The Dynamic or Process Relations of the Animal
1. General Physiology and Development.
2. A Selection of Physiological and Ecological Papers.
3. Animal Behavior as a Process.
4. A List of Selected Reviews and Bibliographies.
5. A Selection of References on Life Histories and Behavior.
“Seeing, then, that in all cases we may consider the external phenomena as simply in relation, and the internal phenomena also as simply in relation; the broadest and most complete definition of Life will be—The continuous adjustment of internal relations to external relations.”—Herbert Spencer.
“It is of the utmost importance, if we are to understand the behavior of organisms, that we think of them as dynamic—as processes, rather than as structures. The animal is something happening.”—H. S. Jennings (1907).
Not only is the environment subject to an orderly sequence of changes, but this same law applies with equal thoroughness to the living animal itself. The animal is an agent which transforms, in “an orderly sequence,” by its processes of metabolism, both energy and substance, resulting in growth, differentiation, multiplication, and behavior. These activities take place in an orderly manner and are dependent upon both energy and substance derived from the environment. For these reasons the processes or changes in metabolism, growth, development, and behavior, in so far as they are responses to the orderly sequence of environmental changes, are ecological problems. The changes in behavior during the life of the animal or the development of its behavior give one of the main clues to the physiological conditions which determine some of the most characteristic forms of responses, and finally as a result of all these activities and processes of adjustment to the conditions of life, a relatively mature and adjusted condition of the struggle for existence in animals and associations may be reached, the culmination of animal harmonies. For this reason studies in modifications of behavior are of fundamental ecological importance, because they consider behavior not only as ready-made, but also in the process of making. Such considerations as these make it desirable to include some of the most valuable and suggestive books and papers which deal with those general physiological processes influencing growth, development, multiplication, and behavior, and particularly those which aid one in realizing their order or successive changes, or “orderly sequence.”
In studying the activities of the individual animal, the normal environment to which it is attuned forms the natural unit or basis for study. All processes which modify or change such an optimum will stimulate the animal, cause responses and adjustments. There are many degrees or stages in the development of these optima which change with the functional rhythms and with the development of the animal. There are those conditions which influence the activity of certain functions or organs; those which influence the general vital processes in general, the vital optimum; those which appear to condition the best development of certain families, genera, etc.; and finally those of animal associations. Of course these grade imperceptibly into one another, and a single animal may in its development, traverse all of these stages in the development of its associational optimum. Optima thus have histories, and their development and laws of transformation are of the most fundamental ecological importance (Adams, 1904, 1909; Blackman, 1905, 1906; Shelford, 1911, 1912).
In the selection of these papers I have been guided by several considerations. Studies of common animals are given preference, also those papers which by their method of treatment and point of view are especially suggestive and may act as models for further study, and particularly those papers which treat of the activities from the standpoint of their changes, cycles, modifiability, and development. It is to such papers that we must look for suggestions regarding the methods or processes of adjustment between the animal and the environment. All of these papers are not equally ecological, but all will be of much utility in ecological work.
(General works are listed first, followed by special papers arranged alphabetically.)
1. General Physiology and Development
Verworn, M.
1899. General Physiology. pp. 615. New York.
A very good general summary, but somewhat out of date. There is a German edition of 1909 (fifth).
Rosenthal, J.
1901. Lehrbuch der Allgemeinen Physiologie. pp. 616. Leipzig.
Fürth, O. von.
1903. Vergleichende chemische Physiologic der niederen Tiere. pp. 670. Jena.
An excellent general work. Indispensable. Full references.
Pütter, A.
1911. Vergleichende Physiologie. pp. 721. Jena.
Winterstein, H. (Editor).
1910. Handbuch der vergleichenden Physiologie. (To be completed in four volumes.) Jena.
Hammarsten, O. (Trans. by J. A. Mandel.)
1911. A Text-Book of Physiological Chemistry. Sixth Edition, pp. 964. New York.
Davenport, C. B.
1908. Experimental Morphology, pp. 509. New York.
Excellent summaries and full references to the influence of various stimuli upon growth and upon protoplasm.
Loeb, J.
1906. The Dynamics of Living Matter. pp. 233. New York.
Przibram, H.
1910. Experimental-Zoologie. 3. Phylogenese. pp. 315. Leipzig and Vienna.
Jennings, H. S.
1906. Behavior of the Lower Organisms, pp. 366. New York.
The general chapters are particularly helpful.
Morgan, T. H.
1907. Experimental Zoölogy, pp. 454. New York.
Summaries of a variety of experimental studies.
Semper, K.
1881. Animal Life as Affected by the Natural Conditions of Existence. pp. 472. New York.
“‘The Physiology of Organisms,’ in contradistinction to the Physiology of Organs, ... [is] that branch of animal biology which regards the species of animals as actualities and investigates the reciprocal relations which adjust the balance between the existence of any species and the natural, external conditions of its existence, in the widest sense of the term.” p. 33.
Jensen, P.
1907. Organische Zweckmässigkeit, Entwicklung und Vererbung vom Standpunkt der Physiologie. Jena. pp. 251.
Vernon, H. M.
1903. Variation in Animals and Plants. pp. 415. London.
Varigny, H. de.
1892. Experimental Evolution, pp. 271. New York.
Bachmetjew, P.
1901-1907. Experimentelle entomologische Studien vom physikalisch-chemischen Standpunkt aus. Bd. I. Temperaturverhältnisse bei Insekten. pp. 160. Leipzig. 1901. Bd. II. Einfluss der Ausseren Faktoren auf Insekten. pp. 944. Sophia. 1907.
An extremely valuable index to environmental influences upon insects. Numerous summaries.
Herrick, C. L.
1906. Applications of Dynamic Theory to Physiological Problems. Jour. Comp. Neurol. and Psychol., Vol. XVI, pp. 362-375.
Richards, H. M.
1910. On the Nature of Response to Chemical Stimulation. Science, N. S., Vol. XXXI, pp. 52-62.
Schäfer, E. A.
1912. The Nature, Origin and Maintenance of Life. Science, N. S., Vol. XXXVI, pp. 289-312.
Baskerville, C.
1905. Life and Chemistry. Science, N. S., Vol. XXI, pp. 641-648.
Morgan, T. H.
1910. Chance or Purpose in the Origin and Evolution of Adaptation. Science, N. S., Vol. XXXI, pp. 201-210.
Mathews, A. P.
1905. A Theory of the Nature of Protoplasmic Respiration and Growth. Biol. Bull., Vol. VIII, pp. 331-346.
Jennings, H. S.
1912. Age, Death and Conjugation in the Light of Work on Lower Organisms. Pop. Sci. Mo., Vol. LXXX, pp. 563-577.
Death is due to differentiation and not to a “running down” of the organism.
Lillie, F. R.
1909. The Theory of Individual Development. Pop. Sci. Mo., Vol. LXXV, pp. 239-252.
Holmes, S. J.
1904. The Problem of Form Regulation. Archiv für Entwickelungsmechanik der Organismen (Roux), Bd. XVII, pp. 265-305.
1907. Regeneration as Functional Adjustment. Jour. Exp. Zoöl., Vol. IV, pp. 419-430.
Wilson, E. B.
1905. The Problem of Development. Science, N. S., Vol. XXI, pp. 281-294.
Sherrington, C. S.
1906. The Integrative Action of the Nervous System. pp. 411. New York.
The activity of the nervous system is viewed as a regulatory process.
The similar responses to diverse stimuli or the similar results produced by diverse causes are the conditions which make an analysis and the isolation of causes necessary. With departures from the normal and optimum into zones of stimulation and of unfavorable conditions many similar effects or results are produced. The similar results of extremes of high and low temperature as shown in Fischer’s experiments on Lepidoptera, and the effects of high temperatures, aridity, and the lack of oxygen may be cited as examples. Such effects have an important bearing upon the subject of physical and chemical limiting factors which influence individuals, aggregations, and associations.
Blackman, F. F.
1905. Optima and Limiting Factors. Ann. of Bot., Vol. XIX, pp. 281-295.
“When a process is conditioned as to its rapidity by a number of separate factors, the rate of the process is limited by the pace of the ‘slowest’ factor.” p. 289.
1908. The Manifestations of the Principles of Chemical Mechanics in the Living Plant. British Assoc. Adv. Sci., 1908, pp. 1-18.
Adams, Chas. C.
1904. On the Analogy Between the Departure from Optimum Vital Conditions and Departure from Geographic Life Centers. Science, N. S., Vol. XIX, pp. 210-211.
Greeley, A. W.
1901. On the Analogy Between the Effects of Loss of Water and Lowering of Temperature. Amer. Jour. Physiol., Vol. VI, pp. 122-128.
Zoethout, W. D.
1899. On Some Analogies Between the Physiological Effects of High Temperature, Lack of Oxygen, and Certain Poisons. Amer. Jour. Physiol., Vol. II, pp. 220-242.
Lyon, E. P.
1902. Effects of Potassium Cyanide and of Lack of Oxygen upon the Fertilized Eggs and the Embryos of the Sea-Urchin (Arbacia punctulata). Amer. Jour. Physiol., Vol. VII, pp. 56-75.
Packard, W. H.
1905. On Resistance to Lack of Oxygen and on a Method of Increasing this Resistance. Amer. Jour. Physiol., Vol. XV, pp. 30-41.
1907. The Effect of Carbohydrates on Resistance to Lack of Oxygen. Amer. Jour. Physiol., Vol. XVIII, pp. 164-180.
Fischer, E.
1903. Lepidopterologische Experimental-Forschungen. III. Allgem. Zeit. für Entomologie, Bd. VIII, pp. 221-228.
These experiments illustrate in a very striking manner how abnormally high and low temperatures produce the same kind of effect or response.
2. A Selection of Physiological and Ecological Papers
(Alphabetically arranged)
Clessin, S.
1897. Über den Einfluss der Umgebung auf die Gehäuse der Schnecken. Württemberg naturw. Jahreshefte 53, pp. 68-86.
Colton, H. S.
1908. Some Effects of Environment on the Growth of Lymnaea columella Say. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1908, pp. 410-448.
Keller, C.
1887. Humusbildung und Bodenkultur unter dem Einfluss tierischer Thätigkeit.
Not seen.
Knauthe, K.
1898. Zur Kenntnis des Stoffwechsels der Fische. Archiv f. d. gesammte Physiol. (Pflüger), Bd. LXXIII, pp. 490-500.
Lang, A.
1888. Über den Einfluss der festsitzenden Lebensweise auf die Thiere und über den Ursprung der ungeschlichtlichen Fortpflanzung durch Theilung und Knospung. pp. 166. Jena.
Locard, A.
1892. L’Influence des Milieux sur le Développement des Mollusques. pp. 140. Lyon.
Marshall, F. H.
1910. The Physiology of Reproduction. pp. 706. London.
Miller, N.
1909. The American Toad (Bufo lentiginosus americanus Le Conte). Amer. Nat., Vol. XLIII, pp. 641-668, 730-745.
A study of the natural history of a single species.
Riddle, O.
1909. The Rate of Digestion in Cold-Blooded Vertebrates,—The Influence of Season and Temperature. Amer. Jour. Physiol., Vol. XXIV, pp. 447-458.
Russell, E. S.
1908. Environmental Studies on the Limpet. Proc. Zoöl. Soc., London, 1907, pp. 856-870.
Schiemenz, P.
1911. Vergleichung der Fruchtbarkeit von Seen und Flussen. Aus deutscher Fischerei. pp. 75-82. Neudamm.
A comparison of the relative productivity of fish in standing and running water environments.
Shelford, V. E.
1911. Physiological Animal Geography. Jour. Morph., Vol. XXII, pp. 551-618.
An important paper. Explains the habitats and distribution of animals as due to physiological responses and characters. The dynamic and genetic standpoint of the present writer (p. 555) is erroneously contrasted with a physiological process. The dynamic includes all processes, the physiologic process is a species of this genus. The genetic is the application of processes to explain origins. The responsive and functional processes are dynamic in character.
1912. Ecological Succession. V. Aspects of Physiological Classification. Biol. Bull., Vol. XXIII, pp. 331-370.
Further studies along the lines of the preceding paper.
Vire, A.
1896. Modifications Produced in the Organs of Sense and of Nutrition in Certain Arthropods by Confinement in Caves. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (6), Vol. XVII, pp. 407-408.
Vosseler, J.
1902. Über Anpassung und chemische Vertheidigungs mittel bei nordafrikanischen Orthopteren. Verh. Deutsch. Zool. Gesell. 1902, pp. 108-120.
1902-1903. Beiträge zur Faunistik und Biologie der Orthopteren Algeriens und Tunesiens. Zool. Jahrb. Abteilung f. Syst. Geog. u. Biol. der Tiere, Bd. XVI, pp. 337-404; Bd. XVII, pp. 1-98.
3. Animal Behavior as a Process
“The actual method of work is to first watch the organism under its natural environment, until one finds out all things it does. Then the environment is changed a little, to see what difference this makes in the behavior. We thus try all sorts of different ways of getting the animal to change its behavior,—including the application of definite chemical and physical reagents of most varied character.... We thus try to find the organism’s system of behavior and the things that influence it,—becoming acquainted with the creature as we might get acquainted with a person with whom we are thrown much in contact.”—H. S. Jennings (1910).
“My object being the study of the correlative instincts of the young and adult in relation to all that could be learned about them in a natural environment, I have followed my usual custom of going out to the birds, instead of taking them into the laboratory. The facts which the laboratory can be made to yield are invaluable, but they belong to a different class from those for which we are now mainly in search, behavior under the usual or normal conditions.”—F. H. Herrick (1910).
“As will be seen, these studies include both field and laboratory work, especially of the American species, and I have made the field work emphatic wherever at all practicable. I have elsewhere (1909, p. 157) [Jour. Exp. Zoöl., Vol. VII] emphasized the crying need for larger attention to this phase of experimental work, believing that in many cases it is all but impossible to secure trustworthy results as to behavior of animals where the work has been done under such unusual, unnatural and artificial conditions as most laboratory provisions afford. What right has one to assume that the actions of an animal taken rudely from its natural habitat and as rudely imprisoned in some improvised cage are in any scientific sense an expression of its normal behavior, either physical or psychical? Is it within the range of the calculus of probability that conclusions drawn from observations made upon an animal in the shallow confines of a finger-bowl, but whose habitat has been the open sea, are wholly trustworthy? It is no part of my purpose to discredit the laboratory or laboratory appliances as related to such investigations. They are indispensable. But at the same time let it be recognized that they are at best but artificial make-shifts whose values, unless checked up by constant appeal to nature, must be taken at something of discount.... It seems to the writer that until one has been able to place his specimens under conditions approximating the natural, or has at least brought them to a state of semi-domestication, where in food-taking, evidence of health, etc., they are at ease, he has small right to dogmatize as to conclusions, or presume to make such conclusions the basis of so-called laws of behavior. Not a little of recent investigation along the lines of behavior has been vitiated at just this point, and must be repeated to be made trustworthy. The amazing mass of contradictory results which has loaded the literature of recent years is attributable to some extent to this misfortune.”—C. W. Hargitt (1912).
“We are apt to contrast the extremes of instinct and intelligence, to emphasize the blindness and inflexibility of the one and the consciousness and freedom of the other. It is like contrasting the extremes of light and dark and forgetting all the transitional degrees of twilight.... Instinct is blind; so is the highest human wisdom blind. The distinction is one of degree. There is no absolute blindness on the one side, and no absolute wisdom on the other.”—C. O. Whitman (1899).
The precedence here given to changes in behavior is in harmony with the emphasis which is put upon processes and genetic phases or sequences throughout this book. As Holmes (1905, p. 108) has well pointed out, behavior consists of relatively fixed and relatively changeable responses, with intergradations. There are thus two avenues of approach which he sums up as follows (p. 112): “In the trial and error method the random character of the movement impresses us most; in the tropisms, the element of direct determination by the environment. Both of these factors run through the behavior of all animals, but they are mingled in various proportions in different forms. In the lives of most, if not all animals both are essential elements in the adjustment of the organism to its conditions of existence.” And in regard to those responses which do not change in form with experience, he says (p. 106): “The element of spontaneous undirected activity is one of vast if not essential importance in the life of nearly all animals. The simpler animals profit by their varied experience, although they may not learn, and thus secure some of the advantages which it is generally considered the special function of intelligence to confer.” Thus to the ecologist studying the sequences of changes in the environment, and changes in the organism, it is but natural and consistent for him to apply the same methods to behavior, in order to facilitate their mutual relations and aid in their interpretation. In a study of the environment we also have the relatively stable elements and the relatively rapidly changing ones, and any adequate understanding of animals must correlate these four variables: two relatively changing, one in the organism and one in the environment; and two others relatively stable, one in the organism and the other in the environment.
Jennings, H. S.
1905. The Method of Regulation in Behavior and in Other Fields. Jour. Exp. Zoöl., Vol. II, pp. 473-494.
Holmes, S. J.
1905. The Selection of Random Movements as a Factor in Phototaxis. Jour. Comp. Neurol. and Psychol., Vol. XV, pp. 98-112.
Jennings, H. S.
1905. Modifiability in Behavior. I. Behavior of Sea Anemones. Jour. Exp. Zoöl., Vol. II, pp. 447-472.
1906. Modifiability in Behavior, II. Factors Determining Direction and Character of Movement in the Earthworm. Jour. Exp. Zoöl., Vol. III, pp. 435-455.
1906. Behavior of the Lower Organisms, pp. 366. New York.
1907. Behavior of the Starfish (Asterias Forreri De Loriol). Univ. Calif. Pub. Zoöl., Vol. IV, pp. 53-185.
Walter, H. E.
1907. The Reactions of Planarians to Light. Jour. Exp. Zoöl., Vol. V, pp. 35-162.
Yerkes, R. M.
1901. The Formation of Habits in the Turtle. Pop. Sci. Mo., Vol. LVIII, pp. 519-525.
Pearl, R.
1904. On the Behavior and Reactions of Limulus in Early Stages of its Development. Jour. Comp. Neurol. and Psychol., Vol. XIV, pp. 138-164.
Hadley, P. B.
1908. The Behavior of the Larval and Adolescent Stages of the American Lobster (Homarus Americanus). Jour. Comp. Neurol. and Psychol., Vol. XVIII, pp. 199-301.
Mayer, A. G., and Soule, C. G.
1906. Some Reactions of Caterpillars and Moths. Jour. Exp. Zoöl., Vol. III, pp. 415-433.
Craig, W.
1908. The Voices of Pigeons Regarded as a Means of Social Control. Amer. Jour. Sociol., Vol. XIV, pp. 86-100.
Herrick, F. H.
1912. Organization of the Gull Community. Proc. Seventh Inter. Zoöl. Cong., Boston, 1907, pp. 156-158.
Yerkes, A. W.
1906. Modifiability of Behavior in Hydroides Dianthus V. Jour. Comp. Neurol. and Psychol., Vol. XVI, pp. 441-449.
Yerkes, R. M., and Huggins, G. E.
1903. Habit Formation in the Crawfish, Cambarus affinis. Psychol. Rev.; Series of Monog. Suppl., Vol. IV, No. I; Harvard Psychol. Studies, Vol. I, pp. 565-577.
Yerkes, R. M.
1905. Animal Psychology and the Criteria of the Psychic. Jour. Phil., Psychol., and Sci. Methods, Vol. II, pp. 141-149.
1905. Concerning the Genetic Relations of Types of Action. Jour. Comp. Neurol. and Psychol., Vol. XV, pp. 132-137.
Allee, W. C.
1912. An Experimental Analysis of the Relation between Physiological States and Rheotaxis in Isopoda. Jour. Exp. Zoöl., Vol. XIII, pp. 269-344.
A study of the responses of pond and stream Isopods to natural and experimental conditions.
Washburn, M. F.
1908. The Animal Mind. pp. 333. New York.
For modifications of behavior by experience see pp. 205-269. Also many references on behavior.
4. A List of Selected Reviews and Bibliographies
1911. [Reviews of papers on animal behavior for 1910.] Jour. Animal Behavior, Vol. I, pp. 393-455, 465-470.
Reviews by Holmes, Turner, Wheeler, Watson, and Bohn.
Jennings, H. S.
1909. The Work of J. von Uexkuell on the Physiology of Movements and Behavior. Jour. Comp. Neurol. and Psychol., Vol. XIX, pp. 313-336.
Congdon, E. D.
1908. Recent Studies upon the Locomotor Responses of Animals to White Light. Jour. Comp. Neurol. and Psychol., Vol. XVIII, pp. 309-328.
Mast, S. O.
1910. Literature of the Past Year on the Behavior of Lower Organisms. Psychol. Bull., Vol. VII, pp. 267-280.
1911. Recent Literature on the Behavior of the Lower Invertebrates. Psychol. Bull., Vol. VIII, pp. 263-277.
Yerkes, R. M.
1906. George Bohn’s Studies in Animal Behavior. Jour. Comp. Neurol. and Psychol., Vol. XVI, pp. 231-238.
Washburn, M. F.
1908. French Work in Comparative Psychology for the Past Two Years. Jour. Comp. Neurol. and Psychol., Vol. XVIII, pp. 511-520.
Washburn, M. F. (Editor).
1912. Comparative Psychology Number. Psychol. Bull., Vol. IX, No. 8, pp. 281-313.
Reviews by Pearse, Turner, and Washburn.
Coues, E.
1877. Monograph of North American Rodentia. Rep. U. S. Geol. Surv. Terr. (Hayden), Vol. XI.
Contains on pp. 255-264 and 951-1081 an extensive bibliography of North American mammals, and includes much on their habits.
5. A Selection of References on Life Histories and Behavior
(Alphabetically arranged)
Andrews, E. A.
1906. Egg-laying of Crayfish. Amer. Nat., Vol. XL, pp. 343-356.
1904. Breeding Habits of Crayfish. Amer. Nat., Vol. XXXVIII, pp. 165-206.
Baker, F. C.
1911. Ecology of Lymnæas. pp. 19-51. Lymnæidæ of North and Middle America Recent and Fossil. Special Pub. No. 3, Chicago Acad. Sciences.
Banta, A. M.
1910. A Comparison of the Reactions of a Species of Surface Isopod with those of a Subterranean Species. Jour. Exp. Zoöl., Vol. VIII, Part I, Experiments with Light, pp. 243-310; Part II, pp. 439-488.
Belding, D. L., and Lane, F. C.
1909. The Shellfisheries of Massachusetts: their Present Condition and Extent. Report upon the Mollusk Fisheries of Massachusetts, pp. 16-233. Boston.
Contains some excellent photographs of the habitat.
1910. A Report upon the Scallop Fishery of Massachusetts, including the Habits, Life History of Pecten irradians, its Rate of Growth, and Other Facts of Economic Value. pp. 150. Boston.
1911. The Life History and Growth of the Quahaug (Venus mercenaria). Rep. Mass. Comm. Fisheries and Game for 1910, pp. 18-128. Boston.
These papers are examples of applied ecology, and contain much on the life histories and habits of these mollusks.
Bendire, C.
1892. Life Histories of North American Birds with Special Reference to their Breeding Habits and Eggs, with Twelve Lithographic Plates. Smithsonian Inst., Special Bull. No. 1. pp. 414.
1895. Life Histories of North American Birds, from the Parrots to the Grackles, with Special Reference to their Breeding Habits and Eggs. Smithsonian Inst., Special Bull. pp. 508.
Blackwall, J.
1873. Researches in Zoölogy. London.
Not seen by writer.
Böving, A. G.
1910. Natural History of the Larvæ of Donaciinæ. Inter. Revue der gesamten Hydrobiol. u. Hydrog., Bd. III, Biol. Suppl., Heft I, pp. 1-108.
Buttel-reepen, H. Von. (Trans. by M. H. Geisler.)
1907. Are Bees Reflex Machines? Experimental Contribution to the Natural History of the Honey-bee. pp. 48. Medina, Ohio.
Calkins, M. W.
1905. The Limits of Genetic and of Comparative Psychology. Jour. of Psychol., Vol. I, pp. 261-285; Inter. Cong. of Arts and Sciences, St. Louis, Vol. V, pp. 712-734.
Carpenter, F. W.
1908. Some Reactions of Drosophila, with Special Reference to Convulsive Reflexes. Jour. Comp. Neurol. and Psych., Vol. XVIII, pp. 483-491.
1910. Feeding Reactions of the Rose Coral (Isophyllia). Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts and Sciences, Vol. XLVI, pp. 149-162.
Casteel, D. B.
1911. The Discriminative Ability of the Painted Turtle. Jour. Animal Behavior, Vol. I, pp. 1-28.
Clarke, W. E.
1912. Studies in Bird Migration. Vol. I, pp. 323; Vol. II, pp. 346. London.
Bird migration may be studied as a response of the animals to the conditions of their life, and the above work is a good example of the best kind of work being done along this line.
Cole, L. J.
1907. An Experimental Study of the Image-Forming Powers of Various Types of Eyes. Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts and Sci., Vol XLII, pp. 335-417.
A study of worms, insects, sow bug, snail, slug, and frogs.
1913. Direction of Locomotion of the Starfish (Asterias Forbesi). Jour. Exp. Zoöl., Vol. XIV, pp. 1-32.
Cole, L. W.
1907. Concerning the Intelligence of Raccoons. Jour. Comp. Neurol. and Psychol., Vol. XVII, pp. 211-261.
1912. Observations on the Senses and Instincts of the Raccoon. Jour. Animal Behavior, Vol. II, pp. 299-309.
Cole, L. W., and Long, F. M.
1909. Visual Discrimination in Raccoons. Jour. Comp. Neurol. and Psychol., Vol. XIX, pp. 657-683.
Colton, H. S.
1908. How Fulgur and Sycotypus Eat Oysters, Mussels and Clams. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1908, pp. 3-10.
Coker, R. E.
1906. The Natural History and Cultivation of the Diamond-Back Terrapin with Notes on other Forms of Turtles. Bull. No. 14, N. Carolina Geol. Survey, pp. 1-67.
Craig, W.
1909. The Expressions of Emotion in the Pigeons. I. The Blond Ring-Dove (Turtor risorius). Jour. Comp. Neurol. and Psychol., Vol. XIX, pp. 30-80.
Dawson, J.
1911. The Biology of Physa. Behavior Monographs, Vol. I, No. 4, pp. 1-120.
Behavior is related to the natural environment.
Davis, H. B.
1907. The Raccoon: A Study in Animal Intelligence. Amer. Jour. Psychol., Vol. XVIII, pp. 447-489.
Dean, B.
1892. The Physical and Biological Characteristics of the Natural Oyster Grounds of South Carolina. Bull. U. S. Fish Comm. for 1890, Vol. X, pp. 335-361.
Contains good illustrations of the oyster habitat.
Dimon, A. C.
1905. The Mud Snail: Nassa obsoleta. Cold Spring Harbor, Monogr. V. pp. 48.
A behavior study of a marine snail.
Embody, G. C.
1912. A Preliminary Study of the Distribution, Food, and Reproductive Capacity of Some Fresh-water Amphipods. Inter. Revue. der gesamten Hydrobiol. u. Hydrog., Biol. Suppl. III. Serie, Heft 2, pp. 1-33.
Enteman, M. M.
1902. Some Observations on the Behavior of Social Wasps. Pop. Sci. Mo., Vol. XLI, pp. 339-351.
Fabre, J. H. (Translated.)
1901. Insect Life. Souvenirs of a Naturalist. pp. 320. London.
Fabre, J. H. (Trans. by Miall, B.)
1912. Social Life in the Insect World. pp. 327. London.
Florentin, R.
1899. Études sur la Faune des Mares Salées de Lorraine. Ann. des Sci. Nat. Zoöl. (8ᵉ S.), Tome X, pp. 209-350.
Forel, A. (Trans. by Wheeler, W. M.)
1904. Ants and Some Other Insects. Religion of Sci. Library No. 56. pp. 49. Chicago.
Forel, A. (Trans. by Yearsley, M.)
1908. The Senses of Insects, pp. 324. London.
Gill, T.
1909. Contributions to the Life Histories of Fishes. Vol. I, 1904-1907. Smithsonian Institution, No. 1858.
A collection of reprints on the natural history of fishes, including much on their habits.
Grave, C.
1904. Investigations for the Promotion of the Oyster Industry of North Carolina. Rep. U. S. Fish Comm. for 1903, pp. 247-341.
On pp. 261-264 the growth or development of an oyster reef is described. This illustrates ecological succession on a reef. The food and the influence of storms are described.
Groos, K. (Trans. by Baldwin, E. L.)
1898. The Play of Animals. pp. 341. New York.
Gurley, R. R.
1902. The Habits of Fishes. Amer. Jour. Psychol., Vol. XIII, pp. 408-425.
An important and apparently little known paper which explains the spawning habits of fish and their distribution in terms of their physiological responses. Compare with Shelford’s Physiological Animal Geography. 1911.
Hahn, W.
1908. Some Habits and Sensory Adaptations of Cave-inhabiting Bats. Biol. Bull., Vol. XV, pp. 135-193.
Hargitt, C. W.
1906. Experiments on the Behavior of Tubicolous Annelids. Jour. Exp. Zoöl., Vol. III, pp. 295-320.
1909. Further Observations on the Behavior of Tubicolous Annelids. Jour. Exp. Zoöl., Vol. VII, pp. 157-187.
1912. Observations on the Behavior of Tubicolous Annelids, III. Biol. Bull., Vol. XXII, pp. 67-94.
1912. Behavior and Color Changes of Tree Frogs. Jour. Animal Behavior, Vol. II, pp. 51-78.
Harris, J. A.
1903. An Ecological Catalogue of the Crayfishes belonging to the Genus Cambarus. Kan. Univ. Sci. Bull., Vol. II, pp. 51-187.
Habits and distribution of crawfish. Very useful references to the stream environment and to crawfish.
Hartman, C.
1905. Observations on the Habits of Some Solitary Wasps of Texas. Univ. of Texas Bull. No. 65, Sci. Ser. No. 6, pp. 1-72.
Herrick, C. J.
1903. The Organ and Sense of Taste in Fishes. Bull. U. S. Fish Comm. for 1902, Vol. XXII, pp. 237-272.
Herrick, F. H.
1910. Instinct and Intelligence in Birds. Pop. Sci. Mo., Vol. LXXVI, pp. 532-556; Vol. LXXVII, pp. 82-97, 122-141.
1910. Life and Behavior of the Cuckoo. Jour. Exp. Zoöl., Vol. IX, pp. 169-233.
Illustrates the orderly sequence of forms of behavior.
1911. Natural History of the American Lobster. Bull. U. S. Bur. Fisheries, Vol. XXIX, pp. 149-408. Doc. No. 747.
Hodge, C. F.
1894. The Methods of Homing Pigeons. Pop. Sci. Mo., Vol. XIV, pp. 758-775.
Holmes, S. J.
1901. Observations on the Habits and Natural History of Amphithoe longimana Smith. Biol. Bull., Vol. II, pp. 165-193.
1906. Death-Feigning in Ranatra. Jour. Comp. Neurol. and Psychol., Vol. XVI, pp. 200-216.
1908. The Instinct of Feigning Death. Pop. Sci. Mo., Vol. LXXII, pp. 179-185.
1911. The Evolution of Animal Intelligence. pp. 296. New York.
Jennings, H. S.
1910. Diverse Ideals and Divergent Conclusions in the Study of Behavior in Lower Organisms. Amer. Jour. Psychol., Vol. XXI, pp. 349-370.
Valuable for its discussion of points of view in the study of behavior.
Kellogg, J. L.
1900. Observations on the Life-History of the Common Clam, Mya Arenaria. Bull. U. S. Fish and Fisheries Comm. for 1899, Vol. XIX, pp. 193-202.
1903. Feeding Habits and Growth of Venus Mercenaria. Bull. 71, N. Y. State Museum. pp. 27. Albany.
1904. Conditions Governing Existence and Growth of the Soft Clam (Mya Arenaria). Rep. U. S. Comm. Fish and Fisheries for 1903, pp. 195-224.
A suggestive paper.
1905. Notes on Marine Food Mollusks of Louisiana. Bull. No. 3, Gulf Biologic Station. pp. 43. Baton Rouge.
All of these papers by Kellogg are careful studies of the relation of animals to their environment. They also show the intimate relation of ecology to economic problems. Biological surveys intended for economic results should be ecological in their method.
1910. Shell-Fish Industries. pp. 361. New York, Henry Holt and Co.
A popular summary of the marine shell-fish industries of the American coast, from the standpoint of their biology, culture, and utilization. The oyster, hard and soft clams, and scallops are considered. The following subjects deserve mention: ciliary action, feeding reflexes, function of mucus, and food.
Lefevre, G., and Curtis, W. C.
1912. Studies on the Reproduction and Artificial Propagation of Fresh-water Mussels. U. S. Bur. Fisheries for 1910, Bull. Vol. XXX, pp. 105-201.
Lyon, E. P.
1904. On Rheotropism. I. Rheotropism in Fishes. Amer. Jour. Physiol., Vol. XII, pp. 149-161.
Mast, S. O.
1911. Light and the Behavior of Organisms. pp. 410. New York.
An elaborate treatise on reactions to light.
Mead, A. D.
1900. The Natural History of the Star-fish. U. S. Fish Comm. Bull. for 1899, Vol. XIX, pp. 203-224.
Michael, E.
1911. Classification and Vertical Distribution of the Chætognatha of the San Diego Region. Univ. of Calif. Pub. Zoöl., Vol. VIII, pp. 21-186.
The distribution is studied as a response to the conditions of life, and the optima are determined.
Mills, W.
1898. The Nature and Development of Animal Intelligence. pp. 307. New York.
Valuable account of the habits of squirrels. Observations on hibernation, and on the psychic development of the young of some of the domestic animals.
Montgomery, T. H.
1903. Studies on the Habits of Spiders, particularly those of the Mating Period. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1903, pp. 59-149.
Contains a valuable bibliography.
1908. Further Studies on the Activities of Araneads. Amer. Nat., Vol. XLII, pp. 697-709.
1910. Further Studies on the Activities of Araneads, II. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., 1909, pp. 548-569.
1910. The Significance of the Courtship and Secondary Sexual Characters of Araneads. Amer. Nat., Vol. XLIV, pp. 151-177.
Newman, H. H.
1906. The Habits of Certain Tortoises. Jour. Comp. Neurol. and Psychol., Vol. XVI, pp. 126-152.
Newman, H. H., and Patterson, J. T.
1909. Field Studies of the Behavior of the Lizard, Sceloporus Spinosus Floridanus. Bull. Univ. of Texas, No. 137, pp. 1-24.
Ortmann, A. E.
1905. The Crawfishes of the State of Pennsylvania. Mem. Carnegie Mus., Vol. II, pp. 343-523.
Habits and habitats of crawfish.
Parker, G. H.
1903. The Phototropism of the Mourning-cloak Butterfly, Vanessa Antiopa Linn. Mark Anniversary Volume, pp. 453-469. New York.
1903. The Sense of Hearing in Fishes. Amer. Nat., Vol. XXXVII, pp. 185-204.
1905. The Functions of the Lateral-Line Organs of Fishes. U. S. Bur. Fisheries, Bull. Vol. XXIV, pp. 185-207.
1908. The Sensory Reactions of Amphioxus. Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts and Sciences, Vol. XLIII, pp. 415-455.
1910. The Reactions of Sponges, with a Consideration of the Origin of the Nervous System. Jour. Exp. Zoöl., Vol. VIII, pp. 1-41.
Pearl, R.
1903. The Movements and Reactions of Fresh Water Planarians. Quart. Jour. Micros. Sci., Vol. XLVI, pp. 509-714.
A good example of a very detailed study of behavior of a lower animal.
Pearse, A. S.
1910. The Reactions of Amphibians to Light. Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts and Sciences, Vol. XLV, pp. 161-208.
Peckham, G. W. and E. G.
1898. On the Instincts and Habits of the Solitary Wasps. Bull. No. 2, Wis. Geol. and Nat. Hist. Surv. pp. 245.
1905. Wasps, Social and Solitary. pp. 311. Boston and New York.
A revised and enlarged edition of the preceding reference.
Piersol, W. H.
1909. The Habits and Larval State of Plethodon cinereus erythronotus. Trans. Canadian Inst., Vol. VIII, pp. 469-493.
Contains a useful list of references on Amphibians.
Porter, J. P.
1904. A Preliminary Study of the Psychology of the English Sparrow. Amer. Jour. Psychol., Vol. XV, pp. 313-346.
1906. The Habits, Instincts and Mental Powers of Spiders, Genera Argiope and Epeira. Amer. Jour. Psychol., Vol. XVII, pp. 306-357.
1906. Further Study of the English Sparrow and Other Birds. Amer. Jour. Psychol., Vol. XVII, pp. 248-271.
Includes the Vesper Sparrow, Cowbird, Common Pigeon, Passenger Pigeon, and Red-headed Woodpecker.
1910. Intelligence and Imitation in Birds, a Criterion of Imitation. Amer. Jour. Psychol., Vol. XXI, pp. 1-71.
Studies of English Sparrow, Cowbird, Snowbird, White-throated Sparrow, Field Sparrow, Bluebird, White-crowned Sparrow, Fox, Song and Tree Sparrows, Blue Jay, Baltimore Oriole, and Crows.
Poulton, E. B.
1896. On the Courtship of Certain Acridiidæ. Trans. Ent. Soc. London, pp. 233-252.
Reighard, J.
1903. The Natural History of Amia calva Linnæus. Mark Anniversary Volume, pp. 57-109.
Reynaud, G.
1900. The Laws of Orientation Among Animals. Smithsonian Report for 1898, pp. 481-498.
Riley, C. F. C.
1912. Observations on the Ecology of the Dragon-Fly Nymphs: Reactions to Light and Contact. Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer., Vol. V, pp. 273-292.
Scheffer, T. H.
1905. The Cocooning Habits of Spiders. Kans. Univ. Sci. Bull., Vol. III, pp. 85-114.
Seitz, A.
1891. Allgemeine Biologie der Schmetterlinge. Zool. Jahrb., Abth. Syst. Geog. Biol. der Thiere, Bd. V, pp. 281-343.
Seton, Ernest Thompson.
1909. Life Histories of Northern Animals. Vol. I, pp. 673, and Vol. II, pp. 677-1267. New York.
Valuable for life histories and habits. Extensive bibliography.
Severin, H. H. P. and H. C.
1911. An Experimental Study on the Death-Feigning of Belostoma (= Zaitha Aucct.) flumineum Say and Nepa apiculata Uhler. Behavior Monographs, Vol. I, No. 3, pp. 1-44.
Shelford, V. E.
1908. Life-Histories and Larval Habits of the Tiger Beetles (Cicindelidæ). Jour. Linn. Soc. Zoöl., Vol. XXX, pp. 157-184.
Shelford, V. E., and Allee, W. C.
1913. The Reactions of Fishes to Gradients of Dissolved Atmospheric Gases. Jour. Exp. Zoöl., Vol. XIV, pp. 207-266.
The reaction of fish to oxygen and carbonic acid; the latter is considered the best single index to the environment.
Simpson, C. T.
1899. The Pearly Fresh-water Mussels of the United States; their Habits, Enemies, and Diseases; with Suggestions for their Protection. U. S. Fish Comm. Bull. for 1898, Vol. XVIII, pp. 279-288.
Sladen, F. W. L.
1912. The Humble-Bee, its Life-History and how to Domesticate it. pp. 283. London.
A very valuable account of the British species, with numerous suggestions on methods of studying them.
Smallwood, M. E.
1903. The Beach Flea: Talorchestia longicornis. Cold Spring Harbor Monogr. I. pp. 27.
1905. The Salt-Marsh Amphipod: Orchestia palustris. Cold Spring Harbor Monogr. III. pp. 21.
Both of these papers discuss habits and life histories.
Smith, B. G.
1907. The Life History and Habits of Cryptobranchus Allegheniensis. Biol. Bull., Vol. XIII, pp. 5-39.
Contains references to other salamanders.
Stockard, C. R.
1908. Habits, Reactions, and Mating Instincts of the “Walking Stick,” Aplopus Mayeri. Carnegie Inst. Pub. No. 103, pp. 43-59.
Tower, W. L.
1906. Habits and Instincts in Leptinotarsa. pp. 229-257. In An Investigation of Evolution in Chrysomelid Beetles of the Genus Leptinotarsa, Carnegie Inst. Pub. No. 8. Washington, D.C.
Tutt, J. W.
1897. The Drinking Habits of Butterflies and Moths. Proc. South London Ent. and Nat. Hist. Soc., 1897, pp. [1-9].
Voigt, W.
1904. Über die Wanderungen der Strudelwürmer in unseren Gebirgsbächen. Verhand. naturhis. Ver. der preuss. Rheinlande, Westfalens und des Regiersungsbezirks Osnabrück, Jahrg. 61, pp. 103-178.
Shows the relation of behavior to the local distributions of Planarians.
Wagner, W.
1907. Psycho-biologische Untersuchungen an Hummeln mit Bezugnahme auf die Frage der Geselligkeit im Tierreich. Zoologica (Chun), Bd. XIX, Heft 46, pp. 1-239.
An important study of the behavior of Bombus.
Walter, H. E.
1906. The Behavior of the Pond Snail, Lymnæus Eleodes Say. Cold Spring Harbor Monogr. VI. pp. 35.
Wasmann, E. (Trans.)
1903. Instinct and Intelligence in the Animal Kingdom. A Critical Contribution to Modern Animal Psychology. pp. 171. St. Louis, Mo. From the second and enlarged German edition.
1905. Comparative Studies in the Psychology of Ants and of Higher Animals. pp. 200. St. Louis, Mo. Translated from the revised and enlarged second German edition.
Watson, J. B.
1908. The Behavior of Noddy and Sooty Terns. Pub. 103, Carnegie Inst. pp. 187-255.
An excellent account of bird behavior in colonial species.
Wheeler, W. M.
1903. Ethological Observations on an American Ant (Leptothorax Emersoni Wheeler). Jour. für Psychol. und Neurol., Bd. II, pp. (1-31).
1910. Ants, their Structure, Development and Behavior. pp. 663. New York.
The most useful single work on ants, ant behavior, slaves, commensals, etc.; a very important work. Extensive references.
Whitman, C. O.
1899. Animal Behavior. Biol. Lectures, Marine Biol. Lab., Wood’s Holl, 1898, pp. 285-338.
Behavior of leech, Necturus, birds, etc.
Wickham, H. F.
1899. The Habits of American Cicindelidæ. Proc. Davenport Acad. Sci., Vol. VII, pp. 206-228.
Yerkes, R. M.
1904. Space Perception of Tortoises. Jour. Comp. Neurol. and Psychol., Vol. XIV, pp. 17-26.
Yoakum, C. S.
1909. Some Experiments upon the Behavior of Squirrels. Jour. Comp. Neurol. and Psychol., Vol. XIX, pp. 541-568.