕlla	＞ bęlla
bĕllum	＞ bęl	bĕllam	＞ bęla
bĕlli	＞ bęl	bĕllæ ✱beĕllas	＞ bęlas
bĕllos	＞ bęls	bĕllas	＞ bęlas
pauper	＞ paubre-s	paupĕra	＞ paubra
paupĕrum	＞ paubre	paupĕram	＞ paubra
paupĕi	＞ paubre	paupĕræas	＞ paubras
paupĕros	＞ paubres	paupĕras	＞ paubras

(2) Masculine and feminine alike:—

MASCULINE		FEMININE
gentīlis	＞ gentils	gentīlis	＞ gentils
gentīlem	＞ gentil	gentīlem	＞ gentil
gentīles	＞ gentil	gentīles	＞ gentils
gentīles	＞ gentils	gentīles	＞ gentils

1. Some adjectives of the second class were attracted into the first either in Vulgar Latin or in Provençal; this happened to all adjectives in -és, -able, -ible, and also to comun, dous, fol, freble, graile, len, mol, noble, paubre (early), rude, trist: cortes cortesa, durable durabla; comuna, doussa, etc. Some kept both inflections: dolens, dolens or dolenta; grans, grans or granda, etc.

104. In impersonal constructions we frequently find a nominative singular without -s, which is apparently a survival of the Latin neuter: m’es bel (greu, parven, semblan, etc.) que.… But the form with -s sometimes occurs in the same constructions: m’es greus que.…

1. For es mestier, see § [91], (3).

105. Most adverbs of manner were formed by adding -men (-ment, -mens, or -menz) to the feminine singular of the adjective: belamen. These adverbs were originally ablative phrases: serēna mĕnte, etc. In Provençal the specific meaning of the -men was forgotten, but the two parts might still be separated by an intervening word: ẹpsa… ment. When two adverbs in -men were used together, the ending was generally affixed to only one, oftener the first. Bona and mala could be used as adverbs without the suffix.

1. For the adverbial ending -s, see § [82], S, 3.

Comparison.

106. Adjectives and adverbs regularly formed their comparative by prefixing plüs to the positive, and their superlative by prefixing the definite article to the comparative: cara, plüs cara, la plüs cara. This method of comparison goes back to Vulgar Latin times.

1. ‘Than’ is expressed by que and de.

107. Some adjectives preserved their old comparative in -ior. These comparatives had an inflection similar to that of sęnher: cf. § [101], (3) and § [101], (3), 1.

POSITIVE		COMPARATIVE
altus:	aut	——	aussọr
✱bellātus = bĕllus:	——	bellaire bellázer-s	bellazọr
gĕnĭtus:	gen	génser-s	gensọr
✱grĕvis = gravis:	gręu	gręuger	——
grŏssus:	grǫs	gruęysser	——
laið:	lai	láiger	——
largus:	larc	——	largọr
lĕvis:	lęu	lęuger	——
lŏngus:	lonc	——	lonhọr
(grandis):	(gran)	máier	maiọr
(bŏnus):	(bon)	męlher	melhọr
(paucus):	(pauc)	mẹnre-s	menọr
nūgālis:	——	——	nüalhọr
(malus):	(mal)	pęier	peiọr
(mŭltus):	(mọlt)	——	plüsọr [88]
sŏrdĭdus:	sorde	sordẹier	sordeiọr

108. The following neuter comparatives were used as adverbs: gensẹis gensẹs gensẹtz (＜ génser influenced by longẹis, sordẹis); longẹis longẹitz ＜?✱longĭtius (＜ longĭter + lŏngius); mais ＜ magis; męlhs ＜ mĕlius; mẹns ＜ mĭnus; pęitz ＜ pĕjus; sordẹis ＜ sordĭdius; viatz ＜ vivacius. Mais, męlhs, mẹns, pęitz were used also as neuter pronouns. Viatz lost its comparative sense.

109. A few adjectives, most or all of them learned, preserved the old superlative form with an intensive sense: altisme, carisme, pęsme, prǫsme, santisme.

Numerals.

110. The cardinal numerals are:—

ün
dọs
trẹs
quatre
cinc
sęis
sęt
uęg
nǫu
dętz
ọnze
dọtze
trẹtze
quatọrze
quinze
sętze, sędze
dętz e sęt
dętz e uęg
dętz e nǫu
vint, vin
vint e ün
vint e dọs
trẹnta
quaranta
cinquanta
sessanta
setanta
quatre vint
nonanta
cent, cen
dozent
tresent
quatre cen
cinc cens (de)
mil
dọs milia
trẹs melia
quatre mila
cinc millięrs (de)
cent miria

111. The first two numbers were inflected as follows:—

ü(n)s üna	düi dọi	dọas dọs
ü(n) üna	dọs (düi)	dọas dọs

Düi dọi are from Vulgar Latin dŭī = dŭo; dọs is from dŭos, dọas from dŭas. Trẹs has a form trẹi (originally nom. m.), patterned after düi, and a form trẹis, which seems to be a cross between trẹs and trẹi. For the dialect forms of ọnze—sętze, see § [76], (1), Ndc´, and § [80], Dc´. Cen, multiplied by another number, took a plural form when used substantively; when used adjectively, it generally did not, but we find dozentas with a feminine noun. Mil had four plurals, milia miria melia mila; millięrs is a noun.

1. As an example of a longer compound numeral, we have cen e quatre vint e ueg.

2. From ambo we have the obj. forms, m. and f., ams, ambas. Ambo combined with dŭī (dŭos dŭas), and perhaps influenced by Pr. ab (§ [65], P, 2), had this inflection:

amdui	andui	abdui	ambedui	amdoas
amdos	andos	abdos	ambedos	amdoas

112. The ordinal numerals had separate forms for the two genders; the masculine forms followed the second declension type, the feminine forms, the first declension. After 5th, they were made by adding to the cardinal numeral the originally distributive ending -ēnus -ēna.

primięr, primięra
segọn(t), segọnda
tęrz, tęrza
quart, quarta
quint, quinta
seizẹ(n), seizẹna
setẹ(n), setẹna
ochẹ(n), ochẹna
novẹ(n), novẹna
dezẹ(n), dezẹna
onzẹ(n), onzẹna
dozẹ(n), dozẹna
vintẹ(n), vintẹna
centẹ(n), centẹna
milẹ(n), milẹna

113. Beside primięr we find premięr prümier promięr (§ [44], 1, 3), and also prim and primeiran; for the developments of the ending -ięr, see § [23], 1 and § [73], Ry, 1. Tęrz, tęrza regularly became tęrs, tęrsa (§ [73], Rty). Such forms as secọnda, tęrcia, sęxta, octava, nọna, dęcima are learned.

1. As an example of a compound ordinal numeral, we have vintena tersa.

PRONOUNS.

114. Under this head will be treated not only pronouns and pronominal adjectives, but also articles.

115. In popular Latin the personal, possessive, and demonstrative pronouns and adjectives had two sets of forms, according as they were accented or unaccented (§ [19]). Ille, when stressed and used pronominally, became a disjunctive personal pronoun of the third person; when unstressed and used pronominally, it furnished the conjunctive forms of the third person; when unstressed and used adjectively, it developed into a definite article. Ipse had similar uses. These differentiations must have begun in Vulgar Latin times.

116. The declension of ĭlle was considerably altered in Vulgar Latin. The neuter ĭllud disappeared, being replaced by ĭlium. Through the influence of quī cūjus cūī, ✱ĭllī illūjus[89] illūī[89] came to be used beside ĭlle illīus ĭllī. The feminine had, beside illīus ĭllī, a genitive and dative ĭllæ; through the analogy of illūjus illūī, ĭllæ was expanded into illæjus[89] illæi.[89] Illīus then went out of use. In the plural, illōrum (which in some regions, by the analogy of illūjus illūī, had a form ✱illūrum) crowded out illārum; this illōrum came to be used also as a dative.

Ipse and ĭste followed in the main the same course as ĭlle.

Articles.

117. The indefinite article comes from ūnus, which seems to have been occasionally so used even in classic Latin:—

ü(n)s	üna
ü(n)	üna

118. (1) The definite article comes from unaccented ĭlle, which, being used as a proclitic, regularly lost its first syllable (§ [19]). Ille (✱ĭllī), ĭllum, ĭllī, ĭllos, ĭlla, ĭllas became respectively le (li), lo, li or lhi,[90] los, la, las. Le, lo, li, lhi, la frequently elided their vowel before another vowel (l’an, l’arma), becoming l or lh. Furthermore, le, lo, li, lhi, los, in the intertonic position after a vowel (vé lo páire), regularly lost their vowel (vẹl páire)[91]; and, by analogy, la and las were sometimes reduced to l and ls. We have, then, beside the full forms, the proclitics l, lh, and the enclitics l, lh, ls. Inasmuch as l might be vocalized before a dental,[92] the enclitics l and ls sometimes became u and us (a͡u portęr, e͡uz dias antix).

(2) The particles e and que, with the enclitic l, formed combinations ẹl and quẹl. Quẹl, being understood as qu’el, gave rise to a form ẹl.

(3) In the f. nom. sg. there is a form li or lhi, which is hard to explain. The most likely theory is that when the masculine quī took the place of the feminine quæ (see § [133]), the masculine ✱ĭllī came to be used beside ĭlla,[93] for the feminine. The Provençal feminine li (lhi) which resulted was strongly supported by the analogy of a feminine possessive mi, beside ma (see § [127]).[94]

(4) The regular forms are, therefore, the following:—

		MASCULINE				FEMININE
Sg.	{nom.:	lẹ	li	l	ẹl	la	li	lhi	l	lh
Sg.	{obj.:	lọ	l	u	ẹl	la	l
Pl.	{nom.:	li	lhi	l	lh	las
Pl.	{obj.:	lọs	ls	us		las	ls

In many texts the objective forms lo, los, ls are used in the nominative.

1. The m. obj. sg. le, obj. pl. les, which occur in a few texts, are doubtless French. So is the enclitic form s for ls or us: de s, entre s, e s.

2. The enclitic forms combine as follows with the prepositions a, con, de, en, entre, iosta, per, sus, and with the conjunctions e, ni, o, que, si: al au als aus, col, del deu dels deus (des), enl el els eus, entrels, iostal, pel pels, sul suls; eil (= e lhi) el (= e lo), nils, oill (= o lhi), quel, sil. They combine freely with other words: eral (= era le), fals (= fa los), etc.

119. In some southwestern and some southeastern dialects we find forms sọ, sọs, sa, sas, coming from ĭpse.

Personal Pronouns.[95]

120. In Vulgar Latin ĕgo lost its g (§ [55], G). The dative, mĭhi, was preserved only in its contracted form, mī. After the pattern of mī, ✱tī and ✱sī were created for the other persons.

121. Provençal has no nominative forms that are regularly unaccented. In the conjunctive forms of the third person (not reflexive), the direct object is distinguished from the indirect; elsewhere there is no such distinction.

Conjunctive Forms.

122. Latin mē ＞ mẹ, mī ＞ mi, nōs ＞ nọs; tē ＞ tẹ, ✱tī ＞ ti, vōs ＞ vọs; sē ＞ sẹ, ✱sī ＞ si. Me mi, te ti, se si, used as proclitics before a vowel, or as enclitics after a vowel, were reduced to m, t, s: m’ama, t’apela, s’es; o͡m, be͡t, cosi͡s. Nọs and vọs, used as enclitics after a vowel, became respectively ns and us; que͡ns, no͡us; sī vōs ＞ sius, later sieus (§ [32]). The forms (all objective) for the first and second persons and for the third person reflexive are, then:—

	FIRST PERSON	SECOND PERSON	THIRD PERSON (REFLEXIVE)
Sg.:	mẹ mi m	tẹ ti t	sẹ si s
Pl.:	nọs ns	vọs us	sẹ si s

The pronouns of the first and second persons could, of course, be used reflexively.

123. The conjunctive forms of the third person (not reflexive) come in the main from the proclitic ĭlle: ĭllī, ĭllum, illōrum (✱illūrum), ĭllos, ĭlla, ĭllas became respectively li or lhi, lo, lọr (lür), lọs, la, las. When used proclitically or enclitically, under the conditions described in § [118], (1), li (lhi), lo, los were reduced to l (lh), l, ls; and l was sometimes vocalized. O ＜ hŏc was employed also, meaning ‘it.’ The adverb ĭnde became ẹnt ẹn n (and, through the analogy of me m, te t, se s, also ne), which was often used as a pronoun with the sense ‘of it’, ‘of them’, sometimes ‘of him’, ‘of her’; nọs ẹn ＞ nọn, vọs ẹn ＞ vọn. The adverb hīc became i, meaning ‘here’ or ‘there,’ which served also as a dative pronoun, ‘to it,’ ‘to them’; it was then always an enclitic, forming a diphthong with a preceding vowel; it regularly took the place of li in the constructions lọi = lo li, lai = la li. The forms are:—

MASCULINE

FEMININE

NEUTER

Sg.

{ gen.:

ẹnt

ẹn

nẹ

ẹnt

ẹn

nẹ

ẹnt

ẹn

nẹ

{ dat.:

lhi

{ acc.:

lọ

Pl.

{ gen.:

ẹnt

ẹn

nẹ

ẹnt

ẹn

nẹ

{ dat.:

lọr

lür

lọr

lür

{ acc.:

lọs

las

1. Les for los is doubtless French. Los, ls were occasionally used for m. lor; lors, which occurs rarely for lor, looks like a cross between lor and los.

2. The following combinations illustrate the use of the enclitic forms: aura i, be i, e l, laissa n, no i, qui ll, si ls.

Disjunctive Forms.

124. Vulgar Latin ✱ĕo or ✱ĕu ＞ ęu ięu (§ [30]), which before an enclitic became ę ię (ę͡l, ię͡n). The other forms explain themselves. The nominative tü, from the beginning of the 13th century, was sometimes used for tẹ after prepositions; this use may have been suggested by the existence of lü = ‘him’; § [125], (1). Nọs + ẹn ＞ nọn, vọs + ẹn ＞ vọn.

		FIRST PERSON				SECOND PERSON			THIRD PERSON (REFLEXIVE)
Sg.	{ nom.:	ęu	ięu	ę-	ię-	tü
Sg.	{ obj.:	mẹ	mi			tẹ	(ti?)	tü	sẹ	si
Pl.	{ nom.:	nọs				vọs
Pl.	{ obj.:	nọs				vọs			sẹ	si

1. We find, besides, the French or borderland forms ie iou iu yo for eu (gi and iey have been noted also), mei tei sei for me te se.

125. The disjunctive pronouns of the third person (not reflexive) come from accented ĭlle, with the exception of ǫ from hŏc. Illūi, illōrum, illæjus, illæi lost their first syllable, perhaps through elision after a vowel; illūjus disappeared. Ille, ✱ĭllī gave ẹl ẹlh, il ilh; ẹl sometimes vocalized its l. Illūī became lüi, in some dialects reduced to lü. Illum became ẹl ẹlh. Illōrum (✱illūrum) gave lọr (lür). Illos became ẹls (often ẹus) ẹlhs. Illa, ĭllam both gave ẹla ẹlha. Illæjus became lęis lięis (in some dialects reduced to lięs).[96] Illæi gave lęi (dialectically lę) lięi. Illas became ẹlas ẹlhas.

(2) In the feminine singular nominative there is, beside ẹla ẹlha, a form ilh il. This is probably to be explained, like the feminine article lhi li, as coming from the masculine nominative ✱ĭllī introduced into the feminine, and supported by the feminine possessive mi: see § [118], (3).

(3) Some dialects preserve the final -i of ẹli (m. pl. nom.) and ilhi ili (f. sg. nom.): see § [51], 1.

(4) Occasionally the conjunctive li (f. sg. obj.) and lo (neuter sg. nom.) were used as disjunctive forms. And sometimes the masculine lüi lü was used for the feminine.

(5) The forms are, therefore, the following:—

		MASCULINE	FEMININE	NEUTER
Sg.	{ nom.:	ẹl ẹu ẹlh il ilh	ẹla ẹlha ilh il ilhi ili	ẹl lọ
Sg.	{ obj.:	lüi lü ẹl ẹlh	lęis lięis lięs lęi lięi lę ẹla li lüi lü	ǫ
Pl.	{ nom.:	il ilh ẹl ẹlh ẹli	ẹlas ẹlhas
Pl.	{ obj.:	lọr lür ẹls ẹus ẹlhs	lọr lür ẹlas ẹlhas

In many texts the objective forms ẹls ẹlhs, lęis lęi are used in the nominative. We then find occasionally a new objective, ẹlses.

Possessives.

126. Beside mĕus mĕa, tŭus tŭa, sŭas sŭa, there existed in popular Latin the shorter forms ✱mĕs? ✱ma, ✱tŭs ✱ta, sŭs sa. Of the two forms vĕster and vŏster, only the latter was used. To supply the lack of a third person possessive denoting a plural possessor, illōrum came to be employed as a possessive.

Singular Possessive.

127. (1) The primarily atonic possessives come from the shorter Latin forms. The original masculine singular forms of the first person were displaced by mọs mọ, made on the analogy of tọs tọ, sọs sọ, which come regularly from ✱tŭs ✱tŭm, sŭs, sŭm; so in the objective plural we find mọs, corresponding to tọs ＜ ✱tōs, sọs ＜ sōs. Mĕī, tŭī, sŭī gave męi, tọi tüi, sọi süi (§ [34]), which, however, were often replaced by the objective forms. ✱Ma ✱mam ✱mas, ✱ta ✱tam ✱tas, sa sam sas became ma mas, ta tas, sa sas; ma, ta, sa often elided their a before a vowel. The formation of midons has been explained in § [91], (2); § [93], (2); § [118], (3): from it came a feminine singular possessive mi, and, by analogy, ti and si.

(2) The forms are:—

FIRST PERSON

SECOND PERSON

THIRD PERSON

Sg.

{ nom.:

mọs

tọs

sọs

{ obj.:

mọ

mọn

tọ

tọn

sọ

sọn

Pl.

{ nom.:

me̯i

mọs

mas

tọi

tüi

tọs

tas

sọi

süi

sọs

sas

{ obj.:

mọs

mas

tọs

tas

sọs

sas

They are generally used only adjectively, and without the definite article. In some early texts, however, tọs and sọs, preceded by the article, are used substantively.

128. (1) The primarily tonic possessives come from the longer Latin forms. Mĕus mĕum mĕi mĕos ＞ męus męu męi męus, which regularly became mięus etc. (§ [30]); an analogical form mięu is found beside mięi. In the feminine of the first person we have, instead of ✱męa, mięua and mia: the first of these two forms is evidently made up from the masculine; the second may be due partly to the analogy of mi, partly to a proclitic use of the word (§ [44], 4).[97] In the second and third persons the masculine forms are mainly, and the feminine forms partially, replaced by analogical formations based on the possessive of the first person; tŭi, sŭi, tŭa, sŭa, however, give regularly tọi tüi, sọi süi, tọa tua, sọa sua (§ [8]).

(2) The forms follow, those of the third person (which correspond exactly to those of the second) being omitted:—

		FIRST PERSON		SECOND PERSON
Sg.	{ nom.:	męus mięus	mia mięua	tęus tięus	tọa tua tięua tia
Sg.	{ obj.:	męu mięu	mia mięua	tęu tięu	tọa tua tięua tia
Pl.	{ nom.:	męi mięi mięu	mias mięuas	tọi tüi tęi tięi tięu	tọas tuas tięuas tias
Pl.	{ obj.:	męus mięus	mias mięuas	tęus tięus	tọas tuas tięuas tias

They may be used adjectively or substantively, with or without the definite article.

1. We occasionally find a neuter sg. nom. form without final -s: lo mieu.

Plural Possessor.

129. Nŏster, vŏster developed regularly after the pauper model: § [103], (1). The masculine singular nominative often took an -s: cf. § [96]; § [101], (1). Some southeastern dialects preserved the -i of nǫstri: cf. § [51], 1. Beside vǫstra we occasionally meet vǫstri, due to the analogy of feminine mi, ti, si.

		FIRST PERSON		SECOND PERSON		THIRD PERSON
Sg.	{ nom.:	nǫstre-s	nǫstra	vǫstre-s	vǫstra vǫstri	lọr lür	lọr lür
Sg.	{ obj.:	nǫstre	nǫstra	vǫstre	vǫstra vǫstri	lọr lür	lọr lür
Pl.	{ nom.:	nǫstre nǫstri	nǫstras	vǫstre	vǫstras	lọr lür	lọr lür
Pl.	{ obj.:	nǫstres	nǫstras	vǫstres	vǫstras	lọr lür	lọr lür

These forms are used adjectively or substantively, with or without the definite article.

1. In later times lor came to be inflected like a one-gender adjective: § [103], (2).

Demonstratives.

130. Latin īdem went out of use. Latin ĭs was preserved only in the phrase ĭd ĭpsum (ad ĭd ĭpsum ＞ adęs), and in the combination ĕccum, in which it ceased to be recognized, so that ĕccu’ was regarded as a synonym of ĕcce.

131. (1) The demonstrative particles ĕcce and ĕccu’ were often prefixed to pronouns in Vulgar Latin. Being thus proclitically used, they frequently lost their first syllable (§ [19]); sometimes, however, under the influence of ac (as in ac sīc ＞ aissi), they preserved it, assuming the vowel of ac: ecce ĭlla ＞ aicẹla, eccu’ ĭsta ＞ aquẹsta; cf. § [43], (2).

(2) The suffix -met was used in Vulgar Latin as an intensive prefix. Its change of place was probably due to such phrases as sēmet ĭpsum, understood as sē metĭpsum. The -t, before a vowel, regularly gives -d- (met-ĭpsum ＞ mẹdes); but we find, besides, -z- (＜ Lat. d), introduced perhaps through the analogy of ĭd in ĭd ĭpsum (✱medĭpsum ＞ mezẹis); and also -t- (＜ Lat. tt), which may be the result of a combination of met- and ĭd- (met-ĭd-ĭpsum ＞ ✱metdĭpsu ＞ metẹis).

132. The pronouns preserved, either in their simple form or combined with a prefix, are the following:—

(1) Of hīc only the neuter, hŏc, was kept Hŏc ＞ ǫ; ecce hŏc ＞ aiçǫ aissǫ, and çǫ so; eccu’ hŏc ＞ aquŏ acŏ. All of these are invariable.

(2) Ipse appears as ẹps ẹpsa, ẹus ẹussa, ẹis ẹissa (with a m. pl. ẹisses and a neuter ẹis); the last forms are the commonest; for the development of the ps, see § [79] and § [80], Ps. Met-ĭpse gives (medips) medẹs, (metẹish) metẹis, and, more commonly, mezẹis (f. mezẹissa, neuter mezẹis); see § [131], (2). ✱Met-ĭpsĭmus becomes medẹsme-s, mesẹsme-s, meẹsme-s (§ [65], D), with feminine forms in -a. Unaccented ĭpsum is probably one source of the neuter sǫ: cf. § [132], (1). For the article (so, sa), see § [119].

(3) Ille, uncombined, developed into an article (§ [118]) and a personal pronoun (§§ [123], [125]), but went out of use as a demonstrative. Combined with ecce and eccu’ it gave: aicẹl aissẹl, cẹl, sẹl; aquẹl. Echẹl (pronounced ekẹl?) seems to come from eccu’ ĭlle with its original initial vowel preserved. Ipse ĭlle perhaps gave rise also to a sẹl, which ultimately coincided with the form coming from ecce ĭlle. There is a neuter aicelo, perhaps aicẹl + ǫ. Cẹl will illustrate the inflection of all these words; the forms are to be explained like those of the disjunctive personal pronoun (§ [125]):—

MASCULINE

FEMININE

Sg.

{nom.:

cẹl

cẹu

cẹlh

cẹls [98]

cellüi

cẹla

celha

cil

cilh

cilha [99]

{obj.:

cẹl

cẹu

cẹlh

cellüi

cẹla

cẹlha

celęi

celęis

celięis

cilh

Pl.

{nom.:

cil

cilh

cẹlh

cẹls [100]

cẹlas

cẹlhas

{obj.:

cẹls

cẹlhs [101]

cẹlas

cẹlhas

(4) Iste gave ẹst, ẹstz, ẹsta, ẹstas. Ecce ĭste became aicẹst (not common) and cẹst sẹst; eccu’ ĭste became aquẹst echẹst, and chẹst. Aquẹst will illustrate the inflection; the forms are to be explained like those of cẹl:—

		MASCULINE		FEMININE
Sg.	{nom.:	aquẹst		aquẹsta	aquist	aquisti
Sg.	{obj.:	aquẹst		aquẹsta
Pl.	{nom.:	aquist	aquisti	aquẹstas
Pl.	{obj.:	aquẹstz	aquẹtz	aquẹstas

Interrogatives and Relatives.

133. The interrogative and relative pronouns were confused and combined in Vulgar Latin, quī taking the place of quĭs, and quĭd gradually encroaching on quŏd. Furthermore, the masculine forms were used instead of the feminine, which disappeared. We have in Provençal no evidence of the survival of any other cases than the nominative, dative, and accusative singular and the nominative plural:—

		MASCULINE AND FEMININE		NEUTER
Sg.	{nom.:	quī	＞ qui	quĭd	＞ que, (before vowel) quez
	{dat.:	cūī	＞ cüi	cūī	＞ cüi
	{acc.:	quĕm	＞ que	quĭd	＞ que, (before vowel) quez
Pl.	nom.:	quī	＞ qui	quæ	＞ que

The distinction between que ＜ quĕm, que quez ＜ quĭd, and que ＜ quæ could not be maintained; we have, then, simply three forms: a nom. sg. or pl. qui, a nom.-acc. sg. or pl. quẹ (quẹz), a dat. sg. or pl. cüi (sometimes written qui).

134. We have also qualis, which came to be inflected like fezẹls: see § [103], (2); the feminine singular, however, often dropped its -s, and sometimes took the ending -a (cal, cala). Quīnam apparently became quina, which, understood as a feminine form, developed a masculine, quin. There seems to have been also a ✱quīniam (cf. quŏniam?), which gave quinh, quinha. Cf. D. Behrens in the Zeitschrift für französische Sprache, XVII, ii, 67-8, footnote. The phrase de ŭnde became dọnt, dọn, which was often used with the meaning ‘of which’, ‘of whom’.

135. (1) In Provençal the interrogative pronouns are: qui, ‘who’ or ‘whom’; que quez, ‘what’; cüi, ‘to whom’ or ‘whom’, ‘to what’ or ‘what’ (obj.); cals (either alone or preceded by the definite article, inflected as in § [134]), ‘which’; quin quinh, quina quinha, ‘which’. Cals is used also as an adjective.

(2) The relative pronouns are: qui, ‘one who’, indefinite (used also, in early texts and in southwestern Languedoc, as the regular relative pronoun for persons); que quez, ‘who’ or ‘whom’, ‘which’; cüi, ‘whom’, ‘which’ (generally used as indirect object of a verb, or after a preposition); lo cals (inflected as in § [134]), ‘who’ (‘whom’), ‘which’; don dont, ‘of which’, ‘of whom’.

Indefinite Pronouns and Adjectives.

136. The following words call for special mention:—

(1) Alcüs ＜ ✱alĭqu’ ūnus = alĭquī ūnus, ‘someone’. Inflection: alcüs, alcü(n); alcüna.

(2) Alquant ＜ aliquantum, aliquanti, ‘somewhat’, ‘some’; diminutive, alquantet.

(3) Alques alque ＜ alĭquĭd, used as an invariable neuter pronoun or adverb, ‘something’, ‘somewhat’. The -s form, which originally developed before a vowel, was preferred because of the analogy of other neuter pronouns and adverbs. The preservation of the e is due to association with quez que. Alque was sometimes used as an adjective.

(4) Als al au, used as an invariable neuter pronoun, ‘something else’. Al (au) may have been detached from alques, understood as al ques. Meyer-Lübke, however, takes it, as well as Old French el, from ✱alum = aliud: Gram., II, p. 649. Als owes its -s to the analogy of other neuter pronouns, such as alques, ẹis, mais, męlhs, mẹns, pęis, etc.

(5) Altre autre ＜ alter, ‘other’, pronoun and adjective. A dative ✱altrūī, following illūī, goes back to Vulgar Latin. The Provençal forms autrüs, autrü show the influence of alcüs and negüs; autri belongs to the southeastern dialects (cf. aquẹli, ẹli, nǫstri, tüti, etc.). Inflection:—

		MASCULINE			FEMININE
Sg.	{nom.:	autre	autres	autrüs	autra
Sg.	{obj.:	autre	autrüi	autrü	autra
Pl.	{nom.:	autre	autri		autras
Pl.	{obj.:	autres			autras

(6) Altretals autretals ＜ alter talis; by dissimilation, atretals: by substitution of ai- (first syllable of aissi ＜ ac sīc) for atre-, aitals; by fusion of aitals and atretals, aitretals; through analogy of atressi, atrestals. Cf. § [74], 2. Inflection like that of cals (§ [134]).

(7) Altretan atretan aitan atrestan etc. ＜ alter + tantum: see altretals.

(8) Cada un ＜ κατά + ūnum,‘every one’. The Greek preposition κατά was introduced into the Latin territory, probably by Greek merchants, in stating prices: καθ᾽ἕνα = cata ūnum, κατά τρεῐς = cata trēs; hence cada ün, cada trẹi. Inflection: cada üs, cada ü(n); cada üna.

(9) Calacom qualacom qualaquom, ‘something’, ‘a little’, seems to be a Provençal compound of cal and acǫ (§ [132]), the last syllable of which was perhaps understood as cọm cọ ＜ quōmŏ(do). Cf. quezacom below. There is a diminutive calacomet, which helped to maintain the m of calacom.

(10) Cals que quals que, cal que qual que, ‘whoever’, is a Provençal compound.

(11) Cant quant can quan ＜ quantum quanti, ‘how much’, ‘how many’. Cant, inflected like bęl (§ [103]), is used also as an adjective and as a masculine and feminine pronoun.

(12) Cascüs chascüs, ‘everyone’, ‘every’, appears to be a fusion of cada üs and ✱cescüs ＜ ✱cisqu’ ūnus = quĭsque ūnus = ūnus quĭsque. Inflection: cascüs, cascü(n); cascüna.

(13) Ent en n ne ＜ ĭnde,‘some’: cf. § [123].

(14) Maint mant man manh ＜ Celtic ✱mantî, ‘many’, ‘many a’, ‘many a one’. Obj. pl. in -s, f. sg. in -a, f. pl. in -as.

(15) Molt mout mot mul mon ＜ mŭltum, ‘much’. For mọt, mul, mọn, see § [74], (2) and § [74], 1. Mọlt, inflected like bęl (§ [103]), is used also as an adjective and as a masculine and feminine pronoun.

(16) Negüs ＜ nĕc ūnus, ‘no one’. Inflection: negüs, negü(n); negüna. Beside negün we find degün, apparently through dissimilation.

(17) Nüls ＜ nūllus, ‘no’, ‘none’. Inflection: nüls, nül, nül, nülh, nüls; nüla, nülas. From nülh ＜ nūllī comes a set of forms with lh: see § [67], (2). Hence, by metathesis suggested by the analogy of negün, lhün. A fusion of nülh and lhün results in lünh, whence a set of forms with nh.

(18) Om ＜ hŏmo, ‘one’.

(19) Pauc ＜ paucum, pauci, ‘little’, ‘few’. There is also a regular adjective, paucs, ‘small’.

(20) Que que, ‘whatever’, is a Provençal compound.

(21) Quecs ＜ quĭsquis (§ [78], 2), ‘everyone’. From quẹcs were formed an objective quẹc and a feminine quẹga (cf. amics amic amiga).

(22) Quesacom (diminutive quesacomet), ‘something’, ‘a little’, is formed like calacọm above, the first element in this case being either quẹs ＜ quĭd or quẹ s = quẹ es.

(23) Qui que, ‘whoever’, is a Provençal compound.

(24) Res re, ‘anything’, ‘something’.

(25) Tals ＜ talis, ‘such’, inflected like cals (§ [134]).

(26) Tamanh ＜ tam magnum, ‘so great’; f. tamanha.

(27) Tant tan ta ＜ tantum, tanti, ‘so much’, ‘so many’. Tant, inflected like bęl (§ [103]), is used also as an adjective and as a masculine and feminine pronoun.

(28) Totz ＜ tōttus = tōtus (Gram., I, § 547), ‘all’, had a regular inflection: tọtz, tọt, tọt, tọtz; tọta, tọtas. In the masculine nominative plural, however, we find oftener the forms tüch tüich tüit tüt tüti, which point to a Latin ✱tūctī (cf. Italian tutti); for this no satisfactory explanation has been discovered (see Nigra, Rom., XXXI, 525). Hence we occasionally have in the singular tütz, tüt, and in the objective plural tügz tütz; the last form occurs also as a nominative plural. Tọt is frequently used as a neuter pronoun and as an adverb.

(29) Üs, ‘some’; from ūnus, used as an indefinite adjective or pronoun, we have the plural forms; ü(n), ü(n)s; ünas.